Focus in Neuroscience-Part 1

FOCUS IN NEUROSCIENCE
E. Duque-Díaz Focus in Neuroscience 1

Basic concepts about Neuroscience
Discipline that integrates different areas of science responsible for the study of
the nervous system
• To study the central and peripheral nervous system

• Comprise neurochemestry and pharmacologic processes
• Include the neurobiologic anomalies and their possibles effects
on the behavior

Methodes of research in neuroscience
In this studies it seek reach

results with human. These’re
clinic trials in 3 or 4 phase.
Experimental Neuroscience, (Cell
and molecular biology, Histology, Translational Neuroscience
Physiology…) (clinic and pharmacologic
scope)
Histrochemestry,
immunocytochemestry, In situ
hibridization, Trac-tracing, PCR,
etc)

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Development of nervous system
Embriologic generalities of neurvous system
Gastrulation
Begins with the formation of germinal layers: ectoblaste, mesoblaste and endoblaste

Gastrulation Formation of NEURAL TUBE from ectodermal cell
NEUROPORE
Tomado de: https://www.humpath.com/spip.php?article12929

Nervous System
Brain Spinal cord
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain
Culliculi Tegmentum
Telencephalon Diencephalon
Preoptic area Retina Hypotalamus Thalamus
Cerebral cortex Olfatory bulb Telencephalic nuclei
Pallidum Striatum Septum Amygdala
Piriform cortex Neocortex Hippocampus E. Duque-Díaz Focus in Neuroscience 7

NEURONS AND GLIA
Neurons and glia
NEURON Functional and structural unit of the nervous system
Several forms
Perykaria Nissl Substance
Cell body Dendrites Perykaria Neurofilaments
Axoplasm, axolemma
Axon hillock
Fiber Axon Axon Axon collateral
Axon terminals
Neuronal transport
Anterograde (Low trans. 3
mm per day)
Retrograde (fast transp.
100-400 mm per day)

Cell body/soma:
The following structures are found in the cell body:

(a) Nucleus: large, spherical
(b) Neuroplasm: a cytoplasmic matrix containing neurofibrils
(fine filaments) and Nissl bodies (participate in conduction of
nerve impulses)
(c) Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ribosome, endoplasmic
reticulum, centrosome etc.
E. Duque-Díaz Focus in Neuroscience

10
Axon:
• It is a process arises from cell body that carries impulse away
from it.
• The term of nerve fiber is usually refers to the axons.
• It arises from axon hillock of the cell body.
• It is generally long with few branches (axon terminals).
• Axis cylinder contains axoplasm.
• Axon is single but constant. If a neuron has only one process,
it will be the axon.

Dendrites:
• It is the process that carries impulse towards the cell body
• It collects impulses from other neurons and carries them
towards the cell body.
• It is generally short with many branches.
• Number varies from nil to numerous.
• They are the part of receptor membrane of the neuron.

Morphology
• Roundeds (sensitive)
• Pyramidals (Motor)
Classification
1. Apolar
2. Unipolar
3. Bipolars
4. Multipolars
5. Pyramidals

Classification of Neurons
A. Based on the number of processes that emanate from their
cell body, neurons can be classified as:
1. Apolar (have no process)
2. Unipolar (only axon, i.e., 5th cranial nerve)
3. Bipolar (both axon and dendrite, i.e., retina)
4. Pseudounipolar (cell body in one side, T-shaped, one branch
of T being the dendrite and another branch is axon, found in
all spinal ganglia)
5. Multipolar (many axon and dendrites, motor neuron of spinal
cord, pyramidal cell of hippocampus & Purkinje cell of
cerebellum)

Classification of Neurons
B. According to function:
1. Sensory Neuron (Afferent): convey information from tissues and
organs into the central nervous system.
2. Motor Neuron (Efferent): transmit signals from the central
nervous system to the effector cells/tissue.
3. Interneurons: connect neurons within specific regions of the
central nervous system.

Diseases associated to neurons injury
• Amiotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS- Lou
Gehrig’s disease)
Symptoms: widespread weakness and loss of
muscle tissue, frequent spasm and cramps.
• The spinal muscular atrophies (SMAs) Type
1 (Werdnig-Hoffman’s disease)
Symptoms: widespread weakness, weeping weak,
swallow food, as well as suck, breastfeed and 3 5
breathe
• The spinal muscular atrophies type 2
Symptoms: Arms, legs and upper torso weakness.
Frecuently showing bones abnormatilities.
• Atrofia muscular espinal juvenil tipo 3
(Kugelberg-Welander)
Debilidad en las piernas, caderas, hombros, brazos
y músculos del aparato respiratorio.

Nervous system
GLIA
Satellite cell that acting as physical support to the neuronal network
• These are the non-excitable supporting connective tissues

present in nervous system, called neuroglia or glial cells.
• There are two major types of glial cells in the vertebrate
nervous system:
-microglia
-macroglia
Macroglia
Microglia
• Atrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Hortega’s cells
• Schwann cells

Glial cell: Microglia
Microglia
• Specialized immune cells that
act as the macrophages of the
CNS

Astrocytes
FUNCTIOS
1. Direct the migration of precursors during development

2. Acting as filters in the boold-brain-barrier
3. Release Growth factor
4. Step up the synapse
TYPES
• Protoplasmatic astrocytes (type I) – Gray matter

• Fibrillars astrocytes (type II) – White matter
Envolved in diseases as:
• Epilepsia
• Alzheimer
• Parkinson…
Tomado de: www.neurobio.fmed.edu.uy

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
FUNCTION
Are involved in myelin formation around axons in
the CNS and peripheral nervous system, respectively
Envolved in diseases as:
• Multiple sclerosis

21
Myelinogenesis
• So long as the nerve fiber is within the gray matter, it remains
naked.
• As soon as it enters the white matter, it gets the first covering,
the myelin sheath.
• The process of formation of myelin sheath is called
myelinogenesis of neuron.
• Schwann cell forms the protective covering around the axon
and called myelin sheath.
• In the central nervous system, there is no neurolemma and
myelination takes place.

Myelination
• Schwann cell starts to develop in embryo and continues to increase the
wrapping around the axon through childhood.
• This development increases the thickness of the wrapping which peaks in
adolescence.
• The schwann cell contains typical organelles and cell membrane structure.
• The axon is first enveloped completely by Schwann cell membrane.
• The Schwann cell membrane then gives several turns leaving the axon
surrounded by many concentric layers.
• The cytoplasm disappears from the concentric layers leaving only the cell
membrane.
• This outer wrapping of schwann cell is called neurolema.
• The inner lyning is made up of cell membrane of Schwann cell and called the
myelin sheath.

Excitation and conduction
• Nerve cells have a low threshold for excitation.
• The stimulus may be:
- electrical
- chemical, or
- mechanical.
• Two types of physicochemical disturbances are produced:
(a) local, nonpropagated potentials or electrotonic
potentials; and (b) propagated potentials, the action
potentials (or nerve impulses).
• These are the main language of the nervous system.

Excitation and conduction
• Action potentials are produced due to changes in the
conduction of ions across the cell membrane.
• The electrical events in neurons are rapid, measured in
milliseconds (ms); and the potential changes are measured in
millivolts (mV).
• Conduction is an active, self-propagating process, and the
impulse moves along the nerve at a constant amplitude and
velocity.

Action Potential
• When two electrodes are connected through a suitable amplifier and placed on
the surface of a single axon, no potential difference is observed.
• However, if one electrode is inserted into the interior of the cell, a constant
potential difference is observed, with the inside negative relative to the outside
of the cell at rest.
• A membrane potential results from separation of positive and negative charges
across the cell membrane.
• In neurons, the resting membrane potential is usually about –70 mV, which is
close to the equilibrium potential for K+.

Action Potential
The resting membrane potential represents an equilibrium situation at which
driving force of ions across the membrane is equal.
• In resting cell the surface is positively charged and the interior is negatively
charged.
• The concentration of K+ is much higher inside than outside the cell
• The concentration of Na+ is much lower inside than outside the cell.
• When the surface is stimulated and the permeability is increased, the change
rises to threshold level and impulse is generated.
• The depolarization of the membrane is the first step of the manifestation of
an impulse.

Action Potential
After an initial slow rise, depolarisation reaches to approximately +35mv.
• After that it reverses and begins to fall very rapidly (repolarisation) towards the resting
level (-70 mv).
• In the last part of repolarisation the rate of fall is being abruptly slowed. This slower fall is
known as negative after-potential.
• After reaching the basal level the wave overshoots slightly but slowly in the
hyperpolarisation direction. This is known as positive after potential.
• During hyperpolarisation, the nerve will not respond to a second stimulus for a brief period.
This period is known as absolute refractory period.
• The whole sequence of potential changes in the nerve following excitation is known as
action potential or membrane potential.

28
Mechanism of the development of
action potential
In resting state the nerve fibre remains in polarized state and
the membrane potential lies within -70mV.
• The inside of the nerve is negative and outside of the nerve is
positive.
• Sodium ion (Na+) concentration outside the membrane is
higher than that of inside the membrane.
• Potassium ion (K+) concentration inside the membrane is
also higher than that of outside the membrane.
• Permeability of Na+ to membrane is increased only after
excitation and it is the first event of the action potential.

Mechanism of the development of
action potential
During excitation, the permeability of Na+ is increased and thus Na+
concentration is increase inside the cell.
• This cause the development of positive charge inside the
membrane and negativity outside. This stage is called depolarisation.
The depolarisation curve moves up to +35 mV.
• With the increase of positivity inside, further entry of Na+ is
prevented.
• But as soon as the action potential attains the voltage approx.
+35mV, K+ begins to come out from inside the membrane.
• As a result the inside becomes negative and outside becomes
positive again. This stage is called repolarization and K+ conductance
is increased to the maximum causing hyperpolarisation.

Mechanism of conduction of the nerve
impulse
The nerve impulse is a propagated wave of depolarization.
• At resting, nerve fiber remains in polarized state, with positive charges lined up
along the outside of the membrane and negative charges along the inside.
• As soon as the fiber is excited at a point, the polarity is changed and for a brief
period, it is actually reversed.
• This reversed polarity is due to increased permeability of Na+ to the membrane
and depolarization wave is developed.
• Positive current flows inward through the depolarized membrane and outward
through the resting membrane.
• This local depolarization current then excites the adjacent portion of the
membrane producing progressively more and more depolarization.
• The depolarization wave travels in all directions along the entire length of the
nerve fiber.
• This type of conduction is observed in the non-myelinated nerve fibers.

Conduction of nerve impulse

Mechanism of conduction of the nerve
impulse
In myelinated nerve fiber, myelin sheath acts as
insulator.
• Ions cannot pass through myelin sheath and
only nodes of Ranvier permeate ions to pass
through it more easily.
• So, the depolarization in myelinated axon
jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next.
This jumping or leaping of depolarization from
node to node is known as SALTATORY
CONDUCTION.

Nerve fibers
A nerve fiber is a threadlike extension of a nerve cell and
consists of an axon (microfilament + microtubule) and
myelin sheath (if present) in the nervous system.

Properties of nerve fibers
1. Excitability: the nerve can be stimulated by a suitable stimulus,
which may be:
-Mechanical
-Thermal
-Chemical
-Electrical
After excitation, nerve impulse is generated through depolarisation,
repolarisation and hyperpolarisation.
Excitability depends upon the following factors:

(a) Strength of stimulus
(b) Duration of stimulus
(c) Direction of the current
(d) Frequency of stimulus
(e) Injury
2. Conductivity: conductivity shows the following characteristics:
(i) Impulse is propagated along a nerve in both directions [but
under normal conditions the nerve impulse travels in one direction
only-in the motor nerve towards the responding organ; in sensory
nerve toward the center]
(ii) The nerve impulse is propagated with a definite speed. The

conduction velocity depends upon the diameter of the nerve fibers,
the thicker fibers showing higher velocity. The velocity also
depends on the myelination and on temperature.

3. All-or-none law:
-If the stimulus be adequate, a single nerve will always give a maximum
response
-If the strength or duration of the stimulus be further increased, no alteration in
the response will take place.
4. Refractory period:
When the nerve fiber is once excited, it will not respond to a second stimulus
for a brief period. This period is called refractory period.
5. Summation:
In a nerve fiber summation of two submaximal stimuli is possible.
6. Adaptation:
-The nerve fiber quickly adapts itself. Due to this adaptation there is no
excitation during the passage of a constant current.
-Only when the strength of the current is suddenly altered or the current is made
or broken excitation takes place.
7. Accommodation:
- If a stimulus even in stronger strength is applied very slowly to a
nerve, then there may have no response only due to lack of
attaining the threshold strength. This phenomenon is called
accommodation.
8. Indefatigability:
-In the nerve muscle preparation, if the nerve is stimulated
repeatedly, then after a certain period the muscle fails to give any
response but nerve is not fatigued.

SYNAPSE

Synapse
• A junction that mediates information transfer from one neuron:
-To another neuron (neuro-synapses or just synapse)
-To an effector cell
• Neuromuscular synapse if muscle involved
• Neuroglandular synapse if gland involve
• Presynaptic neuron – conducts impulses toward the synapse
• Postsynaptic neuron – transmits impulses away from the synapse

Types of synapse
According to the nature of synapse formation:
(1) Electrical synapses
(2) Chemical synapses
According to the nature of connections:

(1) Axosomatic
(2) Axodendritic
(3) Axo-axonic

Electrical Synapses
• Pre- and postsynaptic neurons joined by gap junctions
– allow local current to flow between adjacent cells.
- Connexons: protein tubes in cell membrane.
• Rare in CNS or PNS
• Found in cardiac muscle and many types of smooth
muscle.

Chemical Synapses
• The transfer of information across the

synapse are brought about by chemical
process.
• Neurotransmitter is released from
presynaptic neuron.
• NT travel the synaptic cleft and bind
with the receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron which facilitates ion channels
opening and produces action potentials.

Axosomatic synapsle
• The presynaptic terminal of the axon ends in the cell body (soma) of the
neuron.

Axodendritic synapse
• The presynaptic fibers of any axon end in the
dendrites of the postsynaptic cell.
Axo-axonic synapse
• The presynaptic axon form synapse with the axon
of post synaptic cells.
• Rare synapse.

Mechanism of synaptic transmission
1. Arrival of action potential on presynaptic neuron opens
volage-gated Ca++ channels.
2. Ca2+ influx into presynaptic terminal.
3. Ca2+ acts as intracellular messenger stimulating synaptic
vesicles to fuse with membrane and release Neurotransmitter
(NT) via exocytosis.
4. NT diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to receptor on
postsynaptic membrane.
5. Receptor changes shape of ion channel opening it and
changing membrane potential.
6. Opening of all types of ion channels causes a localized depolarization of
the membrane and produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).

Mechanism of synaptic transmission
7. Selective opening of only the smaller ions like K+ and Chloride ions,
causing hyperpolarization of the membrane and that constitutes the
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).
9. If the EPSP exceeds threshold value, it initiates the propagated action
potential in the postsynaptic neuron or muscle action potential (MAP) in
most skeletal and cardiac muscle.
10. During the development of the EPSP, simultaneously IPSP may be
developed at the same site by incoming action potential from other sources.
The propagation of nerve impulse by EPSP is dependent upon the intensity
of the postsynaptic potential.
11. NT is quickly destroyed by enzymes or taken back up by astrocytes or
presynaptic membrane

Properties of synapse
• Synaptic response:
☺ At the synaptic junction, impulses are received an discharged.
☺ Some times many impulses are received from different sources but the neuron discharges
its own. It may be said that the synapse not only acts as a relay station but it may also act as
an integrator.
• Law of forward conduction:
☺ An impulse is allowed to pass through a synapse in one direction only, i.e., from the axon
of one neuron to the dendrite of the next.
• Synaptic delay:
☺ The impulse while passing through a synapse takes a certain length of time. The time
between the arrival of the impulse and causing initial depolarization is called “SYNAPTIC
LATENCY”.
☺ Synaptic delay in chemical synapse is less than 0.5 millisecond.
• Seat of fatigue:
☺ The synaptic fatigue is due to exhaustion of transmitter materials from the synaptic
vesicles following REPEATED presynaptic stimulation at faster rate.

• Inhibition:
(A) Postsynaptic inhibition:
☺The postsynaptic inhibition is due to release of inhibitory neurotransmitter
which is capable of changing the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to
either potassium or chloride or both ions.
☺This change of permeability of the membrane will cause hyperpolarization of
the postsynaptic membrane and consequently, the action potential elicited by the
excitatory stimulus will fail to occur.
(B) Presynaptic inhibition:
☺ Inhibition of a stimulatory neuron before it synapses, by inhibiting Ca2+
entry and blocking downstream processes, preventing neurotransmitter release,
and therefore preventing the neuron generating and EPSP post-synaptically.

• Synaptic block:
☺The inhibitory neurotransmitter may be blocked at the synaptic junction
producing convulsion.
☺Strychnine (pesticide) blocks the inhibitory activity and causes reduction or
abolition of the IPSP in most of the synaptic junctions.
☺Tetanus toxin also has got similar effects and produces convulsion by blocking
the inhibitory neurotransmitter.
• Summation:
☺If the stimulus be subminimal, the released neurotransmitter will produce
EPSP but this EPSP will not be sufficient to produce discharge of impulse in the
postsynaptic neuron. But if a number of subminimal stimuli be applied, their
effects will be summated together and the EPSP will be sufficient to discharge a
impulse

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Neurotransmitter
• Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit

signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse.
• Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles
clustered beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a
synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they
bind to receptors in the membrane on the
postsynaptic side of the synapse.
• Release of neurotransmitters usually follows arrival of an
action potential at the synapse.

Types of Neurotransmitter
(A) According to the nature (chemistry) of neurotransmitter
• Amino acids: glutamic acid, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA),
aspartic acid, D-alanine, glycine
• Peptides: Substance P
• Monoamines and other biogenic amines: dopamine,
norepinephrine (noradrenaline; NE, NA), epinephrine
(adrenaline), histamine, serotonin (SE, 5-HT)
• Fatty acid derivatives: Prostaglandins
• Others: acetylcholine (ACh), adenosine

Types of Neurotransmitter
(B) Based on the activity on postsynaptic neuron

• EXCITATORY (causes depolarization): Acetylcholine,
Aspartate, Dopamine, Histamine, Norepinephrine,
Epinephrine, Glutamate, Serotonin
• INHIBITORY (causes hyperpolarization): GABA,
Glycine

Nerve endings
• A free nerve ending (FNE) is an unspecialized,

afferent nerve ending, meaning it brings information
from the body's periphery toward the brain.
• They function as cutaneous receptors and are
essentially used to detect pain.

Classification of nerve ending
According to structure and function, the nerve endings may be classified as follows:
Nerve endings
Sensory (receptors) Motor
General Special (hearing, Somatic Autonomic

vision, taste, smell)
Cutaneus Deep Visceral Telereceptors Chemical

Exteroceptors
Enteroceptors Proprioceptors

Sensory Receptors
• Sensory receptors are a specialized structure that can be
stimulated by environmental changes as well as by changes
within the body.
• These are the terminal afferent endings that undergo

depolarization in response to specific type of physical stimuli.
• These receptors are capable of transforming different types

of energy into nerve impulses that travel through sensory
nerve fibers toward the central nervous system.
• Their functions are generally specific, one type carrying one

kind of sensory impulse, such as of touch, heat, cold, etc.

Classification of sensory receptors
A. According to structure and
functions: Sensory (receptors)
1. General sensory receptors:
subserving cutaneous, deep and visceral
sensations General Special (hearing,
2. Special sensory receptors: vision, taste, smell)
subserving different special functions like
carrying sensations for hearing, vision,
Cutaneus Deep Visceral
taste, smell, etc. Exteroceptors
B. According to form of energy they
respond to:
1. Mechanoreceptors: touch, pressure Enteroceptors Proprioceptors
2. Chemoreceptors: taste, smell
3. Thermal receptors: warmth, cold
4. Osmoreceptors: osmotic pressure
5. Electromagnetic: rods & cones
6. Nocieptors: pain nerve endings

SENSATIONS
Sensations
Sensations are FEELINGS aroused by change of environment. The different
ways by which the body may be aware of its surroundings are called
SENSATIONS.
Sensory mechanism:
For each sensation the following mechanism is involved:
(a) An appropriate stimulus
(b) A specific nerve ending-selectively sensitive to that stimulus
(c) The sensory pathway-which carries the impulse to the central nervous
system
(d) The nerve center-where the impulse is finally interpreted as a particular
sensation
(e) Psychical center-where the ‘meaning’ of the sensation is analyzed and
understood.

Classification of sensation
A. General sensations:
(a) Superficial (touch spots, heat spots, cold spots)
(b) Deep
(c) Visceral (it is sensitized only under abnormal
conditions)
B. Special senses:
(a) Taste
(b) Smell
(c) Vision
(d) Hearing

Properties of sensation
(1) Modality:
-The ability to distinguish the characteristic of a sensation from all other
sensations is known as modality.
(2) Quality:
-Quality means the nature of sensation.
-Sensations of the same modality may vary in quality. For instance, some
individuals cannot distinguish between red and green (color blindness).
(3) Intensity:
-Stronger the stimulus, higher will be frequency and more intense will be the
sensation.
-Two sensation of same quality may differ in intensity. A warm object
delivers little energy and a hot object delivers mush energy to the receptors.

Properties of sensation
(4) Adaptation:
-The structure of muscles and nerve adapt to a constant stimulus.
-The frequency of impulse gradually decreases due to adaptation.
(5) Extent:
-It indicates the area from which the sensation arises.
-Depends upon the number of receptors simultaneously stimulated.
(6) Duration:
-The duration of a sensation may be shorter that that of a stimulation due to
adaptation.
-On the other hand, sensations may outlast the period of stimulation and
thereby give rise to after-sensation.
(7) Localization or projection:

-It is the ability to locate the exact spot from which the sensation arises.
-Sensations are invariably projected
Reflex
• Reflex action is an involuntary (automatic)

effector response due to a sensory stimulus.
• It is the basic physiological unit of integration in the
neural activity

Reflex arc
The complete pathway for a reflex action is called reflex arc. It has three parts:
(1) Afferent limb: consists of-
(a) sensory receptor
(b) afferent/sensory nerve fiber
(2) Center: consists of nerve cells where the sensory stimulus is converted into
a motor impulse. There is an interneuron in the center.
(3) Efferent limb: consists of –
(a) efferent/motor nerve fiber and its endings
(b) the effector organ/muscle

Types of reflex arc
(1) Simple/two-neuron/monosynaptic reflex arc: Has only two neurons, i.e.,
Stretch reflex.
(2) Three neuron/disynaptic reflex arc: There is a connecting neuron between
the afferent fiber and motoneuron.
(3) Polysynaptic/multisynaptic reflex arc: Consists of several neurones, i.e.,
Withdrawal reflex in response to a noxious and painful stimulation of the
muscles, skin and subcutaneous tissues.
(4) Complex reflex arc: The axon of the sensory neuron, while passing
upwards, give off collaterals at different levels, each of which may form
separate reflex arcs.
(5) Asynaptic reflex arc: This reflex arc is not concerned with the synapse or
nerve cell and also known as axon reflex arc. This is not a true reflex arc.

Neurotransmition and pathologies
Headache
• Cephalic component (neck, face y skull)
• Headache (located or widespread)
accompanied by nausea and vomiting
Clasificación
• Cervicalgia: site. Neck
• Algias facials: Face
• Constipation: < blood to
intestinal level - < blood
circulating by the head

Migraine
• Migraine is a neurovascular disease caused
by neurogenic inflammation and
characterized by severe, recurring headaches
• It usually characterized by the severe pain
on one side of the head as compare to the
pain in rest of the head.
• It occurs more often in Women than in men.
History goes back to 9000 years.

 First mode of treatment: trepanation
Medical intervention in which a hole is drilled or
scraped into the human skull, exposing the dura
mater in order to treat health problems related to
intracranial diseases

History… continued
In 2nd century AD, Pergamum a Greek
physician used a term hemicrania.
 The brain and stomach were connected
 “Migraine” evolved from this term
However, this idea was replaced by blood
flow in 17th century
In 80s, Dr. Harold G. Wolff said that
dilation of blood vessels is the main cause
of migraine
Image from yourhealth.net.au

CLASSIFICATION OF MIGRAINE
HEADACHE.
1) Migraine without Aura or common migraine
Does not give any warning signs before the onset of
headache. It occurs in about 70 to 80% of migraine
patients
2) Migraine with Aura
Give some warning signs “ called aura” before the actual
headache begins. Approximate, 20 to 30% migraine
sufferers experience aura.
The most common aura is visual and may include both
positive and negative (visual field defects) features.

Negative scotoma. Loss of local
Zigzag structure
awareness of local structure
Positive Scotoma. Additional structures One side loss of perception.

Classification of Migraine headache cont.
3) Retinal migraine
It involves attacks of monocular scotoma or even
blindness of one eye for less than an hour and
associated with headache.
4) Childhood periodic syndromes that involve
cyclical vomiting (occasional intense periods of
vomiting), abdominal migraine (abdominal pain,
usually accompanied by nausea), and benign
paroxysmal vertigo of childhood (occasional
attacks of vertigo).
They may be precursors or associated with migraine.

Classification of Migraine headache cont.
5) Complications of migraine describe migraine

headaches and/or auras that are unusually long
or unusually frequent, or associated with a
seizure or brain lesion.

Etiology and Pathophysiology
 The precise etiology and pathophysiology of
migraine is unknown.
 However, neuronal dysfunction theory is most
acknowledged theory.
 Activity in trigeminovascular system.

Etiology and Pathophysiology
Abnormal Cerebral cortex, thalamus or
Neuronal activity hypothalamus in response to
stress, emotion.
‡
Instability in release of
Activates nociceptive
neuropeptides e.g., Substance
trigeminovascular
P, neurokinin A, calcitonin
system and causes
gene-related polypeptide,
prolong pain
serotonin
Boss
Initiate inflammatory Activates

Promote vasodilation response, sensitizes trigeminovascular
and plasma protein surrounding tissues system, which in turn,
extravasations. and produce stimulate pain
headache stimulating neurons in
brain stem and upper
spinal cord
Serotonin
 Neurotransmittor
 Serotonin ( 5- hydroxytryptamine) is thought
to be an important mediator of migraine.
 Unstable serotonergic neurotransmission , so
has lower threshold for migraine.
 There are 7 classes of 5-HT receptors
 Out of 7, 2 involve in migraine pain.

Serotonin cont.
 It is basic as amines and Ammonia
 Changes pH of blood
 Serotonin causes Vasodilation
 Serotonin causes Vasoconstriction During
migraine the level of serotonin is low in blood.
(Low pH) Drug target

5- HT1 Presynaptic receptor
Serotonin binds to 5-
HT1 and 5-HT2
5- HT2 Postsynaptic receptor

How bad could migraine be…
 It could distrub the normal life activities.

 Could lead to brain damage
 Recently, a woman in London had a migraine
 Lost her accent

Treatment
 Identification and elimination
of factors.
For example, Tobacco smoke,
loud noise, stress, caffeine,
emotions, contrasty light etc.
If they don’t work then move on to
medicines
 Prophylactic therapy
 Abortive therapy

Prophylactic therapy
Used in case of frequent migraines
Used when abortive therapy has failed
Medicines have to taken everyday to be effective
On the other hand, abortive medicine are taken
during actual migraine pain.

Prophylactic therapy cont.
• Calcium channel Blockers-
• Verapmil
• Takes up to 8 weeks to show any good effect
• Side effects- Hypotension, constipation etc

Medicines used in this therapy
Medicines that block beta-adrenergic.

For example, Propranolol, nadodol, timolol, atenolol,
and metoprolol.
Reduce the frequency of attacks by 50% in 60 to
80% patients.
Side effects- fatugue, sleep disturbance, depression,
hypotension etc

Cont.
2) Tricyclic antidepressants
For example, amitryptiline, nortryptiline, doxepin,
imipramine etc.
Independent of antidepressant activity.
Antagonist of 5-HT2, thus stabilize serotonin
neurotransmission
3) Methysergide:-
Semisynthetic ergot alkaloid and is 5-HT2 antagonist.
Gives best result when taken with meals
Side effects- gastrointestinal intolerance, insomnia, and
muscle cramps.

Abortive therapy
1) simple analgesics:-
For mild and infrequent migraine- Aspirin and
acetaminophen
Aspirin+acetaminophen+barbiturate butabital = To
induce sleep
Aspirin+acetaminophen+narcotics = Fiorinal
Aspirin+ acetaminophen+caffiene = Esgic
Drawback- Continuous use fails to provide pain
relief.

Abortive Therapy cont.
• 2) NSAIDs:-
• Inhibit prostaglandin synthesis.
• So may prevent inflammation in
trigeminovascular system and alleviate
migraine pain
• They are effective for reducing the frequency,
severity, and duration of migraine attacks. e,g.
Aspirin, Ibuprofen, Naproxen etc.

MEMORY AND LEARNING

What is memory
Memory is the property of organism which ensures
impression of connections between the environmental
events and accumulation of living experience .
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such

as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the
mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific
types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is
believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative
learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in
emotional memory

The Memory Process
Three step process….
1. Encoding: The processing
of information into the
memory system.
2. Storage: The retention of

encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval: The process of

getting the information out
of memory storage.

Explicit Memories: it is
Associated with consciousness it is dependent for its relation on the

hippocampus and other part of the brain and divided into:
• Episodic Memories:based on memory of events

• Semantic Memories:memory related to words, rules and
knowledge

Implicit Memories: consist of
Memories necessary to perform

tasks or skills habits ,conditioned
reflesxes
• Procedural Memories
• Conditioned Memories

Short term memory :it is a memory displayed by the circulation of
along neuronal chain it last for maximum 7hrs
MEMORY
Intermediate memory: it is a memory between short term and

long term memory it lasts for several months
Long term memory: it is based of complex processes associated

with the activity of protein molecule synthesis in the brain cells it
may last for several years

Short Term Memory
• The stuff we encode from the

sensory goes to STM.
• Events are encoded visually,

acoustically or semantically.
• Holds about 7 (plus or minus 2)

ítems for about 20 seconds.
• We recall digits better than

letters.

Long Term Memory
• Unlimited: Storehouse of
information.
• Explicit: (declarative)
memories
• Implicit: (nondeclarative)
memories

Other forms of short term
memory
Sensory memory :its a memory lasting for few seconds
act as buffers for stimuli received through senses and are
sub-classified into :
_̲iconic –for visual stimuli .
_haptic –for touch sensation .
_echoic-for auditory sensation.
working memory: short term memory is now known as

working memory keeps information available for very short
period (individual plans, action is based on it

There four different types of
remembering
• Recall: the active and unaided remembering of
something from the past
• Recognition: the ability to recognize previously
encountered information as familiar
• Relearning: the ability to learn one familiar
material more easily than unfamiliar material
• Recollecting: the reconstruction of events or
facts on the basis of partial clues

Consolidation of memory
For short term memory to be converted into
long term memory that can recalled
weeks,years later, it must become
‘cosolidated’ that is, the short term memory
if activated repeatedly will initiate chemical,
physical ,and anatomical changes in the
synapses that are responsible for the long
time type of memory. This process requires
5 to 10 munities for minimal consolidation
and 1 hour for or more for strong
consolidation. For instance if a strong
sensory impression is made on the brain but
is then followed within a minute or so by an
electrically induced brain convulsion the
sensory experience will not be remembered


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FOCUS IN NEUROSCIENCE

E. Duque-Díaz Focus in Neuroscience 1

• To study the central and peripheral nervous system

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In this studies it seek reach

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Tomado de: https://www.humpath.com/spip.php?article12929

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Brain Spinal cord

Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain

Preoptic area Retina Hypotalamus Thalamus

Cerebral cortex Olfatory bulb Telencephalic nuclei

Pallidum Striatum Septum Amygdala

Piriform cortex Neocortex Hippocampus E. Duque-Díaz Focus in Neuroscience 7

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The following structures are found in the cell body:

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• These are the non-excitable supporting connective tissues

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1. Direct the migration of precursors during development

• Protoplasmatic astrocytes (type I) – Gray matter

Envolved in diseases as:

Tomado de: www.neurobio.fmed.edu.uy

E. Duque-Díaz Focus in Neuroscience

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Excitability depends upon the following factors:

(ii) The nerve impulse is propagated with a definite speed. The

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According to the nature of connections:

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• The transfer of information across the

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