aes 7 pe a : Time-saving design aids for reinforced concrete ED eae a ene geu Ue CR RoryR an Coase ae oS on emer ecu ncmn in crckod articles will help you to stay competitive by PE Con cena structures in less time. This article specifically discusses the design and detailing of non-prestressed, reinforced con- cues ‘he design aids presented here — which | ive moment region does not exceed one half can be utilized in preliminary andjor final: of the maximum value permited (9 < design tages orto verify output from software | 0.5Pqay) the member size i usualy not con — conform the provisions in Bulking Code | wolled by detection Requirements fr Sutra Concrete (31898), Consider the following stength equation and Commentary (318-99) published by the that must be satisfied at ll secons along the American Concrete stitute Alrefeencedee- | length ofthe member: M,< 0M, = 0A, f, (d~ a/2) Design forFlexure | Sizing the cross-section. Typically, the = af cometconmeirnelgnnns | 7 SPbaha-a/2) ensue tha the deflection requirements of Se- “ thon Saesased, Asan example considera nonpremesed beam or one-way slab at is | where «= A, (085f:6 = pdf JO85f As ‘Dot supporting or attached to partitions or | noted above, deflection problems are rarely cer construction likey to be damaged by | encountered for beams with p ~ OSPac lag deflections The minimum thicknes (8) | When p= 05ppe= 0017 ibid > is given in Table 95). For one end contna- _ Fauation (1) and 4000 ps conaee and Gade cus, normal-weight concete, and Grade 60 | 60 enforcement ae assumed, Equation (1) reinforcement the minimam tides ir @728 | becomes the following forslid one-nay slabs and 18.5 forbeamscr : ribbed one-way labs whee the span gh bd’ = 22.9M, (O, defined in Section 8.7, is in inches. [ot forsimplicy, bd @ where b and dare in inches and M, is in ops The designer can determine any combita tion of b and d from Equation (2) with the comly restriction being that the final dep selected must satisfy the deflection contrl a teria, The effective depth (@) thot setifis Geflection requremen's can be determined fom Tuble 95(a), assuming d = h= 235 inches forbeams with onelayer of tee ord = 1.25 Inches for joists and slabs. Equation (2} can then be solved for the width b, considering the maximum M, along che span. Similar si scat be derived easly for other Because slabs ae pally designed usingaa | onesoot stip, Equation (2) simplifies te: d 13/M, Designers should follow the guidelines bbolow whensizing members or economy: “Use whole inch increments for bear dimensions and inch incremens forslabs. + Use constant beam size fom span to span and vay enforcement as requiced Use wide flat beams rater than narow deep beams. When applicable, use te sme depth a the joist ster, 5 Specify the beam widths to be equal o or Prudent choice of steel percentage can also minimize deflection problems. When the ten sion reinforcement ratio (p) used in the pos- Editor's Note ‘This Pare One of x three-part series tat | provides ime-sving dssion sis for ren- forced concrete This aril covers Beas: and oneay sb design Part Two — appearing Inthe Ocobor sue of Suc: ‘tural Engineer —. wil indude tps on cwo- ‘ys dead a Three— epening Inthe Never tsu6— wl con clin and wal dexgn Ts series of are: gues yx theopporsunty wo epace mary ofthe gn ais you bare coleted oer be yar wh updated version hat olow ACL dco oom aren 31858, s owe ome = ommo= etfrcemen il AD Figuro 1 Strongth curves for Grado 60 Reinforcement,; FEATURE: CONCRETE BEAM DESIGN seater than dhe column width ‘Repeat the same member sizes wherever possible in the building, is for unit conversion. Substituting the con: | stant from Equation (5) into Bquation (4) | results in the fllowings Following these guidelines results in eco- M, eg ronialfamwe—thisypkaliledsothe | A, ax Ma oteoniclsadtite | A Siconstant) ” 0x x 437 OM Me Determiingraquedreiniorotent fine determine the required negative and positive | reinforerent along the span, Equation (1) (6 can be rewren inthe following for: O.5pf, Sat [2 ce Bquation (6) can be used to determi ® | quickly the required area of tension reinforce: | ‘ment at any secon of a recangular beam of slab subjected to 4, Similar calculations show that this equation can also be used for mem: | bers with 3,000 psi and 5,000 psi concrete Forall values of < (2)Pme Equation (6) ‘vl give slightly conservative rst The max: | where M, sin ikips, dis in inches and A, is ‘in square inches. ‘he reladonship benveen p and Ry for Grade 60 reinforcement and various concrete strenghs is shown in Figure 1 Ils evident that the relationship between p and Ris approxi mately near up to about # of Pn Tis tla- satptoce tfp Thts| her ats ee i tt eee acess eae phim od me ror Ber rome oA are | tn mime t | 3 percent. i For positive reinforcement in flanged floor i | aay aor eu | eae One| ete ray | ra tlle be coped fora retanglarcompreson zone, Rarely will there bea need to compute A, | fal! wz] {for aT'shaped compression zone. The flexural | 2.000 ‘member is designed as a rectangular section | tener ywber ste iene fe | 000, 0512/3) 0.0214) x60 yer Fete fi GLO ee gay eda tertiatopee® | sane ais gen by | ® | Af, i a=-— Noveethathe 1200 in hedenominaor| =) O.85 FB, | repermittedina single layer ‘where , isthe effeive slab width defined in Section 810. Detaling the reinforcement. Once the requited area of ste! i computed from Equa- tion (6), the size and number of reinforcing ‘ars mustbe selected, The minimum and mas imum number ofreinforcing bars permite in a rosssection is a function of cover and spac- ‘ng requirements given in Section 7.6.1 and 33.2 (minimum spacing for concrete place ‘ment, Section 7.7.1 (minimum cover for pro- tecion of reinforcement), and Secon 10.6 (maximum spacing for contol of flewal ‘The maximum spacing ofreinforcingbasis imited tothe vale given by Bquation (10-5) {in Seaion 10.6.4. The following equation can De used to determine the minimum numberof are rn guid in a ingle layer: b, ~ 206, 0.54) | 5 ACIEquation(10-5) “Table 1 contains the minimum number of bars required in a single lye for beams of var- fous widths, ‘Theinformationin Table # Is accurate assuming: * Grade 60 reinforcement, ‘+ Clear cover to the tension reinforcement (4) ‘equals two inches, and + fequals 36k. Based on these assumptions the maximure barspacingis 10 inches, ‘The maximum number of ba ("aay BEE sited ina section can be computed from the formula below: 2, -2G 4dr) m= “(Clear space) + 4, Cc) ‘Table 2 contains the maximum number of bars permited in a single layer. ‘The informationin Table 2 | saccurate assuming: © #Grade 60 reinforcement,FEATURE: CONCRETE BEAM DESIGN ae 3 100. ‘Using three standard stirrup spacings (¢ = d/2, | 3, and dvs of 6, canbe deed for ‘arous imup izes and spacings independent Pin, 74in. jum beam widths. Tables, Clear cove tothe supe (¢) equal 10 15 inches, inch aggregate, and + No.3 stimups ate used for No.5 and No. 6 longitudinal bars and No. 4 sirup are ‘wed for No, 7 and lager bas Selecting bars within the limits of Tables 1 and 2 will provide automatic conformity with the code requirements for cover and spacing, given the assumptions noted above. Tables for ‘ther parameters can be generated easily using Bquatons (8) and (9) ‘rom Equation (10-5) the maxlmusn bar spacing for one-way slab i 12 inches assum- Jing inch cover anf, equals 36 ksi. ‘Requirements forthe development of flex- ral reinforcement ae given in Sections 12.10 112.12. Forbeams and slabs subjected to unt- formly disuibuted gravity loads only (for ‘members that are not part of the latral-orce- resisting stem), recommended bar details can be found in the ACK Deualing Manual the Concrete Reinforcing Stes! Insitute (CRSI) Reinforcing Bar Detailing Manual, and Chapter | 6 ffora Table 4 that is equal t or slighty | ent rgfbuldings. 8 of the Porland Cement Assocation (PCA) publication ‘Simplified Design of Conciete Buildings of Moderate Size and Height” Design for shear In accordance with ACI Bquation (11-2), the nominal shear siengih V, i the sum of ‘wo components: nominal shear suength pro- vided by concete (V2) and nominal shear strength provided by sbeareinforeement (V9. | ‘Thus at any section of the member Vy SOVq= OVe+ OVs (10) for shear design is contained in Table 3. Tse provisions are applicable to normal-weight concrete members subjected 1 shear and flex- ure only with Grade 60 shear reinforcement ‘he setetion and spacing of stinups can be simplified ifthe spacing (6) i expressed a5 2 function ofthe effective depth (), According to Sections 1.54.1 and 11.543, the max- ‘um sirup spacing varies from d2 to for onpresiesed members with vertical stimups ‘A summary of the ACE 318-99 provisions | of the member se. For venicalsimups: By substituting dn fors (here n= 2 3, or 4), the above equation can be rewritten a OV,= OA, fit a ‘Thus for Grade 60, No.3 Ustimups spaced | ade OV, = 0.85x0.22x60x2 = 22.4 kips, say 22 kips “able contains vlus of, for Grade 60 Ucstnups wih 2 eg important wo note that hee vals of Y, ae not dependent on tne member sie or on the concrete strength ‘Once the eure V, = V, ~ @V- has been computed. at a parular section along the Jeng ofthe beara value of, canbe cho- eaie than that which i sequited, The sip size and spacing coresponding to this value of | V can bespecifid atthis sezion of the beam. | Aecording to Secion 1.5.6, 6¥, is imited (0 08jyd. itis determined thatthe required wv, mote of the coss-selonal dimensions must be inceased in onder to camy the factored ‘eater than this limiting value, one or | shear fore, Langer stimup sizes at wider spacings ate smote cos effective than small timup size at loser spacings because the ater exis ds propordonately high cos for fabian an | Placement Changing the sirup spacingas few {mesa possible over the length ofthe mem. ber alo resin cost ving In ode to develop the stimups adequate te reuiremens of Section 12.13 mus be sat ined To allow for the bend radi at comes of | Usstizops the minimum bear widths en in ‘Table 5 should be provided Design for Torsion 101995, anew design procedure foc osion | was introduced fn ACT 318. The provisions are based om thin-walled tbe, space uss analo- 1; where the contbution of concrete to tor sional suengi is distegaded for simply. xcept fora few minor changes, the ttsion provisions in ACI 316.99 are virally the same ss those in ACI 31895 ‘Acomprehensive st of design ads that can ‘be used to efficiently design an deta concrete beams subjected 1 the combined efeas of fleur sheat and torsion can be found in the ‘PCA publiation “Design of Conatte Beans forTorsion” Design examples that ilsate the use of | the timesaving design aids presented here for | Alcure and shear an be found at worn parce Vie We | none | Requiredime-saving CTCL e-l lel ace) s OMe Cel got =T | Geile + is assumed. For routine desians, designs do. i _¢; (needed ical secon), ‘methods addressed | not need to peform complex defection ccs: «column suppars a tibutry tea A, here conform tothe provk | ions for nonprestessed, twosway sb sj- | «square bays (=), sions of Building Code | tems ifthe dab thidmese meets the minimum | + gravity load moment transfered beween the Requirements for Struc- | requirements of Secon 9.53, Graph 1 (all | slab and edge column is tural Concrete (31859) and Commentary | gaphs maybe viewed in the onlin vesion of | Section 13.636, end this ace, at wnwgostucturacom) contains + 4,000 psi normal-weight concrete sningmum sab thickness function of cear and notations ate fom ACL 31839. | span length (4) im he long diecéon. This A preliminary slab thickness (i) can be Because offimited space we were unable to | assumes Grade 6Oreinforcementand forthose | obtained by adding 1.25 inches tod om the incudethe gaphsin he printed version ofthis | systems with edge andjor interior beams, | figure, where the totl faciored load (v4) ani Please he conse are wth | sume they we ate indudes an estimate fr the weight of the ab. feaphs on our Web ste (mmcgareucura.cm)| When two-way lbs are supposed dey | For rectangular ays wih €, = 2 d frm ‘under the eitoral inde. + on cohumns (a in fat plates and fatslabs) shear near he Minimum slab thickness. colimns is cally impor Calelating deflections for wowray abs is | tant, especialy at exterior complicate, even when linear elastic behavior | slab-column connections ‘without spandrel beams. Far fat plates, sab thicknes will almost alway be gaverned by two-way shear rather than servicebiliy requirement, (Graph 2, which is based on Suri PS une the mina owed | | the wove shear requite here wl ve pacing engecers a maycoreacs | | mens of Scion 1.12, she deg and dean ie fered for prpre. || be wed to determine a pre- ceich | liminary sla thickness fora fat plate assuming the fol - lowing Figure t Required conditions for analysis ssquareedgecolumns ofsize by DirectDesign Method. in accordance withi FEATURE: TWO-WAY SLAB DESIGN ee Graph 2 should be increased by about 15 per- cent and for bays with & = 05, 4 may be decreased by 15 percent Fire resistance requirements per the govern ing bullding code also must be considered ‘when specifying minimum slab thickness. Design for flexure ‘This portion of the article provies design aids to help determine the design moment for avy loads and lateral loads. According 10 Secon 13513, tis pemissable ro combine the reals of the gravity load anais with those oft lateral load ana. Required tin forcement can be computed from Equation 1 forthe goveming load combination. For fat plate and fla sib constuction, theres more 10 consider fr the transfer of loads at the ob umn lab connection. Momets fom gra ty and ler loads are wansfeed between & Stab and column bya combinaton of leu and ecenttctyof shea. Only a portion ofthe ‘unbalanced moment (Mat the column is | tease by lerare (4) the mainder is transfered by excenticty of shear (44). Please se the section ented “Moment rans | ferin slab-column conneions" for additional | infomation. | Gravity toads = Accowing to Section | 135.11, ether the Direct Design Method (ODM) of Setion 156 o the Equivalent | Frame Method (EFM) of Section 13.7 may be | used to determine the ef of gay Jad | on owosay sb ystems in Hew of ether meh oa a ih conton ian ad | ‘ometrc compatibiiy or routine cases the DDM can be used to Seemine moments in cols apd idle | suipsqulelly and easily — as longas the con dons Dhstrated in Figure 1 are satisfied The | requirements of Secon 13.6.1.6 on relative | stfines of beams in two perpendicular dice | tions masta be sats. Moment eii> ‘ion, as permitted by Section 8.4, may not be | applied for lb stems designed bythe DDM. In etenc, the DDM is a theesep anabsis procedure. The designe fist calclates thetotal factored static moment (M,) fora panel. Sx: ‘ondly; he or she distributes M, to negative and | positive moment sections. thirdly, he or she Aistibutes negative and positive factored ‘moments to column and middle sips and vo | beams, ifany For uniform loading M, fora pane is com- puted from te following: za | obi | ‘ Sa ee Oy aeeer emerge cere caren eee oat End Span Inteior Span Tablet: Design momont coefficients used with the Direct Design Method for flat plates or flat stabs supported directly on columns. Table 2: Design moment coctti- Monient coefficients contained in Sections 13663 through 13.66 are applied direct 10 i to daermine the negave and posive | ped easly by ug te equation ta was | i ‘moments in the column and middle strips | developed in Part One for 4,000-ps concrete [where Aisin squae inches, My sin foot kip, and dis in inches ‘According to Section 13.3, the miniqnum reinforcement ratio in each ditection (based ‘0m grass concieteaea) i 0.0018 for Grade 60 reinforcement, and maximum bar spacing is ‘he smaller of 2 oF 18 inches Lateralfoads — Numerous analytical pro- cere exist for modeling ames subjected 12 + Tate loads In general any procedure thatst- 1 sles equlibriam and geometric compatbilty ‘may be utilized — as long as results fom the analysis are in reasonable agreement with test data, For slab-column frames, where only a portion ofthe sab is effective across it fill ‘width in resisting the effets of lateral loads, acceptable approaches include finite element models, effecive beam width models, and equivalent flame models. Regardles of the method used, frame member sires must, take into account effets of cracking and ren forcement so that dit caused by wind andor | eatthquake effects is not underestimated (Sec 4 ton 135.12), For fiat plate frames, the efecive beam ‘width model will give reasonably accurate results in routine situations In this method, the actual slab is replaced by afleaural element | with the same thickness as the slab and an effective beam width b hat isa raion of the actual transverse width ofthe slab. The follow. ing equation can be used to determine by for an interior slab-column fame (fom “Models for Lateraly Loaded Slab-Column Frames" by Hiyang and Mochle, ACT Strucural Journal, | March-Apail 2000, pp. 345:352) 4 bende (Equation 2) | |. For an eerie fame, by equa ha the | sae computed fom Futon 2. The reer } ence shows that this solution produces an 1 ccurte eimae of atc stifies for eat | frames. To acount for cadking in nonprestessed 1 ais, bening sine i peal edad to heeween onehalf and onequarer of the snaked tifes, whichis 2 fancion of h | and by When deerining disor secondaryets in columns, Jowerbound stab sifiness should egesumed, When slab 40, use 40 per ACI 318-99 Rey S40 or &,< 12h 03h ‘Sway-frame columns — Beam stifneses at the top and bottom of a column in a sway fiame can significantly impact the degree of slendemess. For compression members not braced aginst sidesway effects of slenderess | ay be neglected wher: Ke ap 7 For ecunple, fora sway coluran with acol- ‘umuno-beam stifines ratio of ¥ = 1.0 at both ends (se Figure RIO.12.1), k= 13 and the | fis onde ma be ne hen 4,<5h the beam sfnes is reduced to one- fit of the cohuman stifiness at each end, then | fre 22, and slendemesseffeas need not be | considered when , <3, ‘When slendemess effects must be consid- ‘red, moments a column ends aze to be mage nifed according to Sections 10.12 and 10.13 fornonsway and sway anes respectively, ora second-order analysis must be peformed. For columas subjected to biaxial bending, the ‘moment about each axis shall be magrifid separately, Columns are designed for com bined effec of axial load and magnified bend. ing moments utilizing the methods described above. | | Columns: Reinforcement details Details for column reinforcement can be found in the ACI Detling Manual: the CRSE Reinforcing Bar Detling Manual: and Chap- ter5ofthe PCA publication, Simplified Design cof Concrete Buildings of Moderate Size and Height. Walls: The basics For buildings of low to moderate height, frame action alone is usually sufficient to pro- | vide adequate resistance to lateral loads. Since | fiamebuilings depend primasly onthe rigFEATURE: COLUMNS & WALLS ‘angola walls contaiing uniformly dish. ‘aed vertical enforcementand subjected oan | asial load 2 smaller than that producing bl: | anced failure the information in Figure 5 can | be used to detrine the nominal moment | capacity ofthe all. This method should apply ina majority of cases since the ail loads are vwualy smal, Walls: Design for shear ‘Special provisions for walls are contained in Section 11.10. The magnitude of the faconed shear force (V,} determines the amount of er- ‘cl and horizontal reinforcement for shea: + For ¥, $V, 2 — provide minimum S reinforcement in accordance wit Section . 1.109 or Chapter 14, + For pV.(2- 0V_— provide horizontal reinforcement in accordance widh Bauation 1-33 Cee etn ity ofthe sabV, designing the required hor. foraneffcient design thatsatsfessmength and | 144 contains the requiements for walls | tanta reinforcement in walls can be simpli Ai regimens | designed as compression members using the fed by dtennining values ofthe dosgn shear Bere cnc Mor spe aca kd | stent deign proven of Chae 30, seg pve ye real ene horizontal diaphragms Intra loads are dis- | which are desobed above for columns. Any ment (V,). According to Equation 1-33: tsbuted to Taterabfrcesesisting elements in | wall may be designed by this method, and no | oAfa cae remigmer eee [raueeema eras gv, Ah should belocatedsuchthattonionaleffecsare | empitcal design method of Section 14.5 and! ‘where V1s defined in Secon 1.105. Tables 3 and 4 contain minimum reinforcement per minimized from lateral loads. Frequent, wall ae located around eer tor and stain, 0th ngs ae dictated by te size of these openings. From a con- scxcbilty sandpoint, 3 minima shines ofsiinchesi required fora wall with singe layer of reinforcement, and 10 inches is | equi fora wal with two lye ‘When walls are preset in lwo moderate hight buildings fame val iteracion canbe neglected, typically bese the walls ae sift enough to aac the ajosity ofthe lateral Joads This greatly reduces oxerall nas and design ime, and generally rensin a nonsway ‘fame In conas rame-wallneraction must be considered for highase sutures. In the upper stores of high bulldins, the fame must exist more han 100 percent ofthe tory shear caused by late load, co neglecting framewal interaction would not be conserva tive at these levels. Also, designs that consider | {fame-all interaction provide a more eco- nomial solution. the alternate design method of Secion 14.8may only beused ‘when various condi tions are satisfied. ‘Walls in high-ise buildings are ordinast- Ty designed in accor dance with Seetion Md. Interaction dia grams canbe ‘obtained utilizing the resources discussed abowe for columns, For buildings of low to moderate Deght, walls with un- form cross sections and uniformly dst ‘ted vertal and hos 2ontal reinforcement are usually the most costeffetive For ree en er ee eet een mo fosrdetet Wy or, «(le| | | | | FEATURE: COLUMNS & WALLS 0 ee ar [at raf ea Pit el ele a] a ||| sts] ee Cem ee ee eae feet ts bie tai | ae [ar aang eine ae ole inet Le Lal 2 [es] oo ee] os fo] Minimum face dimension inches) ofrectangulay, ted columns withnormal lap spi Nod sraire etre. S-No® iene a3 NSqeene sone ts C783) * Column face dimension rounded 1 the nearest inch Maximnum size aggregate not lager than ‘¥minimom cea spacing between bas {Section 332), The following equations can be used to Aetermine the minimum column face dimension for othe cover and tie ies: ‘For No. through No. 8 Minimum fae dimension = 2(cower + fe ameter) + nd + 1500-1) + 13+24,)cs0 - 0.58645 -3) ‘For No.9 dough No. I: ‘Minimum face dimension = 2(coer + tie diana) «rd + 1.51) + 13845 where ‘t= number ofbas per face 44> diameter of tongtudina bas "*Mairmum size agregate no larger than ‘minimum clear spacing between bass (Section 3.3.2), ‘Minimum number of fongitina! basis four when eaclosed by cular tes and six when enclosed by spirals (Section 109.2}. Reinforcement ratios are within limits of Sesion 1091. “The following equation canbe used 10 determine the meximurn number ofbars 2 {or other cover and te or spiral sizes: ‘aera dane) A, where 5 15 inches + dy for No.5 through No. 8 = 15d, + 6, = 256, for No.9 dough No. 44, diameter of longitudinal bas * applicable to drcular ied columns oly.FEATURE: COLUMNS & WALLS a a where 4, isthe aea of horizontal shear reinforcement within a distance L ] : {yandd'086, (econ 1.104), or example fora wall efrced wth = See ica | asingle layer of Grade 60, No. 4 bars spaced at 12 inches: Teer : Ota | mig 0.85 x 0.20 x 60 x (0.8 x 126,) meseas 7 Soa | aE : eon tear = 8.26, kips 0 Ah For Grade 2 Ne Sats Table 5 contains values of6Y, per fot length of wal for various hor }0240h for Grade 60,No.5 bars and ‘zontal bar sizes and spacings. Values of, and the maximum allowable Na enmere aptester ate tae dan 10 | | OV, pet Seto 1405 and 1103, expe aren Tbe ene ‘One eronindgi=Y,- soul anche cn ly | hones ar an sping hat reste tht mos of | Seng fom tiles |) Required vertical shear reinforcement is determined ffom Equation | St vhia sgven babe Pn= 0.0025 +0.5 x - 0.0025) ee | 10 When the wall beight-o-length ratio (hy /f) isles than 05, the amount 3 veical reinforcement i equal 1 the amount of horizontal reinforce ‘ment When hy /f>25, Table 4 can be used to determine the minimum amount of vertical enforcement. | Maximum spacing of horizontal and vertical aris glen in Sections | 1.1093 and 11.10.95, respectively | Conclusion ‘This eres of anes were developed to help engineers produce eco nomial, now-pestesed concete buildings efi as powible. Al three atiles are available on Structural Engineer's Web sce (wore gostruc- | talc) n adn, he PCA We se (niprcement oq | ings) contin developed design examples illusating the use ofthe | tmesavng desig methods presented hee. Ee | NGS | Ne | 33 | 2g | 359 407 87 i22 | 190 | 269 sae 109 “a9 jo [54 | 98 | 152 | 215 TES ae T1988 12 aS 32] 127 [180 : ] 6 as | tos ae 14 145 ee 6} tae © vg= 2B) Gee 105) Vi Oy 10/6) (ect 11103) [Note mtn tabulated values by VPz4000 for coneece compressive ae 75 16.6. 14 _|_70 | 18 | 154 ees 85. 444 | 16 x 61 [85° 135 cree: 58 [mege| 127] 18 54 64 [120 Toa fr wal ade a reece eS ees toes Reprinted with permission from Structural Engineer issues: September 2001, October 2001 | and November 2001. © MerCor Media, Inc. All rights reserved.