ONE FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 1.1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS Real Number Inequalities Intervals Absolute Value Sign, Step Funetion ‘Triangle Inequality Graphing 1.1.1 Definition 1.1.2 Definition Greatest Integer can be expressed as a decimal. A rational number is a repeating or terminating decimal. @<6 (is less than 6) if b—a is positive; a> b (ais greater than b) if a—b is positive @ bifa>bora=b. (a8) ={zlaa} (~00,8] (20, +00) = tal= (2, fez ple bl= {gre —lifz<0 sne=fo ite=0-v@)={? 1 ife>0 la+d| D: (—00, +00) Ds (—00, +00) > D: (—00, +00) R: (00, +00) R: [0,+00) R: (—00,5] Y y 8 5 | Seep tet “4 «| = 12. 14. G(z) = 27 42 1p > D: : (—00, +20) [2,+20) » » 3 5 4 5 “ ee CCAS err 2 4 “| “4 4 “6 4 4 1. 19. ea 21. g(x) = V9-27 > D: 2-120, > 20, > D:9-2730 [1, +00) ( ]U [2, +00) [-3,3] R: [0, +00) R: [0,+00) R: [0,3] y ty y 3 3 3 6 6 6 4 4 2 e Z z z Saaz pe 4 6 SET ES an 4 “| zg + a 44 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 18. F(z) = /9—z 20. o(z) = V4 - 2" 22. f(x) = V2? =1 > D:9-2>0 > D:4-27>0 > Di2?-130 (-20,9] (-2,2] (ee, -1]U[1, +00) R: [0, +00) R: (0,2] R: [0, +00) wy 8 2 6 ‘ ——_4 2] SSS a PT Tes 364 68 “4 “6 4 25. F(z) =|32-+2| > D: (—00,+00) >. D: (00, +00) R: [0, +00) R: [0, +00) 3 sf 5 ‘ 4 2 z : SORES CE Sapa a ee a “4 «i 6 3 4 24. H(z) =|5—2! > D: (co, +00) R: (0,+00) SST TesLl FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS 5 ifz<-2 3 z if2<3r<2 mw po={ee? ect ifo ee > D: (~00,+00) > f(2)=3242 2. Diz f#-2,3 R: {-4,-1,3} D: (-00, +00), Rey #5 - | & 4 4 BPh 4 2f. z £ SRE Pere — “4 “ 24 itz #3 its 7 itzs-2 siraa(y) tt on oe ig? rues > D: (~00, 400) > D: (00,400) R: (20,1) U1, +00) R: (09, 3] U (00,6) = (20, +20) =00,8) : | q ; 4 al z E z SER TS SOS s | W E * = fe <0 9-2? ifzZ-3 P-4 if2<3 36. a@={2 ifz=-3 * FE) {e-4 if3 D: (~00,-+00), Ri (~00,9] > Di (~00, +00) ) Note: G(3)=0 R: [-4, +90) U[5, +00) (00, -2]U (1, +00) =[-4,+00) , by s d s 6 4 +f 4| 4 2 2 x 3 Z SSSR ET ECT SSG2 PI es AAARER EES 2 4 4 ~ 4 a6 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY mth ife<-5 A. Wo= (ew if -z ifi D: (20,408) R: (integers) D: £2, R: [0,400) Note: F(-2) =4 | ol Fi 7 Seas ee “ \ “i 2 ifr<-4 a Visa if 4c 2<4 M4. G(2) = 238 zoo = if4se e+ > D: (—00,-+00) = Sy <2 Rz (~00,-2]U (0,4) U(—00,-2] Di 2 4-3, R: [0, +00) = (00, -2]U (0,4) Note: G(3) = 9 sal ee satbelns 4 | 4 4. Me) wwe (oe)-1 (@ue)—ve-1) ifz<0 > aft fs ={t | =f! =f tess 1 ifz>0 1 if2>1 0 ife>0 i) eet 2 iE Z| x Zi = a z= 4 J 4 3 Zi | 2 31.1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS 7 48. (2) 2Ufz) (b) (2 +1)U(e+1) (6) @+DU(e+ 1)—2U(z) fe<-t eof) ita<0 (0 ifz<-1 {i Pee | ‘ sf 6 4 ri 4 4 4 5 _ 2 . op ae. eat eee ereprr et “4 4 + * “| “| “ 4 4 49. (a) sgn 2 (b) zsgn 2 (c) 2-2 sgn z (4) 2—2sgn 2 iE ifz<0 (—z ife<0 if (z+2 ifz<0 > =40 ifr=0 =\0 ifz=0 =tt ee -{ itz—0 1 250 itz >0 = ifz>0 =lz! 4 2 PeCe SALE? SCT 4 “| “ 50. (a) sgn(2+1) (>) sgn(z~1) (6) sgn(z+1)—sen(z- 1) 1 ife<-1 1 ifz<1 ife<-lorz>1 wef eta =f ee fT Hecalersct 1 ifz>-1 i ifz>1 2 if-1 Using the point-slope formula for each segment give ‘ 2-242) f-2<2S-1 22-2 if-2<2 Katee) Helces0 yet oles so 91-12 ifo Using the pointslope formula for each segment give J 042(242) -2s2 M44 if -2 fy =e, fg=-tor fH lel fy =e! 54. Define the graph of the letter Z as the union of f,, fa, fy > Use relational operators to get segments, rather than lines. In Exercises 55-58, define the function piecewise and sketch the graph. m1 ifz<-1 -l-fiz if-l1 3] 3 6 2 z z z S64Db 2468 S64Tb 24 ee S442 P IEE “4 4] -4| | “ +6 =| + 5 Exercise 56 Exercise 57 Exercise 58 =43z-27 ifo3 In Exercises 59 and 60, sketch the graph of the function and determine its domain and range. Check by plotting. kL 59. h{z) =2—[s]. D: (—c0,-+00} R: [01) Exercise 59 Exercise 60 60. F(z) =2+ [Zz]. D: (—00, +00); R: [2k, 2k + 1), where & is any f: —8e ifr<0 Jeger. 61, Define two other functions whose graphs resemble two different letters of the alphabet. > U: f(2)=1-V1-24, V: fe) Sle! 1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 1.2.1 Definition Given the two functions f and g: (j) their sum, denoted by f +g, is the function defined by (F4+.0(2) = (2) + of2) their difference, denoted by f — 9, is the function defined by (f -9)(2) = F(z) - (2) (iii) their product, denoted by fg, is the function defined by (F-9\(z) = F(2)- 92) (iv) their quotient, denoted by f/g, is the function defined by (F/ az) = f(2)/a(2) In each case the domain of the resulting function consists of those values of z common to the domains of f and 9, with the additional requirement in case (iv) that the values of 2 for which g(z) <0 are excluded,1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 9 1.2.2 Definition Given two functions f and g, the composite function, denoted by f 99 and read f of gy is defined by (fog)(2) = f(gl2)) and the domain of fog is the set of all nurnbers + in the domain of g each that g(z} is in the domain of f- ‘The composition of functions is associative, that ia (fog) 24 = So(goh). Definition (i) A function is said to be an even function if for every = in the domain of #, F(—=)= f(z), (ii) A funetion is said to be an odd funetion if for every + in the domain of f, f(—*) = —f(x). das both parts (i) and (i) it is understood that —z is it the domain of f whenever 2 is: “Even powers of x are evem functions; odd powers and odd roots of rare odd functions ‘Combinations ¢ven + even = even, odd + odd = odd, even x even = even, odd x odd = even, even x odd = ‘Geenfeven = even, odd/odd = even, even odd = odd, odd even = odd, See Exercise 32. odd ives 1.2 Brercises 1-10, define the following functions and determine their domain D: fa) f+9 (b) F—a fe) 9 (A) S/o Ce) oft ‘> We adopt the common practice of omitting *(2]". Values not in the implicit damain are bolded. f=r-5, 71 (a) ft gaa? +26, D: (—o9,e0) (b) fg = 2? +2—4, D: (—o000) be) f-g= Yet 1) = Fe 2 +5, DF (8) fla = aH, Dew #31) off = Faye Des 2 fa Je pat 41@) foga Vere +1 Di [0,+08) (b) 9 = 22? =1, D: (0,400) ke) fog = ale? +1), Ds [0 408) (€) ffs “4 Ds [0 +00) (2) ot =, 1D: (0, +26) 42e=1 Seay eo biega1@fe=ttpd= tb Dee 01 220,1(09 sith ebecha got Deeg a101 faeg=4-2? (a) ftg= vette D: [0, +22) (b) f—g = E427, D: [0, +09) {e) F- = /@(4—22), D: [0, +20) (d) t= De [0,2)U (2.406) (@) a/f “ Ds (0,400) fave 21 (a) f eg = e422 — 1, Di (0)-+00) (b) fag = WEF? +1, D: [Os +00) fe) f-7 = V2(2" —1), B: (0, +99) (a) Wn B: [0,1) U(L, +09) (6) a6 = 253. b: (0,420) (00,00) fle) g=le—31 (2) fg =l2l+l2—3l Di (20,400) (b) fog =le|—lz— 3), D: (-08, +90) (2 Feamlele— 8h D: (ote) te) fa = p25, FS Le oT = Tae Dao fa st41, p= 32-2 (a) fg = 2743-1, Ds (—00, 400) (b) J—g = 2) — de +8, Dt (00, +00) fe) fg = (22+ Ge 2) = 328-22? + 82-2, De (cert) fin= Eth De 93 oat f= D: (20,460) b fa vera p= 22-4 (a) ft a= yeti te 4, Di [4 +e) (b) f-g= Verd-w 44, = 1: [4,21 (=2,2) U2, toe)10 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY depo? Leet ol e248 etd 2 ® fagpp sete) ftesgeproate-a esl FH so Diz¢-L2 ala phi =¥ O-e=shp beet bette} orn “erties Dist “415 yes za 2 Det -1,0,2 @oll=siateem eee . 10. f= 2. 9 =n (a) fee (ot oe In Brerives L1-L4y compute (fe g}() by two methods: (0) Pind fe) Set (}) Find (0a) Ke i. fla) = 308 — Az, gle) = 2-5 = 4 & (a) (a) = 26-9 =3, JO) =15 ‘pe 5)? — {22 3) = Alte” — 2x + Bh) — Be +20 = 122" —08r + 95 De (0, 420) (b) f= D:(0,-400) V2, (0, +50) (a) F a 2/2, Di: (0) +00) ‘f= dee 12 f(e) = Ve —6, g(x) = 2" - 32, = b (a) ofS) =5?—-5 = 10, (20) = Vi0" = 36 = 5 () fale) VET, Juen= (errs ies > (ay aQ)= i= a) wa h@=5 8) fale) =z erst aye ua. fiz)= 1 sz) = w f a plea a BETS: Hol-2)) = ap pg HBF HAD) + = SVE = In Baercises 15-24, find (a) Fog (0) gef (©) Fos (A) 909 and give their domains D. Wi fee) ne gle) #47 fb) o( F(z) = (2-247 = (9) a(g(z)) = 16 fiz) = 3-2, oz! (a) fg{2)) = 3— 26-32) = Be | ne, 400) (b} al f(z)) = 6 = 3(3 - 22) = 62 ~ 3, Ds (~29, 420), te) JU (= d— 28 - 22) ae Pee) atgle)) = 6-H6 —2) = Bx — 12, D: (oy -r00) 1. fle) =r—5, g(2)= 27-1 & (@) faz) = (7-5 =? (20, +20) fe) este 5)? 1 = a — 102 4.24, Dr (~00, 420) © He =10, Ds (20) 448) (@) (a(z))=(2?-1) - 2x7, D: (00, boo) 18, f(a) = oF » (e) hie EFI, Ds (28,420) (b) af(2)) = (v2) +2 = 2+ 1, Di [0,+e0) fe) srl) = foe = Y2, Ds (0.400) (a) poly) = (2? +1) + 1 at + 2a? +2, D: (2,490) 19. f(z)=¥F—2%, oleae? -2 P(e) f(a(2)) = ylz*—2)-2 = va" —4, D: (0, #00) (b) of f(z) = (2-27 -2 = 2-2-2 = 2-4, [2,408) (© fle) = fen 2H 2 Di a—224, (6400) @) pale =@P=2 = B= +42? +2, D: (2a 428)1.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS Lt 2, fle) 22-1, oz) =F aiken a) ae=(-1= 2 (6) (Ue) = F-18254, De (00,400) Ud) afl) = =F pe i aq bs eee (h) 9(s(a)) = apap Dee # St L Dine an fley=ha(z)= v2 : © (a) Fale) = de Ds (0,490) tb) ata) = Y= +p Ds (0,425) idea rp=s Db ae0 (0) alot) = Ve = YE 2:0, 420) m2. fe)= VE olt)= & (a) fate) = yf & De: (-00.0) (b) af (=) = (e) Fle) = Va = YE: D: [0.4208 2) ofa(e) = BB. f(z) siah g(z)=l2+2| & (a) figiz)) =||e+2!]=le +2) De (-29, #20) (b) gf f(2)) = [le 2| = 12142, De (—20, +00) (6) AUCe)) =Well= 124 Ds (98.400) (4) a(ote)) [24 2/42) =]=4 214 2, Ds (20,400) 2, f(r) = VET, af G1 & (0) fate) = Venta = VenTHT = VEE, B40) (by afc) = vet 1-1, V1 A, (28, VM UL V9, 400} © 1G) = feat ave = V8 (@) ofgtz)) = Ve= 1-1, Ds x= 1 > 1 [2 +98) a5. f(a) =e la) He = VE lek D: Hotes) 0) LP = [Zt = 2, Ds [0 +00) SIU v2.40) (9 sla) = V2 = VD: 1,4) (2) HE(-2)) = Y=, De (00,0) 2. fel=z hy) fe) = ph eee At (b) Le) = yop Be A @sve)=— Lezeesl mie yor (@) s(-2) =) pd T-T(t==) e In Erereises 27-98, express the function as f(g(#)) in two ways. p> Bxpress the function using of twice; break at the first or the serandd. mf square coot of the difference of feign st—dor faVa-4§, 8. (9-27)? =2 power of the sum of --- fax g= 94s or f= (0+ vs. (5) bP pomec of the reciprocal ofa faa, phy or f=(E) 9= 22 30. 0 BeOS et de cual 41. ={° Lite cn 2 edd (even Fedd} 42, alel= tteen (odd ) 0 either a(-2) —(e-)+(e42)=4 tc 2 4 evalcietate [leo eoa) ~2r if -2 << 2 is odd (2-2)—(242)=-4 ifa> 2fe ife<-1 =(e4+1)4 (2-1 4, Been fie" ee ite [-1,0)U(0)1] ixeven (2+ 1) —(—1)p. ite>1 le 45, fog gg f. See Exercises 16-24, (a) versus (b). In Hrercises 46-50, show that f and g are inverse functions by showing that /(g(z)) = 2 and g(f(x)) = 2. 4B. f= 22-3, 9 = Mr +3). fog = Kr +3) -3 = (x 4+8)-3=2, of =H(22-3) +2) = }22) 1 ied z - =W(e+l) r+ teeta Hfeg pen es fee a eat Sloe =e ee W. for cz0ig= Vz fog=(ya)=2, gfe 49. fore c0,9=—y% foo=(-\SP =, 90 f = Ve =-(-2)=2 80. f= (2-1), 9=14 9%. fog = [+ Y2)— IP = (8e =s, go fais el) = 140-1 =2 SL. Find formulas for sgn(U(z)) and U(sgn(z}) and sketch their graph. 0 fed if Ulz}< 5 never > vencuy={o ifUG)= = treo betes 1 if Ulr) =1 SI ifz>0 vomtn={ PR TEfa{} 220) ‘ $2. If f and g are odd functions, prove that f+ and f —g are add and f-g and fq are even. aI > f(-r) = =F), o(~2) = a(2). q d(-a) +9{-#, {-2) - of-2) =—S(e) (F 9N-2) = S-as(-2) = [-Fe)-af Gfa)mz) = F(-2)fol—s) = -402)/-a12) 5%. If fio any function and y ix eves, F(G{—H)) = Skala) s0 0 9 is even, WJ and g are both odd, F(al=2)) = J(—(ala)) =—fa(z)) wo fog is odd. If f is even and g is odd, f(a(—=)) = f{—a(2)) = f(a(2)) 20 fog is even SA. Pind formulas for (f o.9)(2). Sketch the graphs of f, 7, and f og. Uf +92) 9-2) a iO rate) SKS fe ase ’ : : asap tt 31.2 OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF FUNCTIONS 13 155. Hind formulas for (go f){-2) and sketch its graph. 0 if fi2)=0 0 ifel > 9ff(2)) {ine it0< fla)sl -f iozr0} = (4,420) but dom G = (—20,—1]U (4, +00), 1.3 FUNCTIONS AS MATHEMATICAL MODELS: Variables should be described asing units: 2 feet is the length. vis Proportional to z Directly: y = kx. Inversely: y = kz. Jointly proportional to x and ‘Extremum of ar? + be + occurs when * = —b/2e; this can be obtained by completing the square. Maximum Product of a set of positive numbers of constant. sam is when factors are equal. See Ex, 28 ‘Minimum Sum ofa set of positive numbers of eoustant product is when terma are equal. See Ex. 22. Exercises 1.3 In each exercise, obtain a function as a mathematical model of the situation. Be sure to write a conclusion, ‘L.A payroll of p dollars is directly proportional to the number w of workers, and a crew of 12 workers enms $810. (a) Find p(w). (b} What is the payroll for a crew of 15 workers? b p= kw. 810 =K(12), £ = 67.5 (a) pw) = 67.54 (b) p15} = GT-5- 15 = 1012.50 2. A person's brain weight 6 Ib is directly proportional to his body weight w Ib, and a person weighing 160 Ib has a 4 Ib broin (a) b(w). (b} Pind tke brain. weight of » 176 Ib person be b= kus d= A{L50), b= oe (a) (te) = Sw (b) 6176) = e176 = 4.69 3. The period p se of a pendulum i directly proportional to the square root of the mumber 2 of feet in ils length, and au 8 ft pendulum has a 2 see period. (a) Find p(s). (b) Find the period of a ft pendulum. p pakye 2=kV8, V2 (8) plz} = /2F2 (b) nl2) = V1 = 1. The period is 1 sec, 4. The frequency {per see of @ vibration is directly proportional to the square root of the tension ¢ hig, and is 64 /sce. when the tension is 24 kg. (a) Find {(1). (b) Find the frequency under e Lensian of 6 ky, p fa kyi, 864 = by 24 = ine, = Tab (a) f(t) = 12/61 (b) F(6) = 72-6 = 182 te Oe £50 Ir £50 <2 < 200. (50) =2.2%50 052 if > 200 ($1) = 2.1 x51 = 107.10, C52) = 2.1 w 52 = 109.20, C(68) = 21 x53 = 111.90, C(200) = 2.1 x 200 = 420 (202) = 2.05% 202 = 414.10), C204) = 2.05 x 204 = 418.20, C(208) = 2.05 x 206 = 422.90 5. C(2) dollars ie the cost of shipping 2 tb. Cla 110, y(z) cents is the cost of mailing ounces. y = 9— 23-2]. y(1.6) 9 —23(—2) = 55 yl) =9 9 23(—3) = 78 yao = 28(-11) = 2621030 30 40 50 60 10 3 100 1 tO TT aa 4a es poll Exercise 5 Exercise 6 Exercise 7 Exercise 8 7. x(a) cents is the cost of an = minute call. vz) = 10—30[—z]. w(0.5) = 10 — 30[—0.5] = 10 —30(—1) = 40 1 30[-2] = 10 — 30-2) wW25) = 10 — 30[-2.5] = 10 — $0(—3) = 100 10— 30[-3] = 10 ~ 30-2) (35) = 10 — 80f-8.5] = 10 —80(—4) = 10— 30-5] = 10 — 30-3) 8, The adult admission price is $7, while the price for cildeen under 12 years is $4 and the price for seniore at least 60 yers ie $5. (a) Find « model of price as a function of age. (b) Sketch the graph of your function in (a). 4 if0 0, S=60/r 4 60/r + xr? (product = 3600n) is minimum when 60/r = x72, r? =60/x, 7 22.67 in 23. A. page with margins of 1.5 in. at the top asd Dottons sod 1 in. a the sides is to contain 24 in? of print. (a) Find the total area of the page, A(z} in?, when the width of the printed region is = in. (b) What is the domain D af A? (e) Approximaue to thy pesrest hundredth of gr inch the size ofthe smallest page. > (a) The length of the printed region is £8 in, A(z) =(z +2y(24+ 3) =30 + (32 +25) (preduct = 144) (b) De 5-0 (C) Aji = 54 when Bz = 48, 2 a4, 2 +25 442=5, 249024) 30, The smallest page is 6 in, wide and 9 in. Tong. AL A lot with walkways 22 fe ide at the frowt and hack and 15 ft nt the sides is to contain a 13,200 7 building. {2) Find the total area of the lot, A(z) 2, when the width of the front és = ft. (b) What is the domain D of ‘Af (c) Approximate to the nearest hundredth of a foot Uhe size ofthe smallest lot » do) The length of the building is “2° n, A(z) = (2 + 90y(49200 + 44) — 14520 + (442 + 996000/) (0) Di = >0 (e) Because the product ofthe variable term Ie 742,00, te smalls ot has area 2,868.4 62 sehen 442 = 396,000/2, 2 = /9000 = 94.57. The field is 124.87 ft by 189.24 fL 25, A box of tength 2 Gn. with square croc wetion has 100 in. as the um of its length and girth, (a) Find the ‘Yolume ¥ in® as a function of 2. (b) What is the domain D of V7 (c) Approximate to the nearest inch the dimensions of the largest box. (a) The width of the box is (100 — 2) in. V= (b) D: 20 < 2 < 100 (length > width) (¢) V, "The largest box is about 33 by 17 by 17 in. YA. The growth cae J bctri/in of m colony in jointly proportions! 40 the narber = af bacteria ged the number 1,000,000 —2 of capacity. f(z) = (1,000,000 — 2), f(1000) = 60 = 10008 999,000, & = za Saas satan: J= #(1.000,000—2)/16,650,000, 0-< x < 1,000,000. (£00,000) = 108,000 -90,000/16,658,000 5405 bacteria/min. f(z)= 540,000, 21. The growth rate f infected/day of an epidemic number 5,000—z of capacity. f(z) = ha(,000 ~ 2), $(100) ‘92(5,000 — 2)/490,000, 0 < 2 < 5,000. f(200) = 9 200 »4800/190,000 r 17.6 = 18 people/day. (m2? +5,0002) is maximum when 50 /—2 = 2500. 26. ‘The base of a pyramidal tent is 22 m square and a triangular side has height 2.5—z m. The height h of the tent satisfies A? +2? = (2.5—2)%, & via 25— 55. The volume is ¥ = 3 6.25 —S2, 0< 2 < 1.35. Vv(0.8) = 12-08) (2a BOB =} 16/208 = 1.28 m®, v8 = Bell — de) = Je yhe (elle yl — Je) Because the eum of the variable factors is 1, V is maximum whe nf, 2=1 100 — 2)? = -210100 ~ 2}(100 ~ 2) (sum = 200) GP)? 0250 when 100—2 = 22, 2 = MO. (2? +1,000,000x) is maximum when x = —1,000,000/— jelntly proportional to the number z of infected and the ‘INoke- 4900, # = 9/190,000.16 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS, AND CONTINUITY 14 GRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS “Phe formal definition of limit is given in the next sect 1.4.1 Definition Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval containing a, ‘exept possibly at the number a itself. The dimit of ffs} ex x approaches o is L, written as fin He) = if the following statement is trxe: Given any ¢ > 0, however small, there exists a > 0 such that iO From the figure, 6 =.1 ; 2. f(z) =2=82, 05-1, L=5, = 08. > From the figure, 5 TS oh 3 and 25. f(z) i Bercise 1 e 2, -1=3-0.03, 2, =4 = 0.03. &,—1= 8 40.03, 22-4 = 0.03, Choose § = 0.03, |P(2)—1|=|(2—1) —3|=12— 41-26 when [2a] <1 = 0.03 = 5. 4 and 26. f(z) =242,0=3,L=5,¢=0.02 Bo 2y$2=5-002, 2-35 0.02. r.+2=5 +002, x; — $= 0.02. Choose 6 = 0.02. [f@)-1 pepe tele-ise 9.02 =¢ 5. fe)= & Intde Tand 27. f(z) = 52-3, 0 Sz, )~1= 001 5a = |(2—8)—2]=lde—S]=ae— 1) ce whenle-1/5 ke = Band 28. f(x) = 42 ~5, 0 =2, b= 3, ¢= 0.001 sé > da 5 = 3.001, 42 001, 2 —2 = =00028. 42,5 = 34.001, dz = 8=.001, 2) =2 = 0007: |@=—5)-3|=]4a—8]= 4x21 << when |z-21< = 0.00025 =F 9% f(z) =9—4,a=-1, L=7, += 0.02. f is decreasing, Bade = 74.02, 4 42, = 02, 2, 41 = 005. 9-4, = T= 02, —4 Ae, = —09, 2541 =.005. 6 = 005 10. s(2)=2452, a= 2, Lb =-8, > 2482,=-8— 00252, +10= 002.2; +2 = —0004. 2+ S2y=—8 +.002,52y +10 = 002.2, +2=.00t =é14 GRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS 17 2, b=—4e= 001, & fe)=2-2ife #2 =Olony P= 84.01, 2-2 = 44.01, 2) +42 = 01 nL. He)= 24 a= & 2,-2=-4-01, 2,-2= 4-01, 4,42 12 soya 42} a=} L=2,e=0m > f(e)= S241 ite x} 32,41 = 2-01, 32, — 01) zy p= gpg Bg +1 2401, 3zy—-1= 01, yeah 6 1B and 29. f(z) =A MES gL a4 20080 fe) =2e—3ife et 22-3 = 94.03, 2x, 41 = =.08, 2p t= O15. 2s, 3S = A+ 03, Ae, 41 = 08, 2 $= 05. 6 = 15 +g | From the figure, # = min(2— /7/2, 972-2) = min(0.126,0.121) = 0.121 Bote Fok noalineat J, the Values of-d obtained Geom tnetualilies are tually’ sinaller ‘than those obtained directly. The factoring is really done first to determine what ‘bounds we need, Aand 31. f(z) =s7, o=3,L=9.¢=0.5 & OF 0 hay, ty > 0 27 = 9-05 = 8.5, a = 85 = 2915, 2-2, = 085, 2,° = 9-405 = 0.5, 25 = y/0 = 1.082, 2, 3 = 082. 8 = 082 Gl. Choose 6< 180 -1¢4-3-<¢1, S243 <7. Then le? —9l=[e43lle-3l 2 a) 44a, $4 = 1-08, (2) + To4.08, (2, +2)? = 1.08, 0) 42 = 108. |*44r4aiale4aliatiicaie+il Fits Ch fle decreasing 3z,2Ta, 2,5 (7— VP 4-3-3776 = 809, 1-2, = 191. Because Fa) 2 #Q)> (74+ W748 8.7)/6 = 1.524, a1 5.5%. 8 ‘36. Choose 6 <1 s0 -1<2-1<1 —8<32-3<3,-4<3r-4<2, [(a=?-72 +2) - 23] |e? = 7r44|=|32—4l2—il@. Substitution Li ‘Theorems 1-10 imply that the limit as z approaches a of any formula (that is, excluding functions defined in pieces) can be found by substitution, if substitution is ‘meaningful Fractions Note that we cannot use Limit Theorem 9 to find the limit of a fraction if the limit of the denomiaxtor is xer0. However, when the limit of both the numerator and denominator i aero at =a we may be able to apply one of the following methods: (i) If the oumerator and deneminater are both polynomials, we apply the factor theorem which states that if x =a is a zero of « polynomial, then #—a is & faster. ‘The commen factor z—a may then be canceled, This is illustrated im Exercise 32. (ii) If the denominator is polynomial and a term of the uuimerator is a radical, we may multiply by its conjugate, which is noi zero al a, and apply method {i} to the product, This is shown in Exercises 20 and 32. Ino doing, we use the following theorem, a consequence of Definition 1.6.1. ‘Thoorem A if im yz) =E and f(x) = g(x) for all = #0, then lim f(z) ‘We cannot use Limit Theorems 1-10 to find the limit, of.a fraction for which the limit of the denominator is zero and for which the limit of the numerator is not zeta, In Section 1.7 we have-a theorem for finding the limit of such a fraction. Buorcises 1.5, 3 ‘We wich to determine a § > 0 such that ifd 0, any choice of 6 > 0 will suffice; in particular take ¢ ‘Wee wish to determine a 6 > 0 such that i€0 0, any ekoiee of 6 > 0 will suffice; in particular take & = ¢. We wish to determine a 6 > 0 such. that O<|e—4| de—4l< athe) = |2r41)-9] <0 ‘We wish te deterr aé>0 such that iO<|x—L|<& then |(42+3}-7|<¢ e@0<|z-1l<6 then de-il lz—11< 4(de) = |(42 +3) -7[ <6.