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Management and Mitigation of Acid Mine Drainage in South Africa: Input for
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 AFRICA INSTITUTE OF SOUTH AFRICA Briefing NO 108 MARCH 2014

Management and Mitigation of Acid Mine

Drainage (AMD) in South Africa:
Lessons for mineral Africa
Munyaradzi Mujuru1

For a number of African countries, successful exploitation of their mineral resources is considered
key to national economic development and poverty alleviation. Realisation of benefits therefrom,
however, has been and will be beset by many challenges – political, economic and technical.
One of the technical challenges which has thus far received little attention is the policy
development and exploitation of minerals in the continent, particularly the issue of poor water
utilisation, resulting in the problem of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). This policy brief explains the
genesis and composition of AMD as one of the technical challenges that most mining countries
in the continent will have to face at some time. Using the experience of South Africa, as the most
developed mining country on the continent, the brief presents an evaluation of management
and mitigation of AMD. The brief concludes that since the AMD challenge will persist for
centuries to come, there is a need for continuous policy, legal and technological interventions
and improvements. The brief also makes recommendations to other African countries that
are new to the mining business on how to deal with the AMD challenge. Specifically, the brief
recommends that since the mine waste water contains substances valuable for the economy,
such as water and minerals, AMD should be viewed as an opportunity for the economy; funding
for developing technologies that extract these valuable materials from AMD should be a priority.

Introduction and background
Africa is a mineral-rich continent, with an
estimated 90 per cent of global platinum reserves,
65 per cent of diamond reserves and 40 per cent
of global gold reserves, as well as many other
minerals, including oil and gas. Recently several
African countries, including Ghana, Uganda,
Mozambique, Kenya and South Sudan, have
discovered oil and gas. These countries and
private investors have invested huge capital into
exploration and development of these resources,

1 Munyaradzi Mujuru is a Research Specialist in the Science and Technology Programme

of the Africa Institute of South Africa (AISA).

© Africa Institute of South Africa AISA POLICYbrief  Number 108 – March 2014 1
 Mining activities
inevitably result
in the generation
of Acid Mine
Drainage (AMD)
Figure 1: Chemical generation of AMD2
and in some countries like Ghana and South
Sudan exploitation of oil and gas has begun. For
such countries, successful exploitation of their
mineral resources is considered key to national
economic development and poverty alleviation.
Realisation of benefits from these, however, has
been and will be beset by many challenges, which
include political, economic, social, environmental
and technical challenges.1
However, mining activities inevitably result
in the generation of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD),
which leads to environmental and water con-
tamination. The chemical generation of AMD is
depicted in Figure 1. AMD is highly acidic water,
usually containing high concentrations of metals
such as iron, manganese and uranium; and sul-
phides, free acid and salts, as a consequence of
mining activity.
This mine waste water is detrimental to the
environment, water and the health of human
beings and animals. AMD comes mainly from
drainage from underground mine shafts, runoff
and discharge from open pits and mine waste
dumps, tailings and ore stockpiles. Drainage from
abandoned underground mine shafts into surface
water systems (decant) may occur as the mine
shafts fill with this waste water. Although the
chemistry of AMD generation is straightforward,
the final product composition depends on the
geology of the mining region, presence of micro-
organisms, temperature and also the availability
of water and oxygen. These factors are highly
variable from one area to another, and thus the
prediction, prevention, containment and treatment
of AMD must be considered carefully and with
great specificity.3, 4
Management and mitigation of acid mine water
is fairly well researched worldwide, including in
Mine waste South Africa, where local technologies have been
water is developed and are in use today. South Africa’s
experience could provide useful lessons to other
detrimental to African countries that are beginning to venture
the environment into mining of their mineral wealth.5
2 AISA POLICYbrief  Number 108 – March 2014
Background
Policy discourse on mineral exploitation and de-
velopment in Africa has paid little or no attention
to the technical and environmental challenges
and how these fit into the long-term objective of
the continent’s sustainable development and over-
all poverty reduction. Such an omission will lead
to reactive policy and legal interventions when
the technical and environmental problems are
finally realised, which can be very costly for the
countries involved. This brief therefore focuses on
the issue of AMD, which most mining countries
in Africa will have to face at some point. Using
the experience of South Africa, as the most devel-
oped mining country on the continent, it presents
an evaluation of management and mitigation of
AMD. Recommendations to African countries new
to mining on how to mitigate and manage AMD-
related problems are suggested at the end.6
South Africa has one of the oldest and most
developed mining industries in the world. South
Africa’s mining industry has generated vast
economic benefits for the country and still plays an
important role in ensuring the country’s position
in the global market. In the Witwatersrand area
of Gauteng, mining has taken place in the mining
basins of the east, central and west rand since
the discovery of gold in 1886. This mining was
the driving force of the economic growth and
development of what is known today as Gauteng,
and it was the mainstay of the economy of South
Africa for many years. During this time, more than
120 mines had to pump out the water that had
entered the mines in order to allow for safe mining
conditions. Owing to mineral depletion, however,
the country started large-scale closure of mines
in the 1970s. As the mines were depleted and
abandoned, dewatering of the mine voids became
the responsibility of the fewer mines that remained
active, and the voids (tunnels, drives and shafts)
started filling with water. Mine closure involved
termination of extraction and the treatment
© Africa Institute of South Africa

Figure 2: AMD decant point in West Rand, Gauteng, South Africa
of underground water from mines. However,
the mines operated and closed at a time when
there was poor or no stringent environmental
legislation. This waste-water has since become a
national concern. The mine water has started to
pose serious environmental and health risks for
the country. This has triggered efforts to contain
AMD, with some success thus far.7
Risks of AMD faced by South Africa
An evaluation of risks associated with AMD
in South Africa has been carried out, using
among others the software package RiskMatrix.
The flooding of the mine voids has resulted in
increased seismic activity in areas like the Central
Basin in Johannesburg, where there has been a
doubling in seismic activity since the flooding of
the mines when pumping of AMD was stopped.8
Rising AMD has resulted in the contamination
of surface water as well as shallow-ground water
resources. In the Western Basin there are dolomitic
acquifers which have been supplying clean water
to the Cradle of Humankind world heritage site,
but are now at risk of being contaminated by AMD
as its levels rise.9 Moreover, there are geotechnical
risks which arise if the AMD reaches the near-
surface environment. These include subsidence
of outcrops, chemical corrosion of buildings and
flooding of buildings and municipal services.10
Decantation of acid mine water to the surface
poses major risks by contamination of the
ecological ecosystems in the affected areas: major
river systems including the Crocodile and Vaal
River systems have been affected. In the Western
Basin the acid water has been decanting at a rate
of about 60 million litres per day, and this has
© Africa Institute of South Africa
The country
started large-
scale closure
of mines in the
the 1970s
affected Tweelopiespruit, the Krugerdorp Game
Reserve and agricultural land11 (see Figure 2).
AMD interventions in South Africa
To mitigate the risks outlined above, South
Africa has begun to intervene in the various
areas affected by the AMD challenge. Current
efforts are mainly concentrated in Gauteng and
Mpumalanga. The mitigation measures employ
a variety of technologies, policies and legal
frameworks. A number of organisations, including
tertiary institutions and think-tanks, are active in
conducting research around AMD.
Legislative framework
There are three acts of parliament that address
the challenge of AMD: the National Water Act
36 of 1998 (NWA),12 the National Environmental
Management Act 107 of 1998 (NEMA)13 and the
Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development
Act 28 of 2002 (MPRDA).14 Decantation
Section 19 of the NWA and part of NEMA deal
with pollution prevention and in particular the of acid mine
event where contamination of a water resource water to the
occurs or might occur as a result of activities
on land such as mining. The acts stipulate that
surface poses
the person who owns, controls, occupies or uses major risks by
the land in question is responsible for taking
contamination
measures to prevent pollution of water resources.
If these measures are not taken into account, of the ecological
the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) may do ecosystems in
whatever is necessary to prevent the pollution or
to remediate its effects, and will in turn recover all
the affected
reasonable costs from the persons responsible for areas
AISA POLICYbrief  Number 108 – March 2014 3
 Three acts of the pollution. So in the case of AMD generated by
activities of existing or future mines, the people of
parliament South Africa have legal recourse.15
address the Moreover, section 20 of the NWA deals
with pollution of water resources following an
challenge emergency incident, such as an accident involving
of AMD the spilling of a harmful substance that finds
or may find its way into a water resource. The
responsibility for remediation of the environment
rests with the person responsible for the incident
or the substance involved. If there is a failure to
correct, the DWA may carry out the remediation
and then recover the costs from every responsible
person. The legislative framework in the NWA
above, however, applies only to those activities
where the water user is an existing company,
person or entity. The DWA encounters a problem
when the pollution emanates from abandoned,
derelict or ownerless mines, and this is the case
in many areas in the Western, Central and Eastern
Basins in South Africa. These ownerless mines
become a state liability.
The Department of Minerals and Energy (DME)
has a mandate to regulate all mining activities
under the MPRDA. The act requires the applicant
for any mining and related activity to apply for
mining rights and an Environmental Management
Plan (EMP). The applicant is required also to make
financial provision in advance for environmental
rehabilitation in case the mine ceases to exist, is
closed or the company is liquidated.16
The MPRDA has been lauded as a milestone
in the transformation of the mining industry in
many aspects. Section 37 of this act, together with
section 2 of NEMA, provides for a holistic approach
to prospecting and mining according to fully
considered economic, social and environmental
costs, so as to achieve sustainable development of
mineral resources.17
Decant of AMD
on the surface Policy framework
was happening
A government task team (GTT) consisting of
in Western Basin personnel from the DWA, DME and the Department
at about 60 of Environmental Affairs (DEA) has been in place
since 2005. The GTT facilitates solutions and
million litres per high-level decision making on water management
day, which has and related problems, and the implementation
been reduced of safe and sustainable mine closure options in
South Africa. The GTT also oversees the working
or eliminated groups in each of the basins affected by AMD.
after pumping Working groups are made up of various players
including activists, NGOs, regulators and tertiary
and treatment institutions. The groups meet on a regular basis.18
started
4 AISA POLICYbrief  Number 108 – March 2014
An analysis of all currently known AMD
sources in South Africa has been done and the
areas have been classified as follows:
Highest priority areas
Areas such as Western and Central Basins, where
decant and flooding respectively were occurring,
were classified as highest priority areas. Decant
of AMD on the surface was happening in Western
Basin at about 60 million litres per day, which has
been reduced or eliminated after pumping and
treatment started. Implementation of intervention
measures was declared to be urgent before the
problems became more critical, since these areas
were close to densely populated places. Short-term
intervention was decided on, meaning immediate
implementation of remediation strategies. The
short-term intervention strategies include the
pumping of AMD for neutralisation and metals
removal until the AMD is below the Environmental
Critical Level (ECL). The ECL is the highest water
level within the mine void where no AMD flows
out of the mine workings into the surrounding
groundwater or surface water systems.19
In 2011, the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority
(TCTA) was retained to undertake emergency
works to protect the respective ECLs in the Eastern
and Central Basins and to lower the underground
mine water levels in the Western Basin; and to
neutralise and remove the heavy metals from
the pumped underground mine water prior to its
being released to surface water resources such as
Tweelopiespruit.
Vulnerable areas
Assessment is continuously carried out in other
areas, such as the Mpumalanga coal fields and
other large gold mining areas where mining is still
occurring and expanding, for AMD risks including
surface decants. This is with a view to preventing
what has happened in the Gauteng areas like West
Rand.20
Technological interventions
There has been extensive research by various
institutions hoping to come up with technological
innovations which can treat the acid mine water.
This research, though ongoing, has somewhat
matured. Some technologies around this have
advanced to pilot stage and others have since been
commercialised.21 In Mpumalanga, mine waste
water from coal mining is being treated by reverse
osmosis to drinking water quality and fed into the
municipal water system.
© Africa Institute of South Africa
 Technologies which have been developed
include active treatment technologies, passive
treatment technologies and in-situ treatment tech-
nologies. In the Western Basin, where the risks
need urgent attention because of the huge surface
decant, emergency intervention is ongoing using
partial treatment by neutralisation and metal
removal; about 30 to 50 million litres are being
pumped and treated daily.22
Lessons for Africa
In many African countries the mining industry is
still in its infancy. Countries like Kenya, Uganda
and Tanzania have recently discovered gold
and are starting to mine. Such countries, and
others like Zimbabwe and Zambia, have still to
experience the scourge of AMD which South Africa
has experienced. Zimbabwe has seen massive gold
mine closures due to viability problems in recent
years. Mine closure means pumping has stopped
and these mines are rapidly filling up with AMD;
there are reports of this toxic water being a few
metres from the surface. These countries could
learn from South Africa and leapfrog this problem.
These countries need to assess the risks
involved, as South Africa has done, to come up
with comprehensive legal and policy frameworks
so as to preserve the water resources and the
environment. South Africa has invested much into
the problem of AMD and could start to benefit from
this investment by exporting the technologies to
other African countries.
Table 1: Composition of AMD from various basins in South Africa24
Parameter Western Basin Central Basin
pH 3.5 2.8
Electrical 510 467
Conductivity (mS m-1)
Sulphate (mg ) 4 800  3 700
Fe (mg l-1) 800 112
Ni
U 50 50
Acidity (mg l-1) 1 500  1 500
TDS (mg l-1) 6 580 4 936
© Africa Institute of South Africa
Opportunities in AMD AMD can be
turned from
AMD is a complex substance, containing some
of the most valuable materials for running
a threat to a
economies, and can be compared to coal, which is valuable resource
referred to as ‘black gold’ due to the many benefits
which can be derived from it. Similarly, AMD can
be turned from a threat to a valuable resource.
The composition of AMD is shown in Table 1.
AMD contains sulphur in the sulphates, and sulphur
is used in several industries including fertiliser
manufacturing. South Africa imports more than 1,5
million tonnes of sulphur per year from Canada and
the Middle East. The sulphur is mainly processed
into sulphuric acid. During AMD treatment by the
neutralisation technologies, sulphates are formed,
incorporated in gypsum sludge waste. These
sulphate precipitates, as gypsum, can be converted
to elemental sulphur and calcium carbonate and
thus replace imported sulphur. AMD also contains
nickel, which is required in several industries;
uranium, required in nuclear plants; and iron,
which can be turned into steel.
Waste products from some of the treatment
processes also contain these valuable materials.
In 1997 South Africa produced 468 million tonnes
of waste from mining; 47 per cent of this waste
was from gold mining, which includes waste from
AMD treatment. There is now a need for investors
and government to fund research into extraction
of beneficial products from AMD or from waste
products from the treatment of AMD.
South Africa is classified as a water-scarce
country. The Witwatersrand goldfield alone is
Eastern Basin Guideline
6.65 5-10
246 250
1 037 500
38  10
- 0
250
2 041 1 600
Source: Rand Uranium Scott, 1995 Grootvlei Mine DWAF
AISA POLICYbrief  Number 108 – March 2014 5
Countries have a estimated to release about 350 Mℓ/day (1Mℓ =
1000m3) of AMD; this represents 10 per cent of
chance to draw the potable water supplied daily by Rand Water to
lessons from municipalities in Gauteng and surrounding areas,
the experiences at a cost of R3000/Mℓ. These figures place not
only the volume, but also the potential economic
learnt by value of the mine water in perspective, showing
South Africa the potential of using treated AMD. While many
operating mines have established ad-hoc chemical,
biological or physical processes to treat localised
water pollution, South Africa urgently needs a
regional, consolidated approach to AMD. Just as
in eMalahleni, where 15 Mℓ/day are being treated
to potable water, in Gauteng these huge volumes
of AMD could be harnessed for domestic use or
at least for agriculture and industrial use. To do
this, there is need for policy and legal framework
intervention by government.23
Conclusions and recommendations
The risk of AMD to the environment will not be
completely solved in the short- to medium term,
and is thus likely to persist for centuries to come.
Evidence suggests that the solution to dealing with
this challenge requires a proactive, dynamic and
broad-ranging approach. What is important is a
paradigm shift that changes the view of AMD from
a threat to an economic opportunity for extracting
beneficial products, including potable water.
In South Africa there is a need for further work
using GIS and remote-sensing tools and techniques
to model the pollution of water resources and the
environment by AMD. This work would enable
assessment of the extent of the problem and
effectiveness of interventions being done.
This shift is particularly important for African
countries whose economic development thus far
cannot be divorced from exploitation of mineral
resources. These countries have a chance to draw
lessons from the experiences learnt by South
Africa, while South Africa could also benefit by
exporting its experience with the AMD-treating
technologies it has developed.
Lessons learnt in AMD by South Africa should
be seriously taken into cognisance as the country
starts to craft legislation and policies for shale gas
mining in the Karoo in Northern Cape province.
Shale gas fracking currently uses a large amount
of water mixed with chemicals, and produces
a great deal of waste water which, just like
AMD, can contaminate water resources and the
environment.
In Africa oil resources are increasingly being
discovered and extracted. The lessons from AMD
6 AISA POLICYbrief  Number 108 – March 2014
from other mining activities should be transferred
to the petrochemical sector, in order to avoid
similar risks and threats to water resources and
the environment.
References
1. Africa`s mineral wealth: A blessing or a curse? 2009. Africa
Online, 29 May. Available at: http://www.africagoodnews.
com/business/economy/24-africas-mineral-wealth-a-
blessing-not-a-curse.html [Accessed 5 March 2014].
2. Department of Water Affairs. 2011. Acid mine drainage: long
term solution feasibility study. Newsletter 3. Available at:
http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Projects/AMDFSLTS/default.aspx
[Accessed 6 March 2014].
3. Manders, P., Godfrey, L. and Hobbs, P., 2009. Acid mine
drainage in South Africa. CSIR Briefing Note 2009/02.
Available at: http://www.csir.co.za/nre/docs/Briefing
Note2009_2_AMD_draft.pdf [Accessed 6 March 2014].
4. Makgae, M., The status and implications of the AMD legacy
facing South Africa, 2012. Papers of the International Mine
Water Association Annual Conference, Bunbury, Australia,
30 September–4 October, pp 327–334.
5. Mine water management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields,
with special emphasis on acid mine drainage, 2010. Report
to the Inter-ministerial Committee on Acid Mine Drainage,
December.
6. Africa’s mineral wealth, op. cit.; Manders, Godfrey and
Hobbs, 2009, op. cit.
7. Manders, Godfrey and Hobbs, 2009, op. cit.; Maree, J.P.,
Mujuru, M., Bologo, V., Daniels, N. and Mpholoane, D.
2013. Neutralisation treatment of AMD at affordable cost.
Water SA 39(2), pp. 245–250.
8. Mine water management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields,
2010, op. cit.
9. Mine water management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields,
2010, op. cit.; Maree, J.P. et al., 2013, op. cit.
10. Mine water management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields,
2010, op. cit.
11. Maree, J.P. et al., 2013, op. cit.
12. South Africa. National Water Act 36 of 1998 (NWA). Pretoria:
Government Printer.
13. South Africa. National Environmental Management Act 107
of 1998 (NEMA). Pretoria: Government Printer.
14. South Africa. Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development
Act 28 of 2002 (MPRDA). Pretoria: Government Printer.
15. National Water Act, op. cit.; National Environmental
Management Act, op. cit.
16. Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, op. cit.
17. Ibid.
18. Mine water management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields,
2010, op. cit.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Makgae, M, 2012, op. cit.; Mine water management in the
Witwatersrand Gold Fields, 2010, op. cit.
22. Mine water management in the Witwatersrand Gold Fields,
2010, op. cit.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
© Africa Institute of South Africa
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