used for this purpose. Carbon dioxide can also be used but it is expensive and requires expert han- dling when in liquid form. Nitrogen is cheaper and much safer in underground mines. Compressed or liquid nitrogen was purchased and service companies would inject them in mines from surface. Lately, a much cheaper source of ni- trogen has been developed. It is called “pressure swing adsorption” or PSA technique. Atmospheric air is compressed to about 100 psi and made to pass through especially designed molecular sieves that can separate oxygen from nitrogen because of a slight difference in the size of their mole- cules. Successive filtration can yield 98% nitrogen at practically the same pressure as the inlet pres- sure. The low pressure nitrogen is conducted in PVC pipelines and delivered 1000 to 1500 feet be- hind the active longwall faces. Vertical gob wells on older panels can also be used to monitor the gob gas composition and inject nitrogen, if necessary. Problems 1. Calculate the SHT for three different ranking coals using the data in Table 21.1 and com- ment on the effect of rank on SHT. 2. Calculated the Graham Index and comment on the status of spontaneous combustion using the air analysis data given below: CO=S500ppm CO,-3% 0,=17.5% N,(+AR)=79.5% H,=200ppmAlso calculate Jones-Trickett ratio and deter- mine what is burning. References [1] NIOSH. Analysis of mine fires for all US underground and surface coal mining categories (1990-1999) IC 9470. 2004:36. [2] Smith A, Lazzara C.P. Spontaneous combustion studies of US coal, USBM R.1I. 9079. 1987:28.. [3] Beamish BB and Theiler J. Contrast in Self-Heating Rate Behavior for Coals of Similar Rank, 15th Coal Operators’ Conference, University of Wollongong, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and Mine Managers As- sociation of Australia, 2015, 300-304. [4] Beamish B.B, Theiler J. Improved un- derstanding of the role of pyrite in coal spontaneous combustion. In: Pro- ceedings of the 16th US Mine Ventilation Symposium. 2017:18 19-26. [5] Gouws, Wade. The self-heating liabil- ity of coal: predictions based on sim- ple indices. Mining Science and Technol- ogy. 1989;9(1):75-79. [6] Karmakar N.C. Methods of estima- tion of spontaneous combustion ofcoal. Journal of Mines, Metals and Fu- els. 1989;37(1):21-23. [7] Cliff D, Rowlands D, Sleeman J. Spon- taneous combustion in Australian under- ground coal mines. SIMTARS; 1986:165.22 Prevention of Frictional Ignitions Abstract Frictional ignitions are defined as the rapid ox- idation of a mixture of methane and air with a visible flame that could last from a few sec- onds to several minutes. These ignitions have a potential to turn into a mine explosion and eventually a large-scale mine fire. Over twenty- two years (1983-2004) US coal mines have had 1,566 frictional ignitions. There were no fatal- ities, but serious injuries have occurred. Every effort, therefore, should be made to prevent frictional ignitions. The preventative measures fall under four categories: (a) degasification of coal seams prior to mining, (b) adequate ven- tilation, (c) wet cutting or water-jet assisted cutting, and (d) machine design to minimize ignitions. The chapter discusses each of these techniques in detail. Frictional ignition of coal by belt conveyors is also reviewed.Keywords Belt fires; Bit design; Coal seam degasification; Frictional ignitions; Gas layering index; Methane ignition; Polycrystalline diamond bit; Wet cutting CHAPTER OUTLINE 22.1 Coal Seam Degasification 22.2 Ventilation 22.2.1 Development Heading in a Highly Gassy Mine 22.2.2 Longwall Face in a Highly Gassy Mine 22.3 Wet Cutting or Water-Jet-Assisted Cutting 22.4 Machine Design Parameters 22.4.1 Speed of the Bit 22.4.2 Size of the Bit 22.4.3 Angle of Attack 22.4.4 Material of Construction 22.5 Summary and Conclusions 22.6 Frictional Ignitions Caused by Belt Conveyors 22.6.1 Detection of Belt Fires 22.6.2 Preventing Belt Fires ReferencesFrictional ignition at the coal face is defined as rapid oxidation of either (1) a mixture of methane and air or (2) a mixture of methane, coal dust, and air with a visible flame that can last from several seconds to several minutes. Field studies done by the Mine Safety and Health Administration indi- cate that in recent years, on the average, 71 igni- tions occur in US coal mines per year as shown in Table 22.1. Mine fires caused by conveyor belt fric- tion will be discussed separately and later in the chapter. Itis interesting to note that most of the ignitions occurred in gassy mines of Alabama, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia. Since the early 1970s, there has been no fatality in US mines because of frictional ignitions but injuries have occurred. However, there are known cases over- seas when a coal mine explosion was caused by a frictional ignition when multiple fatalities were caused [1]. Besides, production losses for at least a shift for investigation of causes of ignition can be very expensive. Thus, frictional ignitions have a potential to create a mine disaster as well as pro- duction losses, and every effort should be made to minimize them. Necessary conditions for a frictional ignition to occur require (1) an ignitable medium, usually a mixture of methane and air, (2)a minimum source of energy, generally created by coal cutting bit striking coal, sandstone, or pyrite, and (3) mini- mum temperature to ignite the mixture. Two common denominators in most frictional ignitions are the presence of excessive methane and the presence of sandstone in the roof, floor, or as a middleman. If the gas content of coalseams exceeds 100ft?/t and mining conditions en- counter sandstone, special precautions should be taken to prevent frictional ignitions. Preventative techniques have been discussed in the literature extensively, but the authors have mainly empha- sized bit design and cutting machine parameters. In view of the progress made in coal seam degasi- fication, current preventative techniques can be classified, in order of importance, as follows: Table 22.1 Frictional Ignitions in US Coal Mines (An- thracite Mines Not Included) 1. Coal seam degasification to reduce the seam gas content to less than 100 ft?/t. 2. Ventilation to prevent layering of methane. 3. Wet cutting/water-jet-assisted cutting. 4. Machine design to minimize ignitions.Machine design parameters that influence fric- tional ignitions include (1) optimization of cutting speed, (2) optimum depth of cut, and (3) bit de- signs incorporating polycrystalline diamonds for both drilling roof bolt holes and coal cutting. 22.1. Coal Seam Degasification This subject has been discussed in detail in Chapters 15, 16, and 17. In summary, coal seams containing more than 100ft*/t of gas can be broadly classified as (1) moderately gassy (gas con- tents, 100-300ft?/t) or (2) highly gassy (gas con- tents 300-700ft?/t) coal seams. Moderately gassy coal seams should be degassed before mining to reduce their gas content to less than 100ft3/t. Such seams are generally less than 1500 ft in depth and display high permeability. Fig. 22.1 shows a de- gasification scheme with in-mine horizontal bore- holes. Boreholes, 3-4 inches in diameter, are drilled parallel to and in advance of development head- ings to degas them. These boreholes are 1300 to 2000 ft in length. Similarly, cross-panel boreholes are drilled into the longwall panels to degas them. The length of these boreholes is typically 50- 100 ft less than the width of the longwall panel. If these horizontal boreholes are drilled promptly and produced efficiently, nearly 50% of in situ gas in coal can be drained before mining. The outbye boreholes are drilled at 1000ft intervals, but inbye boreholes should be spaced closer to expedite de-gasification. Detailed descriptions of the technique are available in the literature [2,3]. Highly gassy coal seams cannot be properly de- gassed with in-mine drilling alone for lack of ad- equate time to degas the coal. These coal seams must be drained several years ahead of min- ing with vertical, hydrofracked wells as shown in Fig. 22.2. FIGURE 22.1 Degasification scheme for a moderately gassy coal seam.TEATS EATS EA TS ES ES ES ESES ESS FIGURE 22.2 Degasification scheme for a highly gassy coal seam. Frac wells are typically drilled at a 20-acre spac- ing, 5 to 10 years ahead of mining, and can drain nearly 50% of the gas contained in coal. Additional degasification is generally necessary to remove an- other 20 to 30% of the in situ gas contents. The secondary degasification is done with horizontal drilling across the longwall panel at 100-200ft in- tervals. These boreholes can be extended beyond the longwall panel to intersect and degas the next set of development headings. Additional details of these techniques can be found in the literature [4] as well as Chapters 15 to 17 in this book. 22.2. Ventilation Even after the coal seam is properly degassed, development headings and longwall faces must be properly ventilated to prevent dangerous accu- mulations of methane. Methane concentrations in mine air are restricted to 1% by law everywhere except in the bleeders where the methane concen- tration can go up to 2%. A minimum velocity of60ft/min and a minimum ventilation air quan- tity of 3000 CFM at the face in the development heading is also required by the Federal laws. In coal seams containing less than 100ft?/t of meth- ane, the abovementioned requirements may be sufficient, but for gassier coal seams a different criterion must be used to calculate ventilation air quantities and prevent the layering of methane in roof areas. Methane layering in mine airways, es- pecially near the working faces, can occur if there are high methane emissions and ventilation air velocity may not be high enough to create good turbulent mixing. These gas layers can be easily ignited by hot cutting tools resulting in frictional ignitions. Gas layering in a mine airway is governed by methane emission rate, air velocity, and the width of the mine entry. The gradient of the airway has a significant impact on gas layering, but it can be ignored for most US coal mines because the coal seams are relatively flat. The gas layering number (GLN) is mathematically expressed as follows [5,6]: Gin=_°Y (22.1) (Q/D)'* where Q is the emission rate of methane (L/s); V is the velocity of air (m/s); D is the width of mine air- way (m). 0.0258 V iLN = 7 In the FPS system, (Q/D)"”Qis the emission rate of methane (CFM); V is the velocity of air (ft/s); D is the width of mine airway (feet). A minimum value of five for GLN is consid- ered necessary to prevent layering. The higher the value of GLN, the less likely it is that gas layering will occur. However, the formula provides only an empirical guideline, and it must be verified by physical measurements of methane in mine en- tries, and ventilation air quantities should be in- creased to avoid gas layering. To illustrate this point further, two cases are dis- cussed here. 22.2.1. Development Heading in a Highly Gassy Mine Assuming a methane emission rate in a 20-ft-wide heading to be 50 CFM and using the abovemen- tioned formula, a minimum velocity of 263 ft/min is needed. Assuming a seam height of 6 ft, the required ventilation air to prevent gas layering is 31,560 CFM. This quantity is almost 10 times the minimum quantity required by law at the face and illustrates the need for premining degasification and adequate ventilation when the gas contents of coal seams are high. 22.2.2. Longwall Face in a Highly Gassy Mine The typical value of methane emissions from a longwall face in degassed but highly gassy coal seams is 500 CFM. Assuming a width of 10 ft and a height of 6 ft, the minimum air quantity neededto prevent layering is 42,782 CFM. Ventilation air quantities on longwall faces should be further in- creased to provide a safety factor of at least 1.5. An innovation by the erstwhile US Bureau of Mines known as “shearer-clearer spray system” has also proved very successful in providing in- creased ventilation to minimize methane concen- trations in areas difficult to ventilate and thereby minimize frictional ignitions [7]. In this system, a number of water sprays are so mounted on and around a longwall shearer as to create additional flow of air at the face and dilute methane concen- trations (as well as respirable dust) to safe levels (Fig. 22.3). Ct. 5 PLAN VIEW = Spray Block = Water Soray sioe wew FIGURE 22.3 An arrangement of air-moving sprays. 22.3. Wet Cutting or Water- Jet-Assisted Cutting Coal seam degasification and provision of ade- quate ventilation removes the medium that can beignited. Drilling for degasification is usually done with water to remove the cuttings and drive the drill motor. This process indirectly infuses the coal seam with water to a degree, but these horizontal boreholes can be used for active water infusion to reduce the generation of fine coal dust and prevent its ignition. Although water sprays have been used for a long time in conjunction with coal cutting to suppress respirable dust and cool the cutting bits, only wet cutting has proven very beneficial in reducing frictional ignitions [8,9]. For wet cutting (or a continuous miner/shearer to be called a wet-head machine), back flushing sprays are installed be- hind each cutting bit to reduce frictional ignitions. Most frictional ignitions are caused by hot mate- rial (sandstone or steel from bits) ejected from an area behind the cutting tool. A solid cone spray bit delivering 0.5 to 1gpm of water at 50 to 120 psi at the rear of cutting bits proved very effective in preventing frictional ignitions [7]. Fig. 22.4 shows a typical arrangement for such a spray. Bit flush- ing rear sprays should create a spray zone of 30° as shown in Fig. 22.4. Another innovation in wet cutting is water-jet- assisted cutting. Minnovation of the United King- dom modified a longwall shearer to include a water pump that delivered high-pressure water (up to 10,000 psi). High-pressure water was fed to sprays located in front of the cutting bits. High- pressure water jets reduced the specific energy of cutting needed to cut coal (kwh/t) and thus reduce the chances of frictional ignition. Besides, it can make mining of a very hard coal seam a real possi- bility and reduce machine vibrations.Spray Nozzle | | | | FIGURE 22.4 A typical antiignition back spray. In the United States, an attempt was made by the author to modify a Joy continuous miner to include a high-pressure pump and assist coal cut- ting with high-pressure (up to 5000 psi) water. The design failed for the following two reasons: (1) considerable leakage through and frequent failure of seals and (2) blockage of pump and nozzles be- cause of impurities in water supply. Considering the fact that most frictional ignitions take place on continuous miner faces, efforts to develop water- jet-assisted coal cutting for continuous miners should be encouraged. Benefits of water-jet-assisted cutting in conjunc- tion with wet cutting can be summarized as fol- lows:1. Minimized frictional ignitions, 2. Reduced respirable dust concentration, 3. Increased bit life, 4. Reduced machine vibration leading to in- creased equipment life, and 5. Improved product (raw coal) size (-1/ inch size of coal is significantly reduced). Fig. 22.5 shows a bit with a combination of a high-pressure jet in front of the bit to assist cutting and a rear, bit-flushing spray to suppress ignitions. The system combines the benefits of both wet cut- ting and water-jet-assisted cutting. Spray Nozzle Zz / Spray Nozzle FIGURE 22.5 A typical arrangement for antiignition back spray and a water- jet cutting spray in front of the bit. 22.4. Machine Design Parameters Machine design parameters that have an influenceon the probability of a frictional ignition are as follows: 1. Speed of the bit, 2. Size of the bit or depth of cut, 3. Angle of attack, and 4. Material of construction for the bit tip and bit block. 22.4.1. Speed of the Bit It is generally agreed that when the bit speed is re- duced below 40ft/s, there is a significant reduction in the probability of ignition [10]. However, such low speeds may lower the coal production rate and may require deeper cuts and larger motors. 22.4.2. Size of the Bit A large bit with a depth of cut of at least 1.5 inchis desirable. Deeper cuts at lower speeds also tend to reduce respirable dust production. It would appear from above that there is an optimum for the com- bined parameters of speed of cutting and depth of cut to yield the maximum coal output per unit of energy consumed. 22.4.3. Angle of Attack Fig. 22.6 shows the definition of angle of attack, 8,, bit angle, 8,, and angle of clearance, 8, [7]. Field experiments confirmed laboratory find- ings that when 8, is greater than 57°, the prob- ability of ignition was substantially reduced [9]. Frictional ignition probability was also reduced by increasing the initial clearance angle, @., and de-creasing the internal bit angle, 6,, but these two parameters keep changing as the bit wears. They merely postpone the time when a worn out bit be- comes very liable to cause a frictional ignition. a : Attack Angle Gc : Clearance Angle Gr : Initial Tip Angle FIGURE 22.6 Geometry of a conical bit for cutting coal. Point Attack Radial Forward Attack FIGURE 22.7 Typical coal cutting bits. Fig. 22.7 shows three main types of bits used by the coal industry [10]. Radial bits, with an angle of attack of almost 90°, are the best even if they re-quire increased horsepower to cut coal. The larger size of the radial bits and bit blocks also reduce maintenance costs for repair of broken bits and bit blocks. 22.4.4. Material of Construction As far as the body of the bit is concerned, 4140 steel is the most commonly used material. It can be made stronger by switching to stainless steel of proper grades to minimize broken bits, which are very liable to cause frictional ignitions. Bit tip is generally made of tungsten carbide. Because ex- periments show that the hot steel body ignites methane air mixture more easily than the carbide itself, larger carbide tip bits became popular. Even the grade of carbide was changed to optimize the design. Tungsten carbide containing 15% cobalt was strong but too soft and wore out quickly, but carbide containing 8% cobalt was wear resis- tant and brittle. Sandvik made some dual property bits that had an outer body of hard carbide and an inner body of tougher carbides, but it did not reduce the frictional ignitions. Other attempts to cover normal carbide with an outer layer of ce- ramic (e.g., Syalon) or cubic boron nitride were also not successful. Some ceramic material, in fact, increased the ignition frequency when cutting sandstone. The future improvements in bit design will probably result byPolycrystalline Diamond FIGURE 22.8 A suggested design for a polycrystalline carbide bit. 1. incorporating polycrystalline diamond tips or 2. directly depositing polycrystalline diamond on tungsten carbide tips Polycrystalline diamonds have been used on ro- tary drill bits with excellent results. The life of a rotary carbide bit improved 100-200-fold when all carbide tips were covered with a very thin (1mm) wafer of polycrystalline diamond. A suitable de- sign for a continuous miner bit or a longwall shearer bit is yet to come, but a suggested design is shown in Fig. 22.8. Deposition of polycrystalline diamond directly on carbide tips is feasible, but the present cost is prohibitively high.22.5. Summary and Conclusions Frictional ignition frequency in US coal mines is on the decline, but it still is a cause of concern be- cause it has a potential to cause a mine explosion leading to a large-scale mine fire. Prevention of frictional ignition is based on the following: 1. Coal seam degasification to reduce original gas content of the coal seam by 50-80%. Hori- zontal boreholes drilled for degasification can also be used for water infusions. 2. Using ventilation quantities that will not only dilute methane to statutory limits but also prevent gas layering near the roof or floor. 3. Incorporating wet cutting on all mining ma- chines and eventually design machines that assist coal cutting with high pressure water. 4. Using larger cutting tools made of high-grade stainless steel to provide deep cutting without frequent breakdowns. 5. Using high attack angle bits, such as radial or forward attack bits. The machine should be originally designed to incorporate these bits. A retrofit is generally unsuccessful. 6. Bit tip material made of polycrystalline di- amonds, which can be directly deposited on tungsten carbide or bonded to it as a thin wafer. The suggested steps will not only make mining safer but also more economic by enhancing coalproductivity and creating a source of extra rev- enue from coalbed methane. Loss of production due to mandatory suspension of mining subse- quent to an ignition will also be minimized. 22.6. Frictional Ignitions Caused by Belt Conveyors Belt conveyors are quickly replacing all old meth- ods of coal transport. As mentioned in Chapter 21, they create nearly 17% of mine fires but they are usually contained quickly. An exception is the Wilberg Mine Fire [11], where 27 lives were lost due to a belt fire. Francart [12] reports an average of 5.7 incidents of belt fire per 1000 mines over the period 1980 to 2005. A breakdown of belt conveyor ignition sources is shown in Table 22.2. Belt friction accounts for nearly 50 percent of all belt fires. The belt drives and conveyor transfer points are the first primary ignition source for many reasons. Electrical sources are likely to exist near the drives. Spillage of coal at such location is also very likely. Belt slippage can cause the belt fabric to heat up and ignite itself or the spilled coal underneath. Table 22.2 Ignition Sources of Belt Fires Number of Ignition Source Fires PercentFriction at belt drive Friction along belt (Stuck) hot rollers Electrical 5 i3 Cutting and 5 8 welding Hydraulic fluid | 2 3 Undetermined 22.6.1. Detection of Belt Fires The old technique for detecting belt fire is known as point-type heat sensors (PTHSs). They are sim- ply abimetallic sensor that measures a rise in tem- perature above a base of 57°C (134.6° F). Because of the low ambient temperature in mines, the fire volume has to be large to activate the alarm. By then it may be difficult to contain it. Current technology to detect a belt fire depends on carbon monoxide concentration in the air. It works in conjunction with PTHS but can detect a fire as far as 1500 ft away. Usually, an audible alarm sounds and it can activate a water spray sys- tem that extinguishes the fire.22.6.2. Preventing Belt Fires Preventing belt fires requires the following mea- sures: 1. Use belts that can withstand heat without catching fire. 2. Clean all spilled coal promptly to avoid belt rubbing on coal. 3. Prevent slippage of belt by maintaining ade- quate tension. 4. Maintain the idler/rollers. Damaged rollers should be removed and replaced promptly. 5. Check for misalignment and tension periodi- cally. Current regulations require all the above precau- tionary measures. Slippage switches are installed at belt drives that can deenergize the drive motor if the roller is turning without belt movement. Most conveyor slip switches are designed to work on one of the three principles: Magnetism, Centrifugal force, or Photoelectricity. The most common device is a slip switch prox- imity sensor. They detect any interruption in the magnetic field by targets installed on a rotating shaft or a roller. Another device monitors the volt- age and current for the main drive motor. Such data are communicated to the mine office and cor- rective actions are immediately taken.Electrical sources of fires near a belt conveyor account for 13% of ignitions and fires. Cutting and welding on belt structure contributed 10% of re- ported belt fires. These fires can be minimized by proper training and maintenance of equipment. Safe work practices must be developed and work- ers should be annually refreshed. References [1] Elfstrom R.H. Explosion in No. 26 col- liery, Glacier Bay, Nova Scotia, on Febru- ary 29, 1979. Canadian Department of Labour; 1980:122. [2] Thakur P.C, Davis J.G. How to plan for methane control in underground mines. Mining Engineering. 1977:41- 46.. [3] Thakur P.C, Poundstone W.N. Hor- izontal drilling technology for ad- vance degasification. Mining Engineer- ing. 1980:676-680. [4] Thakur P.C. Methane drainage from gassy mines - a global review. In: Pro- ceedings of the 6th International Mine Ventilation Congress. 1997:415-422. [5] National Coal Board. Ventilation in coal mines: a handbook for colliery venti- lation engineers. 1979:90-92. [6] Leeming J.R, Yates C.P. Current British practice for methane ignition preven- tion in coal mine headings. In: DeSouzaE, ed. Mine ventilation. Exton (PA): A. A. Balkema Publishers; 2002:487-490. [7] Courtney W.. Frictional ignitions with coal mining bits. US Bureau of Mines IC 9251; 1990:25. [8] Belle B.K. An improved wet-head system: prevention of incendive igni- tions and dust control. In: DeSouza E, ed. Mine ventilation. Exton (PA): A. A. Balkema Publishers; 2002:479-486. [9] NcNider T.E, Grygiel T.E, Hanes J. Re- ducing ffictional ignitions and improving bit life through novel pick and drum design. In: Proceedings of the 3rd U.S. Mine Ventilation Symposium, SME. 1987:119-125. [10] Powell F. Design guidelines for picks. Colliery Guardian. July 1991:139-141. ({11] Huntley D, et al. Report of investi- gation. USA: Wilberg mine fire, Mine Safety and Health Administration; 1986. (12] Francart R. Reducing belt entry fires in underground coal mines. In: Mut- mansky J, ed. The 11th U.S. Mine Ven- tilation Symposium. The Pennsylvania State University; 2006:303-308.