Hydrocarbon Habitat in Main Producing Areas, Saudi Arabia’ M. G. AYRES,’ M. BILAL,’ R. W. JONES,? L. W. SLENTZ,’ M. TARTIR,‘ and A. 0. WILSON® ABSTRACT. Current hydrocarbon production in Saudi Arabi Geochemical studies of the sediments and oils suggest that the hydrocarbons were derived from two separate source-rock provinces. Oil production from the large fields in the southern part of the area is from Jura: carbonate reservoirs. Most of these oils were derived from thermally mature, thinly laminated, organic-rich carbonate rocks of Jurassic age (Callovian-Oxfordian). ‘These source rocks were deposited in an intrashelf basin which is limited to the southern part of the main pro- ducing Extensive vertical migration of oils originating in these sediments is prevented by superja- cent evaporite seals deposited during the Late Jurass Fields in the northern producing areas appear to have derived their hydrocarbons from a source-rock province on the north. Production from Cretaceous clastic and ‘carbonate reservoirs is limited (o the northeastern part, of the producing areas. This distribution may be ex- plained by limitation of thermally mature Cretaceous ‘Source rocks to the northeastern areas or by the local lack of subjacent evaporite seals (0 separate these reser- voirs from Jurassic source rocks. Thermal maturation studies indicate th: hydrocarbons in Mesozoic reservoirs migrated present traps during the early Tertiary. INTRODUCTION ‘Aramco and Chevron Oil Field Research Co. have been conducting a joint study of oils and potential source rocks in Saudi Arabia since 1967. A source rock is defined as a rock which has generated and expelled hydrocarbons in sufficient quantity to form commercial accumulations. The rock must meet minimum criteria for organic richness, kerogen type, and thermal maturi- ty Dow, 1978). © Copyright 1982. The American Association of Petroleum Geologist. al rghts reserved. Manuscript eseived, August 28, 108%; sccepted, August 31,18. *Chevron il Fela Research Co, La Habra, Caitoris 069% *atomco Overseas Co._ Croydon” England GRO 2.5. “Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, ammam, Sadi "Aramco Serices Co . Houston, Texas 77002. ‘We thank the Ministiy of Petroleum and Miveral Resources. Saudi ‘Arabia, Aramco, and Cheon Ol Held Research Co. For permission 12 publish ths paper We alse hank RM. Chistensen, varnco, and D.W. ushnir and‘. A. Edison of COFRC fer their signicantcanibuions, 1 Since 1973 the study has attempted to (1) determine the stratigraphic and geographic distribution of source- rock units; (2) characterize each unit in terms of organic richness and whether itis ol- or gas-prone; (3) interpret the depositional environment of source units; (4) deter- mine the degree of thermal maturation of the source units; (5) establish the timing of hydrocarbon genera- tion "and migration; (6) establish oil-o-oil_ and oil-source rock correlations. LOCATION AND TECTONIC SETTING ‘The area discussed is in northeastern Saudi Arabia Fig. 1) and contains the major part of hydrocarbons discovered to date in the country. The main producing areas of Saudi Arabia are located on the northeastern part of the Central Arabian arch. This arch is well expressed in the outcrop pattern of Precambrian rocks and its younger sedimentary cover. The structure appears to have originated during the Precambrian and has influenced sedimentation at various times during the Phanerozoic. It also controls critical south plunge on hydrocarbon-bearing anticlinal closures ‘A study of tectonic patterns in the Precambrian of the Arabian shield indicates that the rocks were subjected to an early east-west directed horizontal compressional stress. This stress resulted in the development of several major strain components. Major strain clements developed normal to the east-west directed stress in the form of north-south-trending folds and thrusts at shallow levels and north-south-trending metamorphic foliation and intrusive trends at deeper levels. Second- ary strain elements include the northwest- and northeast-trending conjugate shears in Precambrian rocks. In the Arabian shield area, the northwest- trending Najd fault trend is the best developed. This structural grain forms the main control of st tural patterns in the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover in northeastern Saudi Arabia. Anticlinal structures developed in the sedimentary cover are broad and elongate in a north-south direction. These large elongate anticlinal structures probably developed as drape folds over rejuvenated basement uplifis. Important exceptions to these generalizations do oc- cur. Several structural highs in the eastern part of the main producing areas have a more nearly circular pat- tern and may have formed in response to movement of Infracambrian Hormuz Salt, which is probably present in the eastern part of the area.2 Main Producing Areas, Saudi Arabia STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE Figure 2 shows the strati lished mainly from surface exposures along the eastern margin of the Arabian shield. In some cases informal names that do not conform to the rules of nomenclature have been used (Steineke et al, 1958). ‘Some confusion with the nomenclature has evolved as a result of the depositional environment. Because ‘Mesozoic sediments in Saudi Arabia were deposited on a stable shelf, most rock units that were defined solely as rock-stratigraphic units have also proven to approx- imate time-stratigraphic units. Some confusion also has been caused by failure to discriminate between rock- stratigraphic and reservoir units (Powers, 1968). MESOZOIC DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY Jurassic Platform carbonates were deposited during the Early Jurassic (Bajocian to Callovian) in eastern Arabia. They consist of pelletoidal-ooidal pack-grainstones which cyclically alternate with argillaceous pelletoidal- bioclastic mud-packstones (Murris, 1980). Locally the mud-packstones contain sufficient organic material to have acted as source rocks. Geochemical data suggest that some of the oil that has accumulated in Fadhili Come} time Even fear FIG. 1—Generalized geologic map of north-central part of Arabian Peninsula showing location of main producing areas in Saudi Arabia. raphic nomenclature and the position of reservoir and source rocks within the Mesozoic of Saudi Arabia. Type sections were estab- reservoirs may have originated in the mud-packstones. However, the mud-packstones probably were not a ma- jor source of Arabian oil. During a transgressive episode in the late Callovian and Oxfordian, intrashelf basins developed on the plat- form. Within these basins organically rich carbonates accumulated under euxinic conditions. These deposits are the most likely source for most of the oils that have accumulated in the Jurassic reservoirs of Saudi Arabia. Grainstones of equivalent age were deposited on the ad- joining shelf areas. During late Oxfordian to Tithonian time, carbonates and evaporites were deposited in shallow marine 10 sabkha environments over most of the area. Jurassic sedimentation concluded with four main depositional cycles. Fach cycle consists of a shallowing-upward marine carbonate sequence which is overlain by an ‘Source Time | Rock Unit Reservoir] Soure FIG. 2—Generalized Cretaceous and Jurassic stratigraphic section showing lithology, reservoir units, and source rocks,M. G. Ayres et al 3 anhydrite (Powers, 1962). Each concluding carbonate eyele is composed ‘of an coidal-pelletoidal grainstone. ‘These grainstones contain most of the oil accumulated in Jurassic reservoirs (Arab A, B, C, D) in Saudi Arabia. The concluding evaporite unit, the Hith Anhydrite, averages 500 ft (167 m) in thickness and forms an extensive seal that has prevented further up- ward movement of oil generated in Jurassic source rocks. The largest oil accumulations occur in the lowest grainstone cycle of the Arab Formation, the Arab D reservoir. The largest single accumulation is in the Arab D reservoir in the Ghawar field, At Ghawar the ac- cumulation extends north-south for approximately 140 ‘mi (224 km) and covers approximately 875 sq mi (2,275 sq km). The vertical oil column reaches a maximum of 1,300 ft (433 m; Aramco, 1959). The oil-saturated inter- val extends about 250 ft (83 m) below the anhydrite that separates the Arab D reservoir from overlying Arab C carbonate beds. Diagenesis is minimal in the Arab D reservoit, and most of the original porosity is retained. Inthe Ghawar area textural changes that do occur in the ‘Arab D reservoir are gradual and do not appear to have been controlled by early structural growth (Powers, 1962), Cretaceous During earliest Cretaceous (Berriasian and Valangin- ian), shallow-water marine carbonates with clastic tex- tures were deposited on an extensive flat, submarine platform. In northeastern Saudi Arabia the basal Cretaceous unit, the Sulaiy Formation, locally contains intervals chat qualify as source rocks. During the middle Cretaceous (Hauterivian through Turonian), cyclic sedimentation predominated with the deposition of nonmarine to marine clastics which alter- nate with shallow-water marine carbonates. Regressive sandstones, which are prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs (Wara, Safaniya, Khafji, and Zubair), were deposited at this time. Oil also accumulated in the carbonates which comprise both reservoirs and sealing units. Within northeastern Saudi Arabia potential source rock units within this sequence are thermally immature and, therefore, do not act as source rocks. During the Late Cretaceous (Coniacian through Maestrichtian), predominantly shallow-water car- bonates were deposited over a broad platform area. Tectonic development on anticiinal structures occurred during this time, as evidenced by isopach mapping and seismic data. Additional structural growth also occurred during the middle Tertiary. MAIN SOURCE ROCKS Jurassic (Callovian and Oxfordian) Organic richness—An organic-rich carbonate source rock has been identified in the Jurassic Callovian to Ox- fordian interval in northern Saudi Arabia. This unit was initially recognized from analyses of well cuttings and SONIc L0G 2 1 MMA Ob : - RGA ICHNES & | cone Saurus & f - one L a rons FIG. 3—Log-character and organic analyses of Jurassic (Callovian and Oxfordian) source rocks. core samples. Although other source rocks have been identified, these are the only rocks considered rich enough to be the likely source for Saudi Arabia’s vast reserves. Total organic content averages 3 to 5 wt. %. Bitumen content is high, and the hydrocarbon content of the rocks is frequently several thousand parts per million. Often bitumen exceeds kerogen, which may in- dicate mobilization and migration of the bitumen within a highly oil-prone source rock. Visual analyses show the kerogen o be dominantly amorphous, ‘These rocks are so organically rich that they have distinet wireline log characteristics (Fig. 3). The organic matter is, like oil, highly resistive and has low sonic velocity. Conventional core analyses indicate that these rocks are quite tight (3 10 5% porosity), but from log character they are easily mistaken for porous oil-bearing reservoir rock. When the organic matter is removed by hydrogen peroxide, a substantial amount of “porosity”? is obvious in the carbonate rock. Although the organic matter now consists of kerogen and “solidified bitumen,” the bitumen fraction in the subsurface was probably more mobile, and quite likely the porosity provided conduits for oil to migrate out of the rock. Neutron logs respond to the organic facies similarly to sonic logs, although gamma-ray response is generally high but variable. ‘These distinctive log characteristics, together with cuttings and core data, allow identification and correla- tion of the source facies over long distances. Because log response to the source facies is proportional to the amount of organic matter in the rock, logs have been used to estimate organic richness. Log response in these uniform source lithologies was calibrated to analytic data and used to estimate and map source-rock richness. Figure 4 shows the distribution and isopachs of the source rock with a total organic content which is 1% or greater by weight (TOC > 1.0 wt. %) in the ArabianFIG. 4—Shelf facies and isopach of Callovian and Oxfordian source-rock facies with TOC > 1.0 wt. %. and Gotnia basins. Figure 5 is a cross section showing the stratigraphic position and extent of the richest source rock facies in the Arabian basin. Source-rock thicknesses were estimated from log analyses. which have about the same accuracy as porosity ‘measurements. The source rocks are mainly thinly laminated peloidal carbonates. In general, the organic material is concen- trated in dark laminae 0.5 to 3 mm thick with alternate light-colored organic-poor laminae. Although lamina- tion is the primary sedimentary structure, there are small-scale scour and fill features which indicate periodic current action (Fig. 6). The presence of ac- cessory anhydrite and fibrous calcite suggests water Main Producing Areas, Saudi Arabia salinities may have been high. Fossils, including some benthonic forms, indicate that at least occasionally the sea floor supported life. Typical, but rarely abundant, fossils include miliolid and agglutinated forams, sponge spicules, fish, coccoliths, echinoid spines, bryozoans, ammonites, crustacean fragments, calcareous algae, brachiopods, and various pelecypods. Tracks and trails are also present, but not in abundance. Depositional environment—The source facies have some characteristics of both deep- and shallow-water sedimentation. The fine peloidal character, horizontal burrows and trails, coccoliths, ammonites, fine shell debris, spicules, flat and undulating laminations, organic richness, and lateral continuity are characteristic of deep-water sedimentation (Wilson, 1969). However, some features are suggestive of shallower environments, such as the miliolid and ag- slutinated forams and the accessory anhydrite. The ben- thic forams, sponges, crustaceans, echinoids, bryo- zoans, calcareous algae, brachiopods, pelecypods, and burrows and trails indicate that bottom conditions were not toxic to numerous organisms. The forams have been observed mostly in the peloidal grainstone laminae, although their presence is difficult to detect in the organic-rich laminae where the organic matter masks the grains. The sedentary bottom-dwellers, the bryo- zoans, are preserved in situ in the organic-rich beds. Although rare, the calcareous algae observed in cuttings are in an organic-rich matt For these reasons the depositional setting of the source facies is interpreted to have been a restricted in- trashelf basin separated by carbonate grainstone and dolomitized facies from the open-marine environments of the Tethyan sea on the east. The differential between subsidence rate and deposition rate must have been small, for the total rock interval involved is only slightly thicker in the basinal area than in the surrounding shelf areas. Development of the sequence was probably in- itiated by eustatic sea-level rise. Carbonate grainstones can build up vertically quite rapidly and may have formed a shoal partly surrounding a large, restricted, shallow basin. The sea floor was calm and sheltered most of the time, but subject to weak currents, as evidenced by FIG. 5—Diagrammatic crs section showing stratigraphic position of rich source-rock facies within Jurassic (Callovian and Ox- fordian) of Arabian basin.M. G. Ayres et al 5 6026" 6025" FIG. 6—Core of Jurassic (Callo Core depths are in feet ian and Oxfordian) source disrupted, reworked beds several centimeters thick. The scour and fill and finely undulating, irregular lamina- tion in most of the source-rock cores indicate that weak currents formed part of the lamination by winnowing the fine peloidal sediment, resulting in thin peloidal laminae. Several sublagoons may have been present within this area, and the disrupted and reworked beds may have been formed in the shallower areas Waters in such a depositional setting would not be so deep that algae, fungi, etc, would not grow on the sea floor. Some of the organic matter may have formed as a film at the sediment-water interface. Phytoplankton probably made a significant contribution as well. Most of the organic matter is amorphous, which suggests an algal or other simple life source. Small anhydrite crystals are commonly present and. may be a result of the depositional environment or a secondary diagenetic feature. In some places they are in laminae separated by discrete sets of nonanhydritic laminae, indicating that they were formed because of elevated salinities in the depositional environment Benthonic fauna is limited and not abundant, as organic-rich sediments are commonly preserved under anoxic conditions hostile 10 benthonic life. If the salinities were high, the organic matter may be pre served without development of extreme toxic condi tions. High salinities restriet thee number of species pres ent and may account for the abundance of organic mat FIG. 7—Probable thermal-maturation path for kerogen in Callovian and Oxfordian source rock (after Tissot etal, 1974). ter, Nutrient-rich waters coming into the area of high salinity could support abundant simple life, which ‘would grow profusely with few higher organisms to feed ‘on them (Kirkland and Evans, 198). Maturation—The kerogen in the Callovian- Oxfordian source rock is predominantly amorphous alginite. A limited amount of geochemical data in- dlicates that kerogen maturation follows the type If path on the Tissot diagram (Fig. 7). Type II kerogen is believ ed to be composed primarily of blue-green algae and is capable of generating large amounts of petroleum. ‘The degree of maturation of the kerogen within the Gotnia and Arabian basins has been estimated from atomic hydrogen/carbon (H/C) ratios and from calculated maturity based on Lopatin’s time- temperature index (TTI) method (Lopatin, 19715, Waples, 1980). Figure 8 shows the relation between the various maturation indicators and oil generation for these source rocks. Vitrinite reflectance cannot be used because vitrinite is scarce or absent in this carbonate se- quence. Figure 9 shows the areas within the basins where the kerogen is expected to be mature on the basis, of the H/C data (H/C 0.8 to 1.3). Because kerogen is depleted in hydrogen as maturation progresses, the H/C ratio is a good measure of maturity, if the kerogen type has been accurately determined. Lopatin’s time-temperature index of thermal maturi- ty was calculated from burial history profiles for the6 Main Producing Areas, Saudi Arabia usoWic TAL Ry ou rman 1. ts * ie ate = sarctgor 08 ita " ats 9 i adia FIG. 8—Relation between maturation indicators and generation, Callovian and Oxfordian source rocks, Sau ‘Arabi FIG. 9—Atomic hydrogen/carbon (H/C) ratios of kerogen within Callovian and Oxfordian source-rock facies. source rocks. Figure 10 shows the areas within the basins where oil generation can be expected on the basis of TTI maturation calculations (TTI in excess of 15). TTI calculations show that source-rock maturation and migration of oils from Jurassic source rocks occurred in early Tertiary time, Cretaceous (Berrasian and Valanginian) The only sediments within the Cretaceous of northern Saudi Arabia which qualify as source rocks are within the Berriasian- Valanginian interval (Sulaiy Formation). Adequate organic richness which could act as a source rock is limited to the extreme northeastern part of the area. Oil accumulations in reservoirs within this interval are also limited to the northeastern part ofthe area, sug- gesting that the oil was generated in these source rocks, ig. 10, Large accumulations of oil occur in middte Cretaceous clastic and carbonate reservoirs in the north- em ofishore part of Saudi Arabia, Source-rock analyses within Saudi Arabia indicate that this oil could not have been generated within these sediments. Although sediments within this interval are locally organic-rich, thermal maturicy is too low and the kerogen too gas- prone to qualify the organic-ich sediments as source rocks. The kerogen quality is poor because it is related to terrestrial sedimentation during the middle Cretaceous regressive depositional cycle (Fig. 12), The oils in the middle Cretaceous reservoirs have CO pitwe FIG. 10—Maturation levels based on Lopatin’s time temperature index (TTI for Callovian and Oxfordian source- rock faces,M. G. Ayres et al 7 enough geochemical and physical similarities to the oils in Jurassic reservoirs to have originated in Jurassic source rocks in the Gotnia basin. There is some evidence to suggest enough loss in continuity of Jurassic evaporite seals along the margin of the Gotnia basin to have allowed vertical migration of oils along fractures. ‘These fractures could be associated with fold develop- ment or salt solution collapse along the Gotnia basin margin. ‘Another possible source of the oil is from Albian source rocks (Kazhdumi Formation) which are present north and east of Saudi Arabia (Ala etal, 1980). Figure 13 isa diagrammatic cross section which extends north- east from the Safaniya-Khafii fied and shows the struc- tural and stratigraphic relations of these source rocks and oil accumulations. ons Characteristics The oils in reservoirs of Mesozoic age within Saudi Arabia are remarkably similar in composition, par- ticularly when one considers the number of fields, pro- ducing zones, depths of production, and size of the area. This overall uniformity suggests a common or similar source for these oils. The sulfur content is generally high, from 0.3 to 8.5 wt. So. Lower sulfur con- tent is normally associated with higher API gravities. API gravities range from 5 to 45°, with most oils in the face \ f wen «FOO Sh. v tions within Valanginian through Berriasian interval (Ratawi reservoirs equivalent). 200 40° range. Stable carbon isotape ratios vary by less than 2.0 %0, vanadium and nickel porphyrins are all low, and the hydrocarbon composition consistently has a low concentration of light naphthenic compounds. ‘These results are consistent with analyses of other Middle East oils. Murris and de Groot (1979) reported that there is good geochemical evidence that the source rock for this oil was deposited in a marine reducing en- vironment and that the organic matter was of algal and/or bacterial origin. Several analytic approaches were used to correlate the oils with their probable source. The analyses included stable carbon isotope measurements of oils, kerogens, and bitumens, and gas chromatography of bitumens a it Cobo eto ls fx os i lr icant differences which are persistent and cor- relative with geography (Fig. 14. The ols. nthe southwestern part of the area have carbon isotope ratios which are ~26.5 or heavier (5C13 in %ao vs PDB). Car- bon isotope ratios of the kerogens and bitumens in the Callovian-Oxfordian source rocks in the Arabian basin ‘suggest that this unit is the source for these oils. Carbon isotope ratios for the oils in the remainder of the area are ~ 26.5 or lighter. Similar carbon isotope ratios for the kerogens and bitumens in Gotnia basin source rocks of Callovian-Oxfordian age suggest that these sediments could be the source of the oil in the rest of the area. Migration The relatively large number of oil reservoirs implies O are FIG. 12—Depositional facies and southern limit of oil ac cumulations within Turonian through Hauterisian reservoirs.a Main Producing Areas, Saudi Arabia J+ Sataniya-Khafi Field =! 8 ‘Southwest_*—Saudi Arabia Tertiary | Cretaceous Jurassic 8 Northeast it) m (ZZ) Source Rock Evaporites © 01 Accumulations cpa) ome extensive vertical movement of oils from a more limited number of rich source rocks. Oils in the Arab, Hanifa, Hadriya, and Fadhili reservoirs are believed to be large- ly derived from the Callovian-Oxfordian source rock. To reach the Arab reservoirs, oil from the source rock must have moved upward through about 1,000 ft (338 1m) of section. In the Ghawar field there is evidence that the Hanifa reservoir is in hydraulic continuity with the Arab D reservoir (Steineke et al, 1958). This continuity is probably maintained through vertical fractures. The presence of oil in the upper Arab reservoirs implies that at least locally the Arab anhydrite separators were ab- sent or in communication through fractures or fault off- sets with underlying carbonate rocks. The Hith ‘Anhydrite appears to be an effective seal everywhere ex- cept in the northeast offshore area. Geochemical evidence suggests that the oils in Cretaceous reservoirs in the northeast offshore area could have originated in Jurassic source rocks. To have migrated into these reservoirs, the oils would have had to leak vertically as much as 5,000 ft (1,524 m). Upper Jurassic evaporites are poorly developed and discon- tinuous in this area, and itis possible that extensive ver- tical movement of oil could have occurred. It is also possible, however, that these oils could have originated in Cretaceous source rocks in basinal areas in the north- east oF east. ‘CONCLUSIONS Several petroleum explorationists have published views on the reasons for hydrocarbon abundance in the Middle East (Lees, 1950; Law, 1957; Dunaington, 1967; Kamen-Kaye, 1970; Kent and Warman, 1972; Murris, 1980). All agree that the extremely large oil reserves result from the presence of all conditions necessary for hydrocarbon generation, entrapment, and preservation. All these criteria have been satisfied in Saudi Arabia. aie 25 9 nea , i ee ores ° FIG, 14—Carbon isotope ratios of oll In Mesozoic reservoirs 6C13 in %oo vs PDB). The large reserves of oil accumulated on the Arabian shelf in Jurassic reservoirs can be attributed to (1) widespread development of thermally mature organic- rich facies underlying or juxtaposed with a carbonate- evaporite shelf containing extensive reservoir units which have high porosities and permeabilities; (2) a cy- cle of deposition concluding with a major regression in which the intrashelf basins and adjacent shelves areM. G. Ayres et al 9 covered by continuous evaporite seals; and (3) tectonic activity which is sufficient to create large structural traps, but not strong enough to disrupt oil migration paths or the evaporite caps. Murris (1980) attributed the richness of this habitat 10 the extraordinary horizontal extent of the basins, struc- tural traps, and lithologic units, As a result, horizontal hydrocarbon migration was very efficient, and taps with access to rich source rocks are filled because they drain large source areas. REFERENCES CITED Ala, M.A. RRP. 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