CHAPTER HISTORY OF COMPUTERS Let us take look at the history of the computers that we know today. The very first 1 calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man’s hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens, Then the abacus was invented, a bead frame in which the beads are moved from left to right. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th century, and it is still being used in some parts of the world 5 because it can be understood without knowing how to read. Figure 2: Abacus (Computer and Society, M.A.Gallo)During the 17th and 18th centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J.Napier, a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is how the modem slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napicr’s ideas to produce logarithm tables which all mathematicians use today. Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by both Sir Isaac Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician. 0 The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people's experiments. This type of machine, which saves a great deal of time and reduces the possibility of making mistakes, depends on a series of ten-toothed gear wheels. In 1830 15 Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed a machine that was called “The Analytical Engine”. This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many 19 of his ideas were the basis for building today’s computers. In 1930, the first analog computer was built by an American named Vennevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help aim guns. Mark I, the name given to the first digital computer, was completed in 1944, The men responsible for this invention were Professor Howard Aiken and some people from IBM. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems, all at a very fast rate, In 1946 (wo 25 engineers at the University of Pennsylvania, J.Eckert and J.Mauchly, built the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes. They named their new invention ENIAC. Another important advancement in computers came in 1947, when John von Neumann developed the idea of keeping instructions for the computers inside the computer's memory. 29 Figure 3: Electronic yacuum tubes (Computer and Society, M.A.Gallo) ‘The first generation of computers, which used vacuum tubes, came out in 1950. Univac 30 T is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. In 1960, the second generation-of computers was developed and these could perform work ten times faster than their predecessor. The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Second-generation computers were smaller, 7faster and more dependable than first-generation computers. The third-generation com- 35 puters appeared on the market in 1965. These computers could do a million calculations a second, which is 1000 times as many as first-generation computers. Unlike second-generation computers, these are controlled by tiny integrated circuits and are consequently smaller and more dependable. Fourth-generation computers have now arrived, and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced 40 in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits are much smaller than before; as many as 1000 tiny circuits now fit onto a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated cizcuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic, ceramic or metal. Fourth-generation computers are 50 times 45 faster than third-generation computers and can complete approximately 1.000.000 in- structions per second. igure 4: A size comparation of components of three generations of computers: First-generation computers used vacuum tubes (rear of photo); second-generation computers used transistors (middle); and third-generation computers used inte- grated circuits (foreground) (Computer and Society, M.A.Gallo) At the rate computer technology is growing, today’s computers might be obsolete by 1985 and most certainly by 1990. It has been said that if transport technology had developed as rapidly as computer technology, a trip across the Atlantic Ocean today 50 would take a few seconds.(English for Computer Science, Norma D.Mullen) 8EXERCISES 19. 20. ve 3Aana aa ._ Answer the following questions! What is the first calculating de ‘What is abacus? Why do some people still use it up to now? Who is J. Napier? What did he do? Who create logarithm tables? Who design Calculus? ‘What is needed by the first calculating machine? Who is Charles Babbage? What did he do? What did Charles Babbage want from the machine? When was the first analog computer built? Who built it? What for was the first analog computer used? When did the first digital computer finished? Who were the inventor of the first digital computer? When were the vacuum tubes first used for computers? What is the name of the first computer using vacuum tubes? When did the first computer generation appear? What computer used transistor? Why is the integrated circuits of the fourth generation computer much smaller than those of the third? What is a chip? How do the fourth generation of computers complete instructions? Cross * T “ for the true statements and “ F “ for the false ! :F 1. Fingers and abacus are calculating devices which are still in use today. 7 R J. Napier’s invention is the same as the modem slide. ‘The idea of logarithm tables which mathematicians use today is originally from Henry Briggs. Calculus was invented by Sir Isaac Newton and Leibnitz. The real computer was created at the first time in 1820. ‘The foundation of today’s computer making is from Charles Babbage. There is no difference of speed between computer using transistor and that using vacuum tube. 7 » mawT:F 8. Today's computer circuits have larger size than the previous ones. :F 9. Only in ceramic an integrated circuit is encapsulated. :F 10. The development of transport technology is as fast as computer technology. a3 C. Look at the text again and find out what the bold words refer to. 1. and it still being used (dl. 5) .. 2. that was called “The Analytical Engine” (1.16) . 3. that could figure (1.24) . 4, They named their new invention renee 5. and these could perform (131) D. VOCABULARY Find out the synonyms (words having similar meaning) of the following words in the text! 1. designed 8) 2. very much (lay 3. stop using 18) 4. supplying (1.18) 5. completed (1.19) Find out the antonyms (words having an opposite meaning) of the following words in the text! 6. old a. 9) 7. dependently ain 8. slow 9. outside (1.29) 10. slower (1.33)STRUCTURES Relative pronouns (who, whom, which/that) Study the following sentences! ib The programmer is my brother. He works diligently. * The programmer who works diligently is my brother. 2. The man is the manager. He is very tall. * The man who is very tall is the manager. 3. The computer is very expensive. It executes the program very fast. * The computer which/that executes the program very fast is very expensive. 4. The laser printer is very expensive. I saw it in the computer exhibition last night. * The laser printer which I saw in the computer exhibition last night is very expen- sive. 5, The lady is our secretary. You saw her at the party. * The lady whom you saw at the party is our secretary. EXERCISES Combine the following sentences using “who”, “whom”, “which/that”! ee v5 The secretary is my younger sister. She works for the large company in this city. The boy is a very talented prograntmer. He is studying computer science in this university. ‘The young system analyst works for our company. He has a very modem car. The wild black foxes are very dangerous. They come to the desert at night. The modem computers works for us perfectly. The modem computers are very light. Your printer is very sophisticated. It cant print alf kinds of characters perfectly. Your younger sister is a very skillful secretary. I met her at my new branch office last Sunday. ‘The new laptops work as fast as the desktops do. The new laptops have liquid color display. Your DOS manual is very good to read. You bought it in Japan last year. ). The young manager works very hard every day. My father met him at the station yesterday. The instructor of COBOL programming language comes from French, She works for Toshiba company. ll