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Diagenetic to low-grade metamorphic evolution of clay

mineral assemblages in Palaeozoic to early Mesozoic rocks
of the Eastern Taurides, ....

Article  in  Clay Minerals · December 2004

DOI: 10.1180/0009855043940149

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Clay Minerals (2004) 39, 481–500

Diagenetic to low-grade metamorphic

evolution of clay mineral assemblages in
Palaeozoic to early Mesozoic rocks of the
Eastern Taurides, Turkey
Ö . B O Z K A Y A AND H . Y A L Ç I N

Department of Geological Engineering, Cumhuriyet University, 58140 Sivas, Turkey

(Received 17 March 2003; revised 9 May 2004)

AB ST R ACT : Palaeozoic to early Mesozoic rocks of both autochthonous and allochthonous units of
the Eastern Tauride Belt have different textural and mineralogical features related to their varying
deposition regimes and thermal histories. The Devonian and Carboniferous formations in the
allocthonous units have anchizonal to epizonal grades of metamorphism, whereas those of the
autochthon experienced only early diagenetic conditions. A well-developed penetrative slaty
cleavage is also found in Devonian formations of the allocthonous units, which is not observed in
equivalent rocks of the autochthon. Phyllosilicates of the uncleaved diagenetic assemblages consist
mainly of illite, chlorite, kaolinite, mixed-layer illite-smectite, chlorite-vermiculite and chlorite-
smectite, whereas in addition to these, metamorphic allochthonous units contain some index minerals
such as dickite, paragonite, Na and K mica, pyrophyllite, stilpnomelane and chloritoid. These latter
assemblages show a higher degree of textural and mineralogical maturation and lower b cell
dimensions than the autochthonous rocks, suggesting that they originated in a relatively high heat
flow basin such as an extensional setting.

KEYWORDS: clay mineral assemblages, diagenetic to low-grade metamorphic evolution, correlation of

allochthonous and autochthonous units, Eastern Taurides, Turkey.

In general, diagenetic to low-grade metamorphic
sedimentary rocks result either from depositional
burial related to subsidence in sedimentary basins,
from tectonic burial with heating in orogenic belts,
or from hydrothermal alteration associated with
igneous intrusions (Hesse & Dalton, 1991). Textural
and mineralogical characteristics of metapelitic
sedimentary rocks have been used as parameters
for interpreting the pressure-temperature-time
(P-T-t) evolution of basinal sequences, and to
reconstruct their tectono-metamorphic histories
(Robinson, 1987; Bevins & Robinson, 1988;
* E-mail: bozkaya@cumhuriyet.edu.tr
DOI: 10.1180/0009855043940149
Robinson & Bevins, 1989; Warr et al., 1991;
Merriman & Frey, 1999).
Mineralogical assemblages and crystallochemical
features, such as crystallinity, b cell dimension and
the polytypism of clay minerals, together with
organic indicators, have mainly been used for
characterizing diagenetic and very low-grade
metamorphic changes in contrasting geological
settings (Frey, 1987). These are classically deter-
mined from XRD data, although results are often
influenced by variable contributions from mixtures
of detrital and authigenic components, in spite of
using <2 mm size fractions. In this context, the
Tauride Orogenic Belt in the Eastern Mediterranean
region is important for studying the low-tempera-
ture diagenetic and metamorphic history of north-

# 2004 The Mineralogical Society

482 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin

FIG. 1. (a) Tectonic map of the southern Anatolia (simplified from Göncüoğlu et al., 1997); (b) distribution of
major tectono-stratigraphic units in the Eastern Taurus Belt (Özgül, 1976), and location and sampling map of the
studied area.
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey
west Gondwana. Tectonic (Göncüoğlu et al., 1997,
2000), biostratigraphic (Gedik, 1988; Kozur &
Göncüoğlu, 1998; Göncüoğlu & Kozlu, 2000) and
mineralogical (Bozkaya & Yalçın, 2000; Bozkaya
et al., 2002; Bozkaya & Yalçın, 2004, 2005) studies
have explained some of the early deformational
history of the Taurus Belt. This paper aims to
compare the non-transported (autochthonous) and
tectonically transported (allochthonous) units that
comprise the Eastern Taurus Belt and explain their
low-temperature metamorphic evolution on the
basis of their clay mineral assemblages.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Tauride-Anatolide Platform (the Tauride-
Anatolide Composite Terrane (TACT) of
Göncüoğlu et al., 1997), is an Alpine continental
microplate with various tectonic units (Fig. 1a)
containing nearly continuous Palaeozoic succes-
sions. Due to the late Cretaceous Alpine closure of
the northern and southern branches of Neotethys
and subsequent collision with the surrounding
continental microplates (Sengör & Yılmaz, 1981),
the TACT has been sliced and shortened.
Individual tectono-stratigraphic units and their
palaeogeographic settings relative to the autochtho-
nous Geyikdağı Unit can be distinguished and
differentiated by their depositional, stratigraphic,
structural and metamorphic characteristics (Özgül,
1976). The allochthonous area of the northern
margin is referred to as the Kütahya-Bolkardağı
Belt (Göncüoğlu et al., 1997), comprising the
Bolkardağı, Aladağ and Bozkır Units, whereas the
southern margin contains the Antalya and Alanya
Units. All of these structural sequences can be
followed from the Aegean coast in the west to the
Iranian border in the east.
It is generally considered that the nappes or
tectono-stratigraphic units of the northern margin of
the platform were sliced and thrusted towards the
south onto a relatively autochthonous central part
(Geyikdağı Unit), whereas the two other units of the
southern margin were emplaced northward onto the
same central unit (e.g. Özgül, 1976; Göncüoğlu et
al., 1997). The Bozkır Unit, the uppermost tectonic
slice of the allochthonous thrust stack, mainly
consists of Mesozoic slope to passive margin
deposits. The lowermost successions within the
Aladağ and Bolkardağı Units are Devonian in age.
The Geyikdağı Unit of Precambrian to Tertiary
(meta-) sedimentary rocks is better preserved and
483
contains more or less continuous successions, in
contrast to the allochthonous units. The Antalya
Unit comprises Palaeozoic–early Mesozoic (meta-)
sedimentary lithologies including volcanic rocks.
The Palaeozoic–early Mesozoic Alanya Unit
contains three nappes (Mahmutlar, Sugözü and
Yumrudağ) each with different metamorphic char-
acteristics (Bozkaya & Yalçın, 2004).
STRATIGRAPHY AND LITHOLOGY
Precambrian to Tertiary (meta-) sedimentary rocks
of the Geyikdağı Unit are exposed in a series of
outcrops between Kayseri and Adana, and are
overthrusted by the Bozkır and Alanya Units
(Fig. 1b). In the Geyikdağı Unit, the Ayıtepesi
Formation lies unconformably across the older units
and comprises sandstone and shale alternations with
carbonate intercalations. It is followed by the
S afaktepe Formation, which is composed of
carbonate rocks such as dolomite, dolomitic lime-
stone and limestone with sandstone-shale alterna-
tions also including layers of volcanogenic
conglomerate and sandstone. The Gümüs ali
Formation is represented by an alternation of
sandstone-siltstone-shale intercalated with reef
limestone. The Carboniferous Ziyarettepe
Formation is characterized by limestone-dolomitic
limestone-shale alternations, whereas the Permian
Yığıltepe Formation, which also unconformably
overlies Devonian rocks, contains more diverse
limestone and dolomitic limestone with shale and
rare organic shale laminations. The Triassic
Katarası and Ayvat Formations include mainly
dolomitic marl-limestone alternations. Jurassic to
Eocene horizons are mainly carbonate rocks with
claystone-marl intercalations.
Middle Devonian to early Carboniferous very
low-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Bolkardağı
Unit crop out extensively in the Kangal area
(Fig. 1b). An overturned fold structure occurs in
the core of the unit, which is made up of a
northwest-extending syncline that is bound by
reverse faults to the northwest. Four formations
have been identified based on lithology, mineral
assemblage and the degree of metamorphism. Of
these, the Kınalar Formation comprises alternations
of mostly slate and metasiltstones, and is distin-
guishable from the other formations by its well-
developed slaty cleavage. The Düzce Formation is
characterized by alternations of slate and thin-
bedded metasandstone, and locally metasiltstone
484 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin
with fossiliferous metalimestone interlayers. In the
Bakırtepe Formation, thinly bedded micaceous
metasandstones interleaved with slates are the
dominant lithologies. Brecciated metasandstones
and silicification associated with limonite, goethite,
hematite or pyrite occur along the 20 m fault zone
on the northwestern flank of the overturned
syncline. The Höyüktepe formation comprises
thin-bedded fossiliferous metalimestones with silt-
stone, sandstone and shale interbeds. Younger rocks
include the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous
crystallized limestones and ophiolitic rocks, which
were obducted during the late Cretaceous.
The Aladağ Unit has been divided into six
formations. The Eks imenlik Formation contains
slates, calcareous slates, calcareous metasiltstones
and fossiliferous reef metalimestones. The
Karaçaldere Formation is characterized by pisolitic
meta-limestone, slates, metasandstones and meta-
siltstones. The Geyikpınar Formation has mainly
calcareous sandstones and crystallized limestones.
The Kokarkuyu Formation contains crystallized
limestone and dolomite in the lower and upper
parts. The Topmes e Tepe and Yayla Mevki
Formations consist predominantly of limestone.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
A total of 916 siliciclastic and carbonate rock
samples were collected from investigated sections
of the geological units outlined and analysed by
XRD and optical microscopy methods.
The whole-rock XRD analyses were undertaken
using a Rigaku DMAX IIIC diffractometer with the
following settings: Cu-Ka, 35 kV, 15 mA, slits
(divergence = 1º, scatter = 1º, receiving =
0.15 mm, receiving-monochromator = 0.30 mm),
scan speed 2º2y/min. Textured preparations for
clay mineral identification and illite ‘crystallinity’
measurements were scanned at 1º2y/min as recom-
mended by Kisch (1991). The semi-quantitative
percentages of the rock-forming minerals in the
clay-size fractions were calculated using the external
standard method of Brindley (1980). Clay fractions
(<2 mm) from the fine-grained metasedimentary
rocks were separated by the sedimentation method
and analysed under normal (air-dried at 25ºC for
16 h), ethylene glycolated EG (in a desiccator at
60ºC for 16 h) and heat (490ºC for 4 h) conditions.
The different clay minerals, particularly mixed-layer
phases, were distinguished using the methods
outlined by Moore & Reynolds (1997).
The widths of the 10 Å illite peaks at half-height
(illite ‘crystallinity’) were measured by using the
Kübler index (1968, 1984) method (KI of
Guggenheim et al. 2002). The crystallinity index
standards (CIS) of Warr & Rice (1994) were
employed to calibrate the KI and 7 Å chlorite
‘crystallinity’ (Árkai, 1991; Árkai index AI:
Guggenheim et al., 2002) measurements, using the
linear-regression equation KICIS = 1.15656KI
0.0669 with R2 = 0.9894. All KI and AI values are
presented and plotted as recalculated CIS values.
Since the 10 Å illite peak for paragonite-muscovite
(intermediate Na-K mica = PM) and paragonite is
broadened asymmetrically towards high angles
(Frey, 1987; Frey et al., 1988), KI values were
not determined on samples containing these
minerals.
K-white mica d060,331 reflections or b cell
dimensions (Merriman & Peacor, 1999) were
measured by calibrating against the (211) peak of
quartz (2y = 59.982º, d = 1.541 Å) as an internal
standard. Only samples free of or containing minor
amounts of PM and paragonite were used for b
determinations (Guidotti & Sassi, 1986).
The proportion of swelling smectite in illite-
smectite (I-S) mixed-layer minerals was determined
following the XRD methods of Środoń (1984) and
Eberl & Velde (1989), and the mean crystallite size
of illite estimated using the NEWMOD-based
graphs calculated by Eberl & Velde (1989). The
ordering type (Reichweite = R) and illite content in
I-S were estimated by the position of the reflections
between 5 and 8.5º2y and near 17º2y for ethylene
glycol-solvated clay preparations (Moore &
Reynolds, 1997).
Illite, chlorite and kaolin polytypes for non-
oriented powder samples have been detected with
diagnostic peaks suggested by Bailey (1988). To
determine the 2M1 and 1M % contents of 2M1 +
1Md or 2M1 + 1M + 1Md polytype-bearing illite/
muscovites, the ratios of (2.80 Å)/(2.58 Å) and
(3.07 Å)/(2.58 Å) peak areas were used as proposed
by Grathoff & Moore (1996). The chemical
compositions of chlorites were determined by
XRD methods (e.g. Brindley, 1961; Brown &
Brindley, 1980; Chagnon & Desjardins, 1991;
Nieto, 1997).
For vitrinite reflectance (VR) measurements,
organic matter was separated from samples, and
polished sections were prepared. The VR random
values were determined on a Leitz-Wetzlar MPV II
type microscope with 506 objective, Hg lamp (CS
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey 485

100 W-2), filters comprising a double B12, one B38
heating-absorbing and K510 barrier, point counter.
Sapphire (0.551% R) and glass (1.23% R) standards
were used for calibration of the microscope. The
mean random reflectances were measured in oil
(Rmoil%) and the rank of coalification is based on
the American Society for Testing and Materials
classification (Teichmüller, 1987).
PETROGRAPHY AND ROCK
FABRIC
In the Geyikdağı Unit, sedimentary rocks mainly
contain quartz, white mica, chlorite, feldspar,
calcite, dolomite, and occasional biotite, zircon
and goethite minerals. Devonian and younger units
have preserved diagenetic textures. Arenites in the
middle parts of the Devonian contain chloritized
volcanic and phyllitic metamorphic rock fragments,
which contain plagioclase as well as biotite. Detrital
biotites in the sandstones are partially altered to
chlorite and chlorite-mica stacks (CMS) are some-
times present in slate and metasiltstone samples
from the lower parts of the Devonian sequence.
In the Bolkardağı Unit, metaclastics consist
mainly of quartz, white mica, chlorite, calcite and
opaque minerals. Cleavage in the slates and locally
in the calcareous slate varieties is commonly
smooth, and in some samples, has a poorly
developed domainal fabric. Elongated quartz
grains occur parallel with continuous cleavage
planes defined by phyllosilicates (Fig. 2a). In
addition, due to pressure solution, neoformed or
recrystallized quartz forms void- or fracture-fillings
and has sutured margins with white mica and
chlorite in the matrix. The lower parts of the
Devonian slate sequence have generally well
developed cleavage, in contrast to higher parts of

FIG. 2. Some typical textural features of very-low grade metamorphic rocks from allochthonous units of the
eastern Tauride Belt: (a) lozenge-shaped and ellipsoidal stacks in the slates of the Bolkardağı Unit with normal
and high angles between long axes of stacks and {001} planes of chlorite-mica; (b) chlorite-mica stacks in the
metasiltstones of the Bolkardağı Unit with the longest dimension lying approximately parallel to {001} and the
bedding planes; (c) ellipsoidal chlorite-mica stacks in the slates of the Aladağ Unit which are enriched in
muscovite and show angular relationships between {001} and S0 and S1 planes; (d) stubby CMS rich in chlorite
with their {001} planes parallel to (S0) planes in the silty slates of the Aladağ Unit.
486 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin
the sequence. Metasiltstones with white mica and a
partly chloritized matrix within middle and lower
Devonian rocks are rich in quartz, but feldspar has
not been identified. The limestones, interbedded
slates and metasiltstones in the middle parts of
Devonian succession are rich in volcanic rock
fragments. The subarkose- and arkose-type meta-
sandstones of the upper parts of the Devonian
comprises microcline, and lesser amounts of
orthoclase, tourmaline and zircon, in addition to
quartz and white mica. The metashales and/or slates
are characterized by bedding-parallel fabrics rather
than slaty cleavages, and also exhibit primary
sedimentary structures such as microlamination,
which alternate in places with siltstones. These
fabrics seem to be related to post-depositional
processes formed by consolidation and partial
recrystallization of the K-mica bearing matrix
(e.g. O’Brien & Slatt, 1990; Merriman & Peacor,
1999). Tectonic quartz and calcite fabrics are
poorly developed in both limestones and quartz-
arenites, and are scarce in the shales of the
Carboniferous.
The CMS occur in various shapes within the
slates and metasiltstones of the Bolkardağı Unit,
and have a size range of 0.1 to 0.5 mm. They are
particularly abundant in the lithologies of the
lower–middle parts of Devonian where they make
up 5 30% of the rock volume. In the lower levels,
ellipsoidal or diamond-shaped CMS result from
stretching in the slaty cleavage, such that their long
axes mostly parallel the cleavage. However, the
long axes of the CMS and the {001} stacking
planes of chlorite and mica show angular relation-
ships, varying from 10 to 90º (average 59º), but
typically 70 90º (Fig. 2a). With increasing proxi-
mity to thrust zones, the mica content of the CMS
increases, the edges of CMS become more angular,
and the long axes and {001} stacking planes lie
almost parallel to each other and the bedding
lamination (Fig. 2b). However, as a result of shear
deformation in the thrust zones, the CMS have
elongated ellipsoidal shapes. It is noted that CMS,
where the long axes and stacking planes are
parallel, show enrichment in chlorite, whereas
those with an angular relationship between long
axes and stacking planes are enriched in mica. The
angles between the long axes of CMS and stacking
planes in the samples from the northwestern flank
of the overturned syncline range from 45 to 90º
(average 73º), but 0 90º (average 30º) in the
southeastern flank. These relationships indicate that
rocks exposed to the northwest were subjected to
more rock deformation, possibly due to their
position between two thrust zones developing at
the boundary of Jurassic–Cretaceous crystallized
limestones and within the Bolkardağı Unit.
In the Aladağ Unit, Devonian rocks consist of
fine-grained phyllitic slates, calcareous slates,
metasiltstones and metalimestones, which contain
calcite, quartz, feldspar, white mica, biotite,
chlorite, opaque mineral and lesser amounts of
goethite. Neocrystallized white mica and chlorite in
the phyllitic slates show distinct S1 orientation. In
the calcareous metasiltstones, quartz and feldspars
have sutured margins with matrix white mica and
carbonate minerals. Weakly developed discontin-
uous cleavage and rare continuous smooth cleavage,
with angles 35 40º to the bedding planes (S0), are
observed in the calcareous slates. Slates in the
lower parts of the Carboniferous characterized by
continuous smooth cleavage show well developed
deformational/metamorphic textures. The lowest
part of the Permian contains recrystallized oolitic
limestones in which oolites were replaced by
chlorite and iron oxide. Calcareous sandstones at
this stratigraphic level include curved muscovite
flakes, rare biotite and authigenic chlorite. In the
Triassic units, the recrystallized dolomites are
represented by coarse-grained crystals whereas the
limestones show better preserved microsparitic and
sparitic primary textures.
Slates of the late Devonian from the Aladağ Unit
include detrital thin biotites and white K-mica-rich
CMS. Cleavage (S1) has deformed CMS and the
orientation of their long axes lie both parallel and
angular to bedding planes (Fig. 2c). The angles
measured between the {001} planes in the CMS
and cleavage varies from 75 to 85º. In the
Carboniferous unit, the CMS are rich in chlorite
and contrary to those of late Devonian, {001}
stacking planes lie parallel to the bedding, with
their long axes lying nearly perpendicular to
cleavage planes. In some CMS, long axes are
normal to the stacking planes due to shortening
associated with cleavage formation (Fig. 2d).
X-RAY DIFFRACTION RESULTS
Clay mineral assemblages
A wide variety of phyllosilicate minerals occur,
namely (in order of decreasing abundance) illite-
smectite (I-S), illite, kaolinite, chlorite, mixed-layer
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey 487

chlorite-vermiculite (C-V), chlorite-smectite (C-S)
and smectite. Among these minerals, illite was
recorded in all rock units. Chlorite, C-V, C-S and
I-S are mostly detected in the middle part of
Devonian, whereas kaolinite is observed in the
upper parts of the Devonian (Fig. 3). As to the
vertical distribution from Triassic to Devonian,
phyllosilicate minerals show a progressive evolution
with stratigraphic depth, and two zones can be
distinguished on the basis of the main clay mineral
associations (Fig. 3): illite + I-S and illite +
kaolinite + I-S.
The main phyllosilicate minerals in the lower and
middle parts of Devonian units are illite, chlorite,
PM, paragonite, pyrophyllite and kaolinite. The
percentages of chlorite and pyrophyllite increase in

FIG. 3. Vertical section showing the variations in mineralogical and organic data for the Devonian-Triassic
formations of the Geyikdağı Unit (Cc = calcite, Do = dolomite, Q = quartz, F = feldspar, M = K-Mica, K =
kaolinite, C = chlorite, S = smectite, I-S = mixed-layer illite-smectite, C-V = mixed-layer chlorite-vermiculite,
C-S = mixed-layer chlorite-smectite).
488 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin

the metapelites, whereas C-V and C-S are more
abundant in the fine-grained metaclastics (Fig. 4).
Illite, PM and paragonite are present in most
samples. The amounts of PM and particularly
paragonite are notably low in calcareous samples.
Other clay-size constituents are dependent on
lithology; e.g. illite and pyrophyllite are abundant
in the slates, but chlorite and kaolinite are mostly
found in metasandstones and metasiltstone litholo-
gies. In the case of the kaolinite + chlorite
100 m
association, these minerals are easily distinguished
via their 7 Å and 3.5 3.6 Å peaks (Fig. 5).
Pyrophyllite is accompanied by illite, PM, para-
gonite and kaolinite but rarely by C-S and C-V
(Figs 4 and 5). Goethite is recorded in varying
amounts in almost all of the samples. In addition,
chloritoid is present in trace amounts in two
samples of the lower part of the Devonian, near
to the local thrust zones in the study area, and is
associated with a pyrophyllitic paragenesis as well

FIG. 4. Vertical section showing variations in mineralogical data for the Devonian-Carboniferous formations of
the Bolkardağı Unit (Pa = paragonite, PM = Na-K mica, Py = pyrophyllite, the other abbreviations as in Fig. 3).
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey 489

º2y (Cu-Ka)

FIG. 5. Oriented, air-dried XRD patterns of index clay associations of Devonian formations in the Bolkardağı and
Aladağ Units (M = K-Mica, C = chlorite, K = kaolinite, Pa = paragonite, PM = Na-K mica, Py = pyrophyllite,
Ct = chloritoid, Stp = stilpnomelane, C-V = chlorite-vermiculite, C-S = chlorite-smectite, Gt = Goethite,
Q = quartz).

as illite/muscovite + chlorite + PM + paragonite. rocks. Paragonite and PM are detected in most

The illite + kaolinite assemblage is dominant in the
metasandstones of the late Devonian, but clay
fractions consisting entirely of illite are also
present. Carbonate and siliciclastic rocks of the
Carboniferous contain calcite, quartz, phyllosilicates
and goethite. The clay minerals of the siliciclastic
rocks consist of illite, kaolinite and/or chlorite,
whereas the calcareous rocks contain only kaolinite.
Phyllosilicate minerals are of low abundance in
Permian-Cretaceous formations (Fig. 6). In late
Devonian and Carboniferous rocks, phyllosilicates
consist of illite, chlorite, paragonite, PM, kaolinite,
I-S, pyrophyllite, C-V, C-S and stilpnomelane. In
general, slate and metacarbonates have a similar
phyllosilicate paragenesis but the quantities of I-S
and kaolinite are relatively higher in the metacar-
bonates. Illite was observed in all of the samples
except for one sample in the Permian that contained
only chlorite. Kaolinite occurs in most formations,
whereas chlorite is common only in Carboniferous
samples and pyrophyllite appears in assemblages
with and without kaolinite. Stilpnomelane was
detected in three samples and accompanies illite +
paragonite + PM + pyrophyllite + C-V + C-S + I-S
+ kaolinite assemblages. Permian and early Triassic
units have illite + I-S + C-V Z C-S and illite +
kaolinite assemblages, respectively.
Crystallinity indices
Kübler Index. The lowest part of the Devonian
sequence of the Geyikdağı Unit is characterized by
broad diagenetic illite reflections (large KI values;
Dº2y = 0.97 1.21) due to the presence of
interlayered smectite.
Based on KI data from the Bolkardağı Unit, the
lower (Dº2y = 0.24 0.27) and middle parts (Dº2y =
0.29 0.31) of the Devonian formations plot around
the epizone-anchizone boundary and the high
anchizone, whereas the upper parts of Devonian
490 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin

FIG. 6. Vertical section showing variations in the mineralogical data for the Devonian-Cretaceous formations of
the Aladağ Unit (Stp=Stilpnomelane, the other abbreviations as in Figs 3 and 4).

(0.29 0.37) and Carboniferous (Dº2y = 0.34)
formations are of middle to low-anchizone grade
(Fig. 4).
Kübler Index measurements could be made on
only a few late Devonian samples of the Aladağ
Unit due to the presence of paragonite, PM and I-S
(Fig. 6). According to KI values (Dº2y =
0.17 0.24), the lowest parts of the late Devonian
sequence have epimetamorphic crystallinities. Late
diagenetic KI values (Dº2y = 0.52 0.89) were
obtained from Triassic carbonate-bearing rocks, in
spite of the possible narrowing effects of the peak-
width caused by acid-treatment (Krumm, 1984;
Kübler, 1984).
Árkai Index. A moderately positive correlation
was determined between AI and KI values of
samples from autochthonous and allochthonous
units. The AI values are generally less than KI
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey
values for high-diagenetic and low-anchizone
samples.
Árkai Index measurements could not be obtained
from the Devonian and younger formations of the
Geyikdağı Unit because chlorite is low in
abundance and detrital in origin. The AI values of
four Devonian samples from the lower zones of the
Bolkardağı Unit vary from 0.19 to 0.25 Dº2y and
are of epizone/high anchizone grade. The AI values
from the lowest parts of the late Devonian rocks
within the Aladağ Unit are Dº2y = 0.15 0.19 and
represent entirely epizonal grades, whereas AI data
from the Carboniferous (Dº2y = 0.20 0.23) and
Permian (Dº2y = 0.22) formations represent high
anchizonal to epizonal grades.
b cell dimension
The lowest part of the Devonian sequence within
the Geyikdağı Unit yields a lower b value (9.007 Å)
than the underlying units (Bozkaya et al., 2002),
corresponding to an octahedral (Fe+Mg) content of
0.37 on the basis of the regression equation
suggested by Hunziker et al. (1986).
The d060 values of illites from the Bolkardağı
Unit indicate that the octahedral (Fe+Mg) content is
quite low (0.18 0.37, average 0.24). A weak
FIG. 7. d060 or b cell dimension I002/I001 relationships in anchizonal and epizonal illite/muscovite from the
Eastern Taurus units (data related to the Geyikdağı Unit from Bozkaya et al., 2002).
491
negative correlation is observed between d060
values and I002/I001 ratios of muscovites (Fig. 7).
The b values range from 8.984 to 9.007 Å (average
8.991 Å), characteristic of a low-pressure facies
series (Sassi & Scolari, 1974; Guidotti & Sassi,
1986). The b values of illites in the metasandstones
of the upper part of Devonian are anomalously high
when compared with overlying and underlying units
(Fig. 4). The octahedral Mg+Fe contents of these
illites, which vary from 0.53 to 0.71 (average 0.64),
are also high in comparison to those of the lower
and middle parts of the Devonian sequence. These
inconsistencies are considered to reflect the
presence of detrital celadonitic and/or phengitic
1M mica rather than to the increasing celadonite
content of the illites related to increasing pressure.
The d060 values of illites in slates at the lowest
parts of the late Devonian are high with respect to
Carboniferous illites in the Aladağ Unit (Fig. 6).
Octahedral (Mg+Fe) contents (0.45 0.64, average
0.54) represent phengitic composition. Late
Devonian illites yield high d 060 values and
moderate I002/I001 ratios (Fig. 7), similar to values
from the Precambrian rocks of the Geyikdağı Unit
(Bozkaya et al., 2002). The d060 values of early
Triassic illites indicate moderate octahedral
(Mg+Fe) contents (0.29 0.40, average 0.33). The
492 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin

b values of the late Devonian Eks imenlik Formation
(9.017 9.040 Å) and early Triassic Kokarkuyu
Formation (8.996 9.011 Å) correspond to
medium- and low-pressure facies conditions,
respectively.
Paragonite components of muscovites
Paragonite was recognized by its first three basal
reflections and could be distinguished from
margarite by examining reflections near the 2y =
47º angle (Fig. 8a). Paragonite-muscovite (PM) was
detected in all samples associated with paragonite.
Due to the lack of superlattice reflections, the PM
mineral (Figs 5 and 8a) is not considered to be a
mixed-layer structure in the sense described by Frey
(1969), but reflects an intermediate Na-K mica
composition (Jiang & Peacor, 1993; Li et al.,
1994a).
The paragonite content of muscovite from
selected samples of allochthonous rocks are
8 13% (mean 11%) and 8 18% (mean 12%) for
the Bolkardağı and Aladağ Units, respectively.
Considering the linear regression equation
suggested by Zen & Albee (1964), d002 values for
coexisting muscovite and paragonite lie below this
range (Fig. 8b). This may result from celadonitic
substitution within muscovites (Chatterjee, 1971;
Mposkoz & Perdikatzis, 1981), possibly derived
from micas within the CMS or the fine-grained
paragonitic mica of the matrix (e.g. Craig et al.,
1982; Dimberline, 1986; Milodowski &
Zalasiewicz, 1991; Li et al., 1994b).
Smectite content and crystallite size of illites
The average proportion of smectite layers and the
crystallite thickness of illites in the Devonian rocks
of the Geyikdağı Unit are 4% and 10 nm,
respectively. Illites of the Bolkardağı Unit have a
low average smectite content of ~1%. Mean illite
crystallite thicknesses for the Devonian Kınalar,
Düzce and Bakırtepe formations are 30 40, 25 30
and 20 25 nm, respectively. The epizonal illites
from the lowest parts of the late Devonian within
the Aladağ Unit reflect higher proportions of
swelling layers (3 5%). The crystallite thickness
of illites from early Devonian and late Triassic
formations are, on average, 40 70 and 10 20 nm,
respectively.
Two types of I-S were determined in clay
fractions of Devonian-Triassic Geyikdağı samples
following EG treatment. The first type is character-
ized by a superstructure reflection at diffraction
peaks 28, 13 and near 9.4 9.5 Å. These clays are
R1 I-S containing 70 75% illite layers. The second
type is an R3 I-S variety and shows almost
asymmetrical peaks near 9.6 Å with a broad
shoulder near 11 Å, although the XRD pattern is
complicated by the presence of discrete illite in

FIG. 8. (a) Powder XRD patterns representing d00.10 peaks used for distinguishing paragonite from margarite in
the eastern Taurus units (Mu = muscovite, Pa = paragonite, PM = Na-K mica, Q = quartz); (b) relationship
between d002 peaks of muscovite and paragonite (the regression line from Zen & Albeee, 1964).
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey 493

FIG. 9. Representative XRD patterns illustrating variations of I-S layer composition for clay-bearing samples of
the Geyikdağı Unit.

Fig. 9. These mixed-layer phases contain >85%
illite layers. On the basis of these evaluations, the
illite content of I-S increases, together with the
degree of ordering (R1 to R3) with stratigraphic
depth within the Triassic to late Devonian
formations.
Polytypes and mineral composition
Illite. 2M1 and 1Md illites are 45% and 55%,
respectively, for Devonian formations of the
Geyikdağı Unit. In the Bolkardağı Unit, illites
contain a mixture of 2M1+1Md polytypes. The
percentage of 2M1 increases from the anchizonal
Carboniferous rocks to the epizonal Devonian
formations. Illites of the Devonian Bakırtepe
Formation consist of a mix of 2M1 + 1M + 1Md
polytypes. The relatively higher d060 or b values
and lower I002/I001 ratios of the white K-micas here
are attributed to the presence of 1M mica (Fig. 7).
The 2M1 and 1Md illite polytypes are detected in
samples of the Aladağ Unit, but the 1Md variety is
rather low or absent in epimetamorphic late
Devonian rocks, in contrast to its high proportion
in the diagenetic early Triassic sequence (Fig. 6).
Chlorite. Based on AIPEA classification (Bailey,
1980), Devonian formations in the Geyikdağı Unit
contain clinochlore, which is here considered to
reflect a volcanogenic origin. In the Bolkardağı
Unit, chamositic chlorites of the IIb polytype are
recognized. Chlorites in metasiltstones generally
have more Fe content in comparison to those in
494 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin

slates and metalimestones and the majority are of
neocrystallized origin. The Fe and Mg content of
chlorites also vary within metaclastics bearing
CMS, whereby slates containing stacks are low in
Fe. Chlorites in two epimetamorphic samples
collected from the lowest parts of the Aladağ Unit
are of the IIb polytype, whereas three high anchi- to
epimetamorphic Carboniferous samples are the Ia
variety, and one Permian diagenetic sample was of
the Ib (b = 90º) polytype. Some relationship
between composition and polytypes are also noted.
IIb chlorites have chamosite-clinochlore composi-
tion and contain moderate Fe2+ content, whereas Ia
and Ib chlorites are chamositic in composition and
have excess Fe2+ (Fig. 10).
Kaolin. The kaolin-rich samples of the diagenetic
Carboniferous and Permian formations from the
Geyikdağı Unit are entirely of the kaolinite 1-layer
polytype variety, whereas kaolin group minerals in
the low anchizone Carboniferous rocks of the
Bolkardağı Unit indicate the presence of 2-layer
dickite.
VITRINITE REFLECTANCE
In the Geyikdağı Unit, VR studies were performed
on 11 samples varying in age from Devonian to
Triassic. Although the lowest reflectance values are
recorded from Permian rocks and not the Triassic, a
general trend can be recognized of increasing VR
values towards older formations (Fig. 3). In terms
of coal rank, coalification ranges from the low
volatile bituminous stage (mean Rm 1.64%) in the
lowest part of Devonian formations to the high
volatile bituminous stage (mean Rm 0.93%) in the
late Devonian unit. The overlying Carboniferous,
Permian and Triassic units show rank variations
from sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous
coalification stages with mean Rm values of 0.95,
0.55 and 0.80%, respectively.
Organic material was separated, and polished
sections were prepared for numerous samples in the
Bolkardağı Unit. However, due to the oxidation of
organic matter in most samples, realistic measure-
ments could not be made. Only one sample from
the Devonian was found to be suitable for
reflectance measurements corresponding to the
meta-anthracitic coalification rank (4.27%).
DISCUSSION
In the autochthonous and allochthonous units of the
Eastern Taurides, clay-bearing rocks display clear
relationships between the degree of low-temperature
metamorphism, tectonic fabric (cleavage) develop-
ment and the age or stratigraphic position. Well
developed slaty and crenulation cleavages are
observed in the oldest parts of units, at the lowest

FIG. 10. The Fe content of chlorites in the Eastern Tauride units based on the basal peak proportions suggested by
Chagnon & Desjardins (1991). The relationships between their Fe contents and polytypes are also shown (dashed
lines show the distribution of Fe in the talc layers).
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey
stratigraphic positions. The development of pene-
trative cleavage in these anchi- and epimetamorphic
rocks is considered to reflect the elevated
temperatures reached within an extensional basin
setting, which were maintained during basin
inversion and deformation, thus enhancing ductile
strain, recrystallization and cleavage development.
Such a scenario was presented for the Palaeozoic
rocks of SW England (e.g. Bevins & Robinson,
1988; Roberts et al., 1989; Warr et al. 1991).
Deformation of CMS in the metaclastic rocks of
the Palaeozoic formations suggests that they
originated as stacks replacing detrital biotites prior
to the development of the slaty cleavage. Some
biotite relicts are still observed in the CMS and
there is a general correlation between the
decreasing amounts of detrital biotite and the
increasing abundance of CMS throughout the rock
sequence (Figs 4 and 6). These features indicate
that CMS were probably derived from a variety of
mafic volcanogenic minerals, which were particu-
larly abundant within Devonian and Carboniferous
rocks. In addition, the angular relationships of the
CMS to the bedding and cleavage planes could be
taken as an indication that the rocks were already
close to their maximum temperatures prior to
tectonic deformation, as stated by Bevins &
Robinson (1988). The wide variety of geometries
is related to significant deformation of the CMS
during allochthonous transportation, emplacement
and thrusting to the south as indicated by Bozkaya
& Yalçın (2000) and Bozkaya et al. (2002).
Index minerals such as PM, paragonite, dickite,
stilpnomelane, pyrophyllite and chloritoid were
detected only in allochthonous units derived from
the north. They appear to be useful indicators for
distinguishing allochthonous and autochthonous
units of the Taurides, as previously suggested by
Bozkaya & Yalçın (2000). The PM described in this
study is taken to represent a metastable phase
formed during the transformation of smectite, I-S
and illite to muscovite and/or paragonite (Frey,
1969, 1970; Jiang & Peacor, 1993). This is in
contrast to the discrete paragonite observed in the
relatively higher-grade metamorphic terranes of the
Taurides (Yalçın et al., 1999). The appearance of
dickite in pyrophyllite-bearing samples from the
Tauride Belt could represent metastable dickite +
pyrophyllite assemblages that extend from the late
diagenetic zone into the high anchizone, as
discussed by Merriman & Peacor (1999). The
appearance of dickite in the Tauride Belt is
495
considered to have formed in an extensional basin
environment characterized by a relatively high heat
flow. Minor amounts of the stilpnomelane were
only observed in the levels containing abundant
biotite and goethite in the slates of the Aladağ Unit.
Stilpnomelane is also associated with Al- and/or Fe-
rich minerals such as kaolinite, pyrophyllite, biotite
and goethite, although it was only reported in Fe-
rich anchizonal lithologies in the Central and
Western Alps (Frey, 1987 and references therein).
Chloritoid appears to occur as syn- to post-tectonic
crystals formed during the emplacement of the
allochthon as it is only detected in the samples in
the vicinity of thrust zones within the Bolkardağı
unit. The absence of pyrophyllite or its minor
occurrence in chloritoid-bearing slates indicates that
pyrophyllite was largely consumed during the
formation of chloritoid.
The particular compositions of chlorites show
distinct polytypes, namely Ib and Ia for Fe-rich
chlorites and IIb for moderately Fe-rich chlorites.
The composition of chlorites in metasedimentary
rocks depends strongly on the inherited composition
of source materials rather than diagenetic/meta-
morphic equilibration (e.g. Xie et al., 1997; Bartier
et al., 1998).
Mixed-layer clays such as C-V, C-S and I-S are
observed in both diagenetic and anchi- to epi-
metamorphic clay assemblages. In the autochtho-
nous Geyikdağı Unit, an increasing abundance of
chlorite and illite accompanies decreasing amounts
of C-V and I-S with depth, implying that C-V and
I-S reflect intermediate stages in the transformation
of vermiculite to chlorite and smectite to illite
during burial diagenesis (Hoffman & Hower, 1979;
Chang et al., 1986; Nieto et al., 1996). Among the
other interlayered clay minerals, C-S appears
locally in the Safaktepe Formation, associated
with abundant volcanogenic material, suggestive
of a similar alteration process of biotite to C-S as
described by Inoue et al. (1984) and from Inoue &
Utada (1991). The appearance of mixed-layered C-
V, C-S and smectite in the anchizonal to epizonal
rocks of the allochthonous Bolkardağı and Aladağ
Units are inconsistent with the index metamorphic
mineral phases present, and probably represent
retrograde alteration (e.g. Nieto et al., 1994),
particularly reactions associated with the replace-
ment of biotite.
The VR data are in good agreement with the
inorganic parameters presented such as mineral
composition, mineral assemblages and comparison
496 Ö. Bozkaya and H. Yalçin
with KI values. The diagenetic Triassic to Devonian
formations in the Geyikdağı Unit with VR values
<1% are characterized by R1 I-S mixed-layer
minerals, whereas VR values >1% contain R3 I-S
phases. At higher-temperature conditions within
lower parts of the allocthonous Bolkardağı Unit,
meta-anthracitic coalification rank corresponds well
with the anchizonal to epizonal index minerals
described and the recorded KI and AI values. These
relations are consistent with the correlations
presented by Merriman & Peacor (1999) and
Merriman & Frey (1999).
The b values of illite/muscovites from the
allochthonous units derived from the north are
generally low, indicating a low-pressure facies
series (Sassi et al., 1976; Guidotti & Sassi, 1986),
although some formations do contain minor 1M
celadonitic and/or phengitic mica. The appearance
of 1M white K-mica in the upper part of the
Devonian of the Bolkardağı Unit may indicate some
inheritance from detrital volcanogenic material
(Merriman & Roberts, 1985). For this reason, the
b values of illite/muscovites including non-equili-
brated 1M mica are not included here in discussing
the pressure conditions.
In addition to increasing diagenetic-metamorphic
grades related to stratigraphic depth, the presence of
both K- and Na-micas, paragonite and pyrophyllite,
low b and the moderate KI values of the illite/
muscovite K-micas suggest that allochthonous units
formed in a relatively high heat-flow basin, such as
an extending marginal or back-arc basin (Bevins &
Robinson, 1988; Robinson & Bevins, 1989;
Merriman & Frey, 1999; Merriman, 2002). The
textural and mineralogical characteristics described
emphasize that the allochthonous rocks were
subjected to diastathermal (extensional) meta-
morphism presumably by sedimentary burial
following an anticlockwise P-T-t path (e.g.
Robinson, 1987; Merriman & Frey, 1999).
However, b values of the anchizonal to epizonal
illites from the autochthonous unit (Bozkaya et al.,
2002) are higher than those of allochthonous units,
suggesting lower geothermal gradients with sedi-
mentary burial depth than recorded in the
allochthonous units.
The diagenesis to anchizone transition is located
within the Devonian or Carboniferous rocks in the
allochthonous units, but within the Ordovician
lithologies of the autochthonous unit (Bozkaya et
al., 2002). The decrease of KI values into
stratigraphically younger rocks in northern
allochthonous units could not be linked to an
increase in the thickness of syn-metamorphic
overburden, as proposed to explain similar relation-
ships in the early Palaeozoic rocks of northeastern
Wales (Awan & Woodcock, 1991), because of the
presence of different textural relationships and
mineralogical compositions within the same strati-
graphic levels in the autochthonous and allochtho-
nous units of the Eastern Taurides. In addition, the
model of Warr & Greiling (1996), for the thrust-
related very low-grade metamorphism in the fore-
land belt of the Scandinavian Caledonides, was not
favoured here due to different mineralogical
associations, b values, tectonic setting, thrust
geometry and tectono-thermal history that we have
highlighted.
The marked contrast in textures, clay mineral
assemblages, and b values of the equivalent
Devonian-Carboniferous formations between the
autochthonous units and allochthonous units
derived from the north may indicate that they
formed in different tectono-thermal settings. Such
differences are considered unlikely to result from
large-scale movements, caused by block-faulting
during the drift of the Gondwana, as stated by
Gedik (1988). Instead the results of this study
support the late Palaeozoic model of Göncüoğlu et
al. (2000), which proposed intra-oceanic southward
subduction related to the closure of a Palaeozoic
oceanic basin during the Variscan orogeny. This
also produced an extensional back-arc basin on the
northern margin (Bolkardağı and Aladağ Units) of
the Peri-Gondwanan Tauride Anatolide Platform.
Carbonate and siliciclastic deposition continued
without significant burial metamorphism during
the same period on the distal southern parts
(Geyikdağı, Antalya and Alanya Units) of this
platform. The presence of anchizonal and epizonal
grades only in Carboniferous and older formations,
suggests that low-grade metamorphism of the
Eastern Tauride units occurred prior to the Alpine
orogenesis (Kozur & Göncüoğlu, 1998; Bozkaya &
Yalçın, 2000; Bozkaya et al., 2002).
CONCLUSIONS
Textural and clay mineralogical indicators show
that metamorphic grade generally increases with
stratigraphic age in the Palaeozoic-early Mesozoic
rocks of the Eastern Tauride Belt. Development of
penetrative cleavage related to high anchizonal and
epizonal slates also intensified with stratigraphic
 Metamorphic evolution of clay minerals, Turkey
age. The CMS in the metaclastic rocks originated
from predominantly volcanogenic detrital phyllosi-
licate grains, including biotite, prior to the
development of slaty cleavage. The relationship
between the stacking planes within the CMS and
the bedding and cleavage planes in the allochtho-
nous rocks of the Taurides is attributed to
significant rock deformation during transportation
and emplacement. The CMS deformation is an
important criterion for differentiating between
allochthonous and autochthonous units in the
Taurides.
In the allochthonous units the presence of PM,
paragonite, pyrophyllite and stilpnomelane are
considered to have formed in an extensional
setting, and allows differentiation between auto-
chthonous and allochthonous units of the Tauride
belt. Relatively high geothermal gradients are
suggested to have controlled the diagenetic-
metamorphic evolution of rocks in a Devonian-
Carboniferous extensional basin environment.
Allochthonous units indicate a relatively lower
pressure and higher heat-flow in an extensional
marginal or back-arc basin, and they were subjected
to extension-related metamorphism accompanying
sedimentary burial. However, the growth of
chloritoid related to thrust zones and development
of tectonic fabric probably occurred during
allochthonous transportation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by the State Planning
Organization of Turkey (Project No 89K-120450),
with other support from the Research Fund of
Cumhuriyet University (Project No M-38). The
authors thank chemical engineer Fatma Yalçın and
chemistry technician Ümit Sengül for their help in the
laboratory. Appreciation is extended to Ali Ihsan
Karayiğit (Hacettepe University) for the organic
petrographic descriptions. The authors would also
like to thank R.J. Merriman from the British
Geological Survey and F. Nieto from Granada
University (Spain) for their constructive reviews of
the manuscript.
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