CEMENT PROBLEMS

There are a dozen major problems which may occur during primary
cementations. The following is a list of those problems.

1. Poor displacement of the drilling mud, solids, and cuttings beds

over the length of the hole that is being cemented.
2. Lost circulation during or after the cementation.
3. Bridges composed of cement filter cake.
4. Swapping out of drilling mud left below the pipe and cement
circulated around the pipe (particularly bad in the setting of open
plugs).
5. Flash setting of cement.
6. Shrinkage of cement.
7. Permeability after setting of the cement.
8. Gas migration (percolating gas) during the setting of the cement.
9. Micro-annulus from pressure and temperature within and of the
pipe.
10. Temperature strength retrogression of the cement.
11. Perforation of cement.
12. Cement settling in high angle holes.
13. Equipment, planning, and execution failures (people errors)
and the quality of cement and additives.

SOLUTIONS TO A DOZEN PROBLEMS

PROBLEM.1: POOR DISPLACEMENT OF MUD

MECHANISM: The volumetric fraction of the mud removed from the

wellbore annulus by the cement slurry is called displacement
efficiency. High displacement efficiencies increase the probability that
the set cement will not contain channels of mud or that the cement will
not have channeled through the mud. Satisfactory displacement
efficiencies depend on many factors; however, the type of flow regime

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in which the cement slurry and the mud being displaced is flowing
during displacement is dominant.

SOLUTION: The recognized flow regimes are (1) plug, (2) laminar
and, (3) turbulent. The dominant solution to poor mud displacement is
cement hydraulics. Other aids are pipe rotation and reciprocation.
Mobil Oil showed rotation speeds of 35 rpm are sufficient. Exxon
showed 80% standoff with centralizers is sufficient with proper cement
and hydraulics.

PLUG FLOW CEMENTATION

The plug flow technique is very efficient; but it is limited to cementations of

small volumes and where the mud in the hole is of low density. The
technique calls for Reynold's numbers of 100 or less, no cement slurry
retarders or thinners, and for the cement to be in contact with the mud (no
spacer). It can be demonstrated in laboratory experiments that a thickened
plug or ball of flocculated cement and mud is formed in the annulus which
when aided by buoyancy pushes the mud from the hole.

Plug Cementation Variables

1) Nr  l00 1) Low hydraulic horsepower

2) No spacer 2) Low Pressures

3) No retarder 3) Low Displacement rates
4) No thinner 4) Long cementation times
5) No friction reducer 5) Low circulating bottom pressure

TURBULENT FLOW CEMENTATION

The turbulent flow technique gives high displacement efficiencies and is

applicable to large volume cementations or where the mud and cement slurry
weight are similar. Two critical factors limit its use (1) excessive bottom
hole circulating pressures and (2) insufficient surface pump horsepower or
pressure. The technique calls for pumping at volumetric rates which places
the mud, the spacer which should be used, and the cement slurry which is

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usually thinned (PV and YP are reduced) all into turbulent flow. Fully
developed turbulent flow calls for Reynold's number of 3000 or more.

In all cases the Reynold's number should be calculated with the power law
equation.

Turbulent flow cementations are primarily chosen because they require the
shortest of all cementation times; and not chosen because of high circulating
bottom hole pressures.

LAMINAR FLOW CEMENTATION

The laminar flow technique has the smallest displacement efficiencies (75%
and less) of the three flow regimes and often gives inadequate cementations.
It should be avoided when possible.
However, because of equipment limitations and poor planning, the technique
is often inadvertently used.

PROBLEM.2: LOST CIRCULATION

MECHANISM: ECD is greater than the fracture strength of the hole.

■—

SOLUTION: Reduce the density of the cement column and the circulating
friction pressure loss. See the ECD calculation for the turbulent flow
cementation section.

PROBLEM.3: BRIDGES COMPOSED OF CEMENT FILTER CAKE

MECHANISM: Bridges from cement filter cake are formed on thick

permeable beds as the cement is circulated and thereafter until the cement
sets. Once the cake grows to a point that it contacts the casing, it begins to
support the weight of the cement and mud above it.
This in turn releases part of the pressure below the bridge which permits gas
to percolate through the cement.

SOLUTION: The solution is use a filtrate control additive in the cement.

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PROBLEM.4: SWAPPING OUT OF MUD AND CEMENT BELOW PIPE

MECHANISM: Casing or a plug back pipe is not run to the total depth of
the well and the mud below the pipe buoyantly rises into the annulus where
the cement was circulated.

While the mud is rising, the cement must be falling along side it; thus, mud
and cement are "swapping out."

SOLUTION: If pipe is close to the bottom of the hole (50 feet or so; as is
the usual case of floaters), a pill of a density equal or slightly greater than
that of the cement may be circulated to the bottom of the hole prior to the
cementation of the pipe.
If an up hole cement plug is to be set, the pipe is run one stand below the
desired location of the bottom of the plug and a very viscous bentonite pill is
circulated. Thereafter, the pipe is raised one stand and the cement is
circulated into place. Of course, the viscous bentonite pill can be used if the
casing is close to the bottom of the hole.

PROBLEM.5:FLASH SETTING OF CEMENT

MECHANISM: Careful studies of flash setting of cement indicates that the

mix water was much harder (Mg, Ca, and Fe) than anticipated.

SOLUTION: Check the mix water and retard the cement as needed.

PROBLEM.6: CEMENT CAN SHRINK AND MAY FAIL TO ISOLATE ZONES.

MECHANISM: Laboratory measurements have shown that cement can

shrink as much as 5%.

SOLUTION: Use non-shrinking cement. Non-shrinking cement has about

15% sodium chloride added to the base cement.

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PROBLEM.7: PERMEABILITY OF CEMENT MAY CAUSE AN INTERZONAL
FLOW.

MECHANISM: Laboratory measurements have shown that cement

permeability increases to values of 5 millidarcys after 30 days. This may fail
to isolate zones.

SOLUTION: Use an additive which blocks the growth of permeability in

cement. Bentonite is good at low temperatures.

PROBLEM.8: GAS MIGRATION MAY FAIL TO ISOLATE ZONES.

MECHANISM: There are two mechanisms of gas migration. The first is

that during the setting of the cement, pencil size (1/8") channels form
vertically in the setting cement column allowing gas to flow either to the
surface or to another zone. The second is that in inclined drill holes, the
cement particles settle to the low side allowing a water (or nearly water)
channel to form on the high side of the drill hole.

SOLUTION: The gas migration resulting from the first mechanism has not
been totally solved; however right angle setting cements and appropriate
additives have been helpful. Sometimes successful additives are latex flakes
and alumina particles. The second mechanism requires careful planning of
cementation setting times and circulating times to eliminate long periods of
quiescent unset cement in the drill hole.

PROBLEM.9: A micro-annulus can occur during and after pressures or

temperatures are reduced in a casing or pipe. The pipe
shrinks away from the cement. Isolation of zones may be
lost.

MECHANISM: Steel shrinks as temperatures are reduced. Pipe diameters

decrease as pressures are reduced.

SOLUTION: One solution is to reduce the pressures within casing while the
cement is setting. This may be done by bumping the cement plugs with a
light fluid and not holding a surface pressure while the cement sets. Another
is plan not to lower the pressure in the pipe at critical times.

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PROBLEM.10: TEMPERATURE RETROGRADE OF CEMENT.

MECHANISM: As temperatures approach 247°F, calcium silicate hydrate

converts to crystalline forms which are weak and permeable. If at least 35%
fine silica is added then tobermolite is formed (at 247°F). Xonotlite crystals
which are strong and moderately impermeable form at temperatures of 302 oF
if at least 35% fine silica has been added. Tobermorite can be stabilized with
alumina to 485°F. Truscottite crystals which are stable between 420F and
600°F and are weaker and less permeable than xonotlite and can be formed
in 50% silica flour (325 mesh or less) and Portland cement.

SOLUTION : Use 35 to 50% by weight of silica flour to prevent the

formation of weak and permeable cement.

PROBLEM.11: PERFORATION OF CEMENT

MECHANISM: Cement may shatter behind casing during

perforation of the pipe leaving the cement weak and permeable.

SOLUTION: It has been found in the laboratory that cements with higher
moduli of elasticity give less shattering (neat cement).

PROBLEM.12: EQUIPMENT, MATERIAL PLANNING, AND EXECUTION

FAILURES (PEOPLE ERRORS)

SOLUTION: Hire good people.

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CEMENTATION TEMPERATURES

Downhole temperatures and pressures were measured during a primary

cementation. Six temperatures and pressure sensors were attached to the
outside of 2 7/8" casing at various depths. Bit diameter was 7 7/8". A slurry
volume of 390 barrels of 16.6. ppg Class H cement plus sand was circulated
to a depth of 1,200 in the annulus.

The three axes of the chart are sensor temperatures in °F, geothermal
temperatures at each sensor in °F, sensor pressures in 1000's of psi, and time
in minutes. Each line in the chart represents temperatures and pressures
detected by a sensor whose number is at the end of that line. Corresponding
geothermal temperatures are shown as black dots. Cement mixing and
pumping began at the left axis at a time of 750 minutes. Displacement ended
at 860 minutes.

Prior pumping had lowered the temperatures at each sensor to the values
shown on the left axis. The lines show that heating at the sensors was
gradual until the time of 1010 minutes (4.3 hours). For example at sensor #1,
located near the bottom of the hole where the geothermal temperature is
218°F, the gradual increase raised the temperature from 155°F to 190°F in
4.3 hours. Thereafter, heat of hydration of the setting cement combined with
conduction from the formations to quickly raise the temperature of the
cement above the geothermal temperature at that sensor.

The study shows that large bodies of cold fluid heats slowly in the annulus
between formation and casing and that pressures within set cement drop
substantially below the pressures developed by the unset cement slurry.

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EXAMPLE 1

The cement bond log which was taken from a plug flow cementation
indicates an excellent cement pipe bond. Other points are that the cement to
mud transition is sharp, free pipe is clearly shown, and bonded pipe to free
pipe signal strength is excellent. The following analysis points out that the
cement was in plug flow.
Data is taken from the well log and the power law sheet. The cement
properties are those for the class "G" cement.

The flow indices for the cement slurry are

n = 0 .436 600 = 7.5
0.01066  7.5
K=  0.0634
1.703436

K an
 1.125
K
Kan = 0.0713
1  42
V= 2  0.339 ft / sec
2.45 6.752  4.52 
The Reynold’s number is
0.436
 6.75  4.5 
2.79   .339 2  0.43615.9
NR =  144   18
0.0713
F = 0.0889
0.889  15.9  0.339 2
P   6000  167 psid
25.8   6.75  4.5

Because the Reynold's number is about 1/5 of the upper value of 100 for
plug flow, an excellent plug should form in the annulus and a satisfactory
cementation should result.

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EXAMPLE 2

The cement bond log shown in the turbulent flow cementation figure
illustrates better bonding where the smaller hole diameters exists. At depths
of 5720 - 5750 the hole diameter is 24 or greater and less bonding has
taken place than at the depth of 5695 where the hole is 13 1/4 diameter.
The data for the calculations of the Reynold's numbers were taken from the
figure. Casing TD is 6482.

Well, Cement, and Pumping data:

Cement: Class 'G', 15.9 ppg, PV = 8, YP = 12

Mud: Fresh water gel with polymer, 12.2 ppg

Drill bit and casing: 12 1/4 by 9 5/8
Maximum pumping rate: 922 gpm (22 bpm) with rig pump

The flow indices for the cement. slurry were

n = 0.485 600 = 28 300 = 20

0.01066  28
K=  0.0104
1.7  600  0.485
K an
 1.12 Kan = 0.0116
K

The average flow velocity in the 24 hole is

Q
V = 2.45 d 2  d 2 
h p

922
V=  0.779 ft / sec
2.45 242  9.6252 

The Reynold's number is

0.485
 24  9.625 
  .7792  0.48515.9
1.44
N R  2.79    856(la min ar )
0.0116

The average flow velocity in the 13.25 inches hole is

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 922
V=  4.54 ft / sec
2.4513.252  9.6252 

The excellent Reynold's number for the same annulus is

0.485
 13.25  9.625 
4.542  0.48515.9
NR = 2.79  144

  6337(turb)
0.0116

If the cement had been circulated to the surface as was planned, then the
circulating bottom hole pressure would have been as calculated below.

The friction factor as read from Moody's diagram is

NR = 9462 (for 12 l/4 hole)

f = .0048

The pressure loss would have been

0.0048  15.9  6.552  6482

Pf =  313.7 psid
25.8  12.25  9.625

The pressure head would have been

Ph = 0.052 x 15.9 x 6482 = 5359.3 psi

The circulating bottom hole pressure would have been

P = 313.7 + 5359.3 = 5673 psi

The equivalent circulating density would have been

5673
ECD =  16.83 ppg
0.052  6482

Note : that this ECD must be less than the fracture extension gradient if
circulation is not be lost.

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