ECEG-3205: Conducting Materials

UG Program
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Electrical Materials and Technology
Overview

 Conduction in conductor materials and Equation of

motion of an electron

 Fermi Dirac distribution function and the Fermi energy

of metals

 Factors Influencing Resistivity

 Thermal conductivity of conductor

 Classification and Application of Conductors

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 2

Electrical Conduction
 Electrical conduction involves the motion of charges in a
material under the influence of an applied electric field.
 A material can generally be classified as a conductor if it
contains a large number of "free" or mobile charge carriers.
 we will derive the fundamental equations that govern
electrical conduction in solids by applying Newton's second
law to electron motion and using such concepts as:
 mean free time between electron collisions with lattice vibrations,
 crystal defects,
 impurities, etc.,.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 3

Drift Mobility
 Drift mobility: measure of the ease with which charge
carriers in the solid drift under the influence of an external
electric field.
 Good electrical conductors, such as metals, are also
known to be good thermal conductors.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 4

The Conduction Process
 Metals are known be Good Conductors!!

 Due to large number of free/conduction Electrons, 𝒏

 Explained by Drude`s Model:

• Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an applied electric field.

Electrons drift with an average velocity 𝒗𝒅𝒙 in the x-direction.(Ex is the
𝑐
electric field.) The Current Density: 𝜌 ≡ 𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦[ 3]
𝑚

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 5

The conduction process
 Notice that the direction of electron motion is opposite to
that of the electric field 𝐸𝑥 and of conventional current,
because the electrons experience a Columbic force 𝑒𝐸𝑥 in
the x direction, due to their negative charge.
 The average velocity of the electrons in the x direction at
time t is denoted 𝑣𝑑𝑥 (𝑡)
 This is called the drift velocity, which is the instantaneous
velocity 𝑣𝑥 in the x direction averaged over many electrons :

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 6

The conduction process and the current density Jx
 𝑛 is the number of electrons per unit volume in the
conductor (𝑛 = 𝑁/𝑉)
 In time ∆𝑡, electrons move a distance ∆𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 ∆𝑡
 total charge ∆𝑞 crossing the area 𝐴 is 𝑒𝑛𝐴 ∆𝑥
 Hence
𝑐
𝜌 ≡ 𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦[ ]
𝑚3

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 7

The Conduction Process: Microscopic Explanation
Ex

u
x

+
Vibrating Cu ions V

(a) (b)
(a) A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a metal (with a mean speed
u) being frequently and randomly scattered by thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the absence of
an applied field there is no net drift in any direction.
(b) In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net drift along the x-direction. This net drift
along the force of the field is superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many
scattering events the electron has been displaced by a net distance, x, from its initial position
toward the positive terminal

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 8

Cont.…

• The motion of a single electron in the presence of an electric field E.

• The average distance traveled by the electron between collusion (mean
fee path) 𝒍𝒊
𝒍𝒎 =
𝒏

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 9

Relaxation time
 The corresponding average time between collusion (mean
free time; relaxation time)
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 … 𝑡𝑖
𝜏𝑒 = =
𝑛 𝑛
 Note: The scattering is caused by vibration of atoms (lattice
structure )
• Scattering  phonon (quantized lattice vibration)
 impurities (defects)

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 10

Drift Velocity

𝑚2
𝜇 ≡ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 [ ]
𝑠𝑣

 If the 𝑣𝑑 equation substituted ;

𝑒2𝑛𝜏𝑒 𝐸𝑥
𝐽𝑥 = = 𝜍𝐸𝑥 …. Ohm's law
𝑚𝑒

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 11

Detail Explanation: Drift Mobility Vs Electric Field
 To calculate the drift velocity 𝑣𝑑𝑥 of the electrons due to
applied field 𝐸𝑥 ,
 consider the velocity 𝑣𝑥𝑖 of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ electron in the 𝑥
direction at time 𝑡.
 Suppose its last collision was at time 𝑡𝑖 ; therefore, for time
(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖 ), it accelerated free of collisions!
 Let 𝑢𝑥𝑖 be the velocity of electron 𝑖 in the 𝑥 direction just
after the collision : initial velocity

We average the expression for 𝑖 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑁 electrons

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 12

Drift mobility,
 𝜏 = 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑖 is the average free time for N electrons between
collisions (mean scattering time or relaxation time)

𝜇𝑑 is called drift mobility

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 13

Current density, drift mobility, conductivity
 the current density 𝐽𝑥

Note: the current density is proportional to the electric field and the
conductivity 𝜍 is the term multiplying 𝐸𝑥 ,

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 14

Scattering time vs frequency of collisions
 The mean time between collisions 𝜏 has further
significance.
 Its reciprocal 1 𝜏 represents the mean frequency of
collisions or scattering events;
 1 𝜏 is the mean probability per unit time that the electron
will be scattered
 during a small time interval 𝛿𝑡, the probability of scattering
will be 𝛿𝑡 𝜏.
 The probability of scattering per unit time 1 𝜏 is time
independent and depends only on the nature of the
electron scattering mechanism.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 15

Example

1. Given that the mean speed of conduction electrons in

copper is 1.5 x 106 ms-1 and the mean scattering time of
conduction electrons at room temperature is about 2.5 x
10-14 s . The conductivity of copper 5.9 x 105 Ω-1cm-1 is
Estimate
a. The drift mobility of electrons and Current density

b. The conductivity of copper.

 (Density of copper is 8.96 g cm-3 and the atomic mass is

63.56 gmol-1, 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 𝑥 1023 ).

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 16

Solution
 We can calculate 𝜇𝑑 from σ = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑑 because we already
know the conductivity 𝜍.
 The number of free electrons n per unit volume can be
taken as equal to the number of Cu atoms per unit volume,
[if we assume that each Cu atom donates one electron to
the conduction electron gas in the metal.]
 One mole of copper has 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 𝑥 1023 atoms and a
−3
mass of 𝑀𝑎𝑡 = 63.5 𝑔 , 𝑑 = 8.96 𝑔 𝑐𝑚
 Therefore, the number of copper atoms per unit volume is :

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 17

solution
 The electron drift mobility is therefore

• From the drift mobility we can calculate the mean

free time 𝜏 between collisions by using

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 18

Exercise 1

2. Discuss the frequency dependency of conductivity under

the action of alternating field;
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑜 exp 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ; 𝜏 = 10 − 14 𝑠𝑒𝑐
a) Find the effect of frequency on 𝜍;

𝜎𝑎𝑐
b) Find as function of frequency, 𝜔
𝜎𝑑𝑐
c) Find 𝜍𝑎𝑐, f = 50Hz, 106Hz ,1014Hz

 Note: Consider the equation of motion of an electron

𝑑𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑
𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸𝑥 = 𝑚 +𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 19
Density of States and Fermi Dirac function

 Electrons with in a solid interact quantum mechanically

with each other.: Fermi Dirac function
 (They Move in pre-defined energy level & their existence in a

certain position is probabilistic)

 Distribution of Energy states with in the band: Density of

States
 Number of state per unit energy per unit volume within a particular
band.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 20

Molecular Theory of Boning
 It is nearly impossible to comprehend the principles of
operations of solid state electronics without a good grasp of
band theory of solids.
 Since we are dealing with a large number of electrons in
the solid, we must consider statistical way of describing
their behavior.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 21

  = 1s(rA) + 1s(rB)
rA rB e-
H H
1s(r A) e- 1s(rB) a
Bonding Molecular Orbital r
r
A R= B
Two hydrogen atoms approaching each other.
* = 1s(rA) - 1s(rB)

Antibonding Molecular Orbital

Formation of molecular orbitals, bonding and antibonding (  and  ) when

two H atoms approach each other. The two electrons pair their spins and occupy
the bonding orbital .
Fig 4.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 H H H H
    
(a)

(b)

(a) Electron probability distributions for bonding and antibonding orbitals, 

and *. (b) Lines represent contors of constant probability.

Fig 4.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 i( )
i() R C

(a) v() L


0
Coupling
M i( )
i() R C C

(b) L L R

 1 2

There is one resonant frequency, 0, in an isolated LCR circuit. (b) There are
two resonant frequencies in two coupled LCR circuits. One below and the
other above 0.
Fig 4.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E



E(R) SYSTEM
(a) E1s 1s 2 H-Atoms
0 2 Electrons
Bonding 1 Electron/Atom
Energy E(R) 1 Orbital/Atom
E(a)
 R, Interatomic
0 a R= Separation

E

E1s E1s
E = Bonding Energy
(b) E
H -atom H2 H -atom

Electron energy in the system comprising two hydrogen atoms. (a) Energy of
 and  vs. the interatomic separation, R. (b) Schematic diagram
showing the changes in the electron energy as two isolated H atoms, far left
and far right, come to form a hydrogen molecule.
Fig 4.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E

E1s E1s

E
He-atom He-He He-atom
System

Two He atoms have 4 electrons. When He atoms come together 2 of the

electrons enter the E and 2 the E levels so that the overall energy is
greater than two isolated He atoms.

Fig 4.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 E
a
c
Ec
Symmetric
A B C
c
b b System
Eb in isolation
Antisymmetric b E1s 3 H-Atoms
a 3 Electrons
Ea
c a 3 Orbitals (1s)
6 States (with spin)
Symmetric
Separation
R=a R=
(a ) (b)

(a) Three molecular orbitals from three 1s atomic orbitals overlapping
in three different ways. (b) The energies of the three molecular orbitals
labeled as a, b and c in a system with 3 H atoms (highly simplified).

Fig 4.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Review on Band Theory
System of N Li Atoms
Electron Energy in the System
solid(N) 2p
ET E2p
EMPTY
SYSTEM
N Li Atoms
E2s N Electrons
of N Li Atoms

2s
FULL

N Orbitals
2N States
EB solid(1)
E1s
Interatomic 1s
a  Separation (R)
Solid Isolated Atoms
The formation of a 2s-energy band from the 2s-orbitals when N Li atoms
come together to form the Li solid. The are N 2s-electrons but 2N states in
the band. The 2s-band therefore is only half full. The atomic 1s orbital is
close to the Li nucleus and remains undisturbed in the solid. Thus each Li
atom has a closed K-shell (full 1s orbital).

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 28

Review on Band Theory( Cont.…)

Free electron
E = 0 (Vacuum Level)
EMPTY E3s
Electron energy

E 2p
E2s
FULL

E 1s
Interatomic
Separation (R)
R=a R=
The Solid Isolated Atoms
As solid atoms are brought together from infinity, the atomic orbitals
overlap and give rise to bands. Outer orbitals overlap first. The 3s
orbitals give rise to the 3s band, 2p orbitals to the 2p band and so on.
The various bands overlap to produce a single band in which the energy
is nearly continuous.

Fig 4.9 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

Cont.…

E Overlapping
Free electron
energy bands
E=0
3s Vacuum level
E lectron E nergy

2p 3p
3s

2s 2p
Electrons 2s

1s 1s
Solid Atom

In a metal the various energy bands overlap to give a single band of

energies that is only partially full of electrons. There are states with
energies up to the vacuum level where the electron is free.

Typical electron energy band diagram for a metal All the valence electrons
are in an energy band which they only partially fill. The top of the band is
the vacuum level where the electron is free from the solid (PE = 0).

Fig 4.10 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

• At Absolute Zero , all the energy levels up to the Fermi Level
are full.
• The energy required to excite an electron from the Fermi
level to the vacuum level is called work function, Φ of the
metal.
• As the temp increases, some of the electrons get exited to
higher energy levels.
• To determine the probability of finding an electron at Energy
level E, we must consider Particle statistics

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 31

 Boltzmann Statistics (Classical law)

This law states that, the total fixed amount of energy

is distributed among the various members of an assembly
of identical particles in the most proable distribution.
gi
The Maxwell Boltzmann law is ni 
e (   Ei )
Where ni ─ number of particles having energy Ei.
gi ─ number of energy states.
 EF 1
 and  
kT kT
(Here k ─ Boltzmann constant; T ─ Absolute temperature of the
gas, EF ─ Fermi energy)
Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2
 Therefore, n  gi
i
e ( Ei  E F ) / kT


 Particles are distinguishable.

 Classical particles can have any spin.

 Particles do not obey Pauli’s exclusion principle.

 Any number of particles may have identical energies.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

 Fermi-Dirac Statistics (Quantum law)

This statistics applicable to the identical, indistinguishable

particles of half spin.

These particles obey Pauli’s exclusion principle and are

called fermions (e.g.) Electrons, protons, neutrons …,

In such system of particles, not more than one particle can

be in one quantum state.

Fermi Dirac Distribution Law is

ni 
gi gi
(e   E i
) 1 or ni =
e ( E i  E F ) / kT
1
Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2
 Fermi Energy (EF) and Fermi-Dirac Distribution
Function f(E)
Fermi Energy (EF)

Fermi Energy is the energy of the state at which the

probability of electron occupation is ½ at any temperature
above 0 K.

It is also the maximum kinetic energy that a free

electron can have at 0 K.

The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute

zero temperature is called the Fermi Energy or Fermi Level.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

 The Fermi energy at 0 K for metals is given by

 3N 
2/3
 h2 
EF     
   8m 
When temperature increases, the Fermi level or Fermi
energy also slightly decreases.

The Fermi energy at non–zero temperatures,

  kT 
2

1  
2
E F  E F0   
 12  EF  
  0  

Here the subscript ‘0’ refers to the quantities at zero kelvin.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)
The free electron gas in a solid obeys Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
Suppose in an assemblage of fermions, there are M(E)
allowed quantum states in an energy range between E and
E+dE and N(E) is the number of particles in the same range.
Then,
The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is defined as,
N (E) 1
 f (E) 
M (E) 1  exp (E  EF )/kT
N(E) / M(E) is the fraction of the possible quantum states
which are occupied.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

 The distribution of electrons among the levels is
described by function f (E), probability of an electron occupying
an energy level ‘E’.

If the level is certainly empty, then f(E) = 0.

Generally the f(E) has a value in between zero and unity.

 When E< < EF (i.e.,) for energy levels lying below EF,
(E –EF) is a negative quantity and hence,
1 1
f(E) 
 1
1 e 1 0
That means all the levels below EF are occupied by
the electrons.
Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2
Fermi Dirac distribution function at different temperatures

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

 When E > > EF (i.e.) for energy levels lying above EF,
(E – EF) is a positive quantity
1 1
f(E) 
 0
1 e 1 
This equation indicates all the levels above EF are
vacant.

At absolute zero, all levels below EF are completely filled

and all levels above EF are completely empty.This level,
which divides the filled and vacant states, is known as the
Fermi energy level.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

 1 1 1
 When E = EF , f (E)    , at all temperatures
1 e0 11 2

The probability of finding an electron with energy equal

to the Fermi energy in a metal is ½ at any temperature.

At T = 0 K all the energy level upto EF are occupied

and all the energy levels above EF are empty .

When T > 0 K, some levels above EF are partially filled

while some levels below EF are partially empty.

Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2

Density of Energy State
E

1
∆ (𝑠𝑒𝑝. 𝑏𝑛. 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑠) ∝
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑛. 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

 Consider N atoms within a solid, let`s see interaction of

atom in the nearest neighboring manner,

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 42

Density of States in an Energy Band
 Although we know there are many energy levels (~1023 )
in a given band, energy states, S(E)
 We don’t now how many states (electron wave functions)
there are per unit energy per unit volume in that band :
density of States , g(E)
 For a crystal with N atoms , we have N electron wave
functions

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 43

Density of State (Cont.…)
 Type equation here.
N
E
𝐸`
𝑆 𝐸 = 𝑔 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
0
- The total no. of
energy states below
an energy 𝐸` per unit
Vol.
𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸
𝐸
1
g(E)
Energy Band
(a) (b) (c)

(a) In the solid there are N atoms and N extended electron wavefunctions
from 1 all the way to N . There are many wavefunctions, states, that
have energies that fall in the central regions of the energy band. (b) The
distribution of states in the energy band; darker regions have higher
number of states. (c) Schematic representation of the density of states
g(E) vs. energy E.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 44

 To determine the density of states function g(E), we must
first determine the number of states with energies less than
E’ in a given band.
 Direct computation from

 is difficult!!;
 Hence, Recall that in a cube an electron has an energy of

 n1,n2,n3 are integers 1,2,3….

 L is spatial dimension >> atomic dimension

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 45

 Each combination of n1,n2,n3 is a one electron orbital state
 We need to determine how many combinations of n1, n2,
n3 have energies less that E’
 Assume that

 Our objective is to enumerate all possible choices of

integers for n1, n2, n3 that satisfy

 The 2D case is easier to solve

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 46

Calculating the Distribution of Energy State
n2
 Consider an
n1 2 + n2 2 = n ' 2
electron trapped in 5
potential barrier ; 4

2
3
ћ 2 n1 = 1
𝐸𝑛 = 2n 2
8𝑚𝑑 n2 = 3
1
-n1 n1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-n2 n1 = 2, n2 = 2

Each state, electron wavefunction in the crystal, can be represented

by a box at n1,n2.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 47

 Clearly the area contained by n1,n2 and the circle defined
by

 Is the number of states that satisfy

 This area is

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 48

 For the 3D case
 The volume contained in the positive n1,n2,n3 axes and
the surface of sphere of radius n’,
 There fore, the number of orbital states with in this volume
is given by


 Each orbital state can take two electrons with opposite

spins:

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 49

 The Expression in terms of Energy:
 Substituting

 Since 𝐿3 is the physical volume of the solid, the number of

states per unit volume Sv(E’) with energies E<=E’ is

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 50

 Cont.…
n3 𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 ;
In here n12+n22+n32  n'2
1 4
Total # of states = 𝜋𝑛3 ;
Vol. = 1/8(4/3 n'3) 8 3

• Taking Spin in to
n' consideration; the total no.

n2 of energy states per unit v.

𝐸`
4
𝑆 𝐸 = 𝑔 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋𝑛3
0 3
3
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒 2 3
n1 = . 𝐸2
3 𝑕2
In three dimensions, the volume defined by a sphere of radius n' and the 3
positive axes n1, n2 and n3, is all the possible combinations of poisitive 3 𝜋 8𝑚𝑒 2 1
𝑔 𝐸 = [ ]. 𝐸 2
n1, n2 and n3, values which satisfy n1 +n2 +n3  n' .
2 2 2 2 2 3 𝑕 2

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 51

Example

1. Given that the width of an energy band is typically

~10 𝑒𝑉, calculate the following, in per cm3 and per 𝑒𝑉
units:
a) The density of states at the center of the band.

b) The number of states per unit volume within a small energy

range( 𝑘𝑇) about the center.

c) The density of states at (𝑘𝑇) above the bottom of the band.

d) The number of states per unit volume within a small energy range
of kT to 2kT from the bottom of the band.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 52

Solution
 The density of states , or the number of states per unit
energy range per unit volume g(E) is given by:

 Which gives the number of states per cubic meter per

Joule of energy, substituting E=5eV,

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 53

Solution
 If δE is a small energy range (such as KT) , g(E)*δE is the
number of states per unit volume in δE. To find the number
of states per unit volume within KT at the center of the
band ;
 g(E)*δE

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 54

Solution

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 55

 Fermi-Dirac Distribution

4 E1+E2 = E3 +E4
2
Interaction E4 (Energy Conservation)
E2

1 If 𝑃(𝐸1) the
3 probability of
E1
E3
Occupancy ;

The probability
Two electrons initially with wavefunctions  1 and  2 at E1 and E2
that it`s vacant 1-
interact and end up at different energies at E3 and E4. Their
corresponding wavefunctions are  3 and  4. 𝑃(𝐸1)
1 − 𝑃 𝐸3 𝑃 𝐸1 ∗ 𝑃 𝐸2 1 − 𝑃 𝐸4 = [1 − P(E1)]P(E3) ∗ P(E4)[1 − P(E1)]
1 1 1 1
−1 . −1 = −1 . −1 𝐴𝑒 𝛽𝐸
𝑃 𝐸1 𝑃 𝐸2 𝑃 𝐸3 𝑃 𝐸4

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 56

Boltzmann Distribution
E

 exp(-E/kT)

E2

E1

0 N(E)
N1 N2

The Boltzmann energy distribution describes the statistics of particles,

e.g. electrons, when the particles do not interact with each other, i.e.
when there are very few electrons compared with the number of
available states.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 57

 Fermi-Dirac Distribution (Cont.…)
E 𝑃(𝐸) = 𝑓(𝐸) : the probability
of finding e- on particular
Energy level
T2 > T1
1
=
T=0 1+exp(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 𝐾𝑇)
EF Case 1: @ T=0K0
All electrons are below the
T1 fermi-energy level;
Case 2 : @ T=300K0
f(E) KT=0.025ev; exp(𝐸−𝐸𝑓
0 1 1 𝐾𝑇 ) is
/
2
small
The Fermi-Dirac function, f(E), describes the statistics of electrons ↑ 𝐸 → 𝑓(𝐸) ↓ > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐸 > 𝐸
𝑓
in a solid. The electrons interact with each other and the
environment so that they obey the Pauili Exclusion Principle.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 58

 Concentration of electrons in a band
E E E E

EF + 


n E
dE  n
TK 0

EF
EF

g(E) = A E1/2
0

g(E) 0 1/ 1 f (E) n E = g(E)f (E)

2

(a ) (b) (c ) (d)

(a ) Abov e 0 K, due t o t h er ma l exc it a t ion, s ome of t h e el ec t r ons

a r e a t ener gies a bov e EF . (b) Th e dens it y of s t a t es , g(E) v s E
in t h e ba nd. (c ) Th e pr oba bil it y of oc c upa nc y of a s t a t e a t a n
ener gy E is f (E). Th e pr oduc t g(E)f (E) is t h e number of
el ec t r ons per unit ener gy per unit v ol ume or el ec t r on
c onc ent r a t ion per unit ener gy . Th e a r ea under t h e c ur v e wit h
t h e ener gy a xis is t h e c onc ent r a t ion of el ec t r ons in t h e ba nd.

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 59

Concentration of electrons in a band (Cont.…)

3 1
∞ 8𝜋 2𝑚𝑒 2 ∞ 𝐸2
𝑛= 𝑔 𝐸 . 𝑓 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 0 1+exp(𝐸−𝐸𝑓
𝑑𝐸 ;
0 ℎ2 𝐾𝑇)

 Taking Consideration T=0k0 , the Fermi- energy of metals

ℎ2 3𝑛 2/3
𝐸𝑓 = …. Large for good conductors;
8𝑚 𝜋

 𝐸𝑓 is slightly dependent on temp. which is given as

𝜋2 𝑘𝑇 2
𝐸𝑓 𝑇 = 𝐸𝑓0 1 − ;
12 𝐸𝑓0

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 60

Electron Excitation

 Thermal Energy:
 electrons absorb heat & transfer it due to collusion

 Excite to higher level

 E-M wave with appropriate wave length

𝑕𝑐
𝜆𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝐸𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓

Explain : why 𝜍𝐶𝑢 > 𝜍𝑀𝑔 when # valance e- in Mg is greater?

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 61

Exercise:

1. Given a density of Silver to be 10.5gcm-3 and conductivity

as 6.8x107Ω-1m-1. Find
a. The Fermi-energy

b. The Fermi- Velocity & Temp ( Note: The Fermi velocity is

the velocity that corresponds to the Fermi energy of a particle

c. Relaxation time

2. Q 2-3 on page 76 of Alison

3. Q4.8-4.10 on 366-367 of Kasap

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 62

Solution: 1

Sem. I, 2016/17 Electrical Engineering Materials – Chapter 2 63