Applied Openhole Cc Log Interpretation (for Geologists and Engineers) (Revised 1982) DOUGLAS W. HILCHIE Department of Petroleum Engineering Colorado School of Mines Douglas W. Hilchie Inc., Golden ColoradoPERPUSTAKAAN UTM | , No, Te | 126875 Tarixa 18 APR 1987 Douglas W. Hilchie Inc. P.0.Box 785 Golden Colorado 80402 Copyright 1978 by Douglas W. Hilchie, Inc. Revised 1982 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, nor transmitted nor trarislated without the written permission of the. publisher. Printed in the United States of America. I dedicate this book to Dr. Silvain J, Pirson who early in my career made me think.ccrouacumenanenral APPLIED OPENHOLE WELL LOG INTERPRETATION Introduction Applied Openhole Well Log Interpretation is a text for students with little or no knowledge of well logging. ‘The text has been designed for a well logging course in Geology or Petroleum Engineering comprising of tvo-one hour lectures and one-three hour calculational laboratory per week. The course is essentially an applied data analysis course. The stress is on interpreting the results of the calculations and how to take the data from the well logs. Only a very limited exposure to tool theory is presented. A minimum number of log interpretation charts are included in the text to reduce confusion. ‘the text is self contained and no outside interpretation chart books are needed. The text includes both examples that are worked and examples to be worked by the student. Comments regarding the material content and errors are welcomed by the author. Oo Douglas W. Hilchiemaa accusers RN ERR ATEE h_ RRE TT I ee | | . | | : | | | | | | | | |el = . ——___—- ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS chepter 1 Basie Rock Properties Chapter 2. Resistivity chapter 3 Resistivity Measuring Devices chapter 4 Spontaneous Potential chaptef’S indvetion Electric and Dual Induction Logs chapter 6 (Acoustigyend Ganna Ray Logs chapter 7 Quantitative Analysis - Part I chapter 8 — Deneity Logs Chapter 9 Neutron Logs chapter 10 Conbined Porosity Logs Chapter 11 Focused Resistivity Logs Quantitative Analysis - Part If Shaly Sand Interpretation Chapter 14 Computer Processing of Well Logs Chapter 15 Abnormal Pressure Detection with Well Logs Chapter 16 Fracture Detection with Well Logs Chapter 17 Dipmeter Principles Appendix Rock Properties Table 7 Logging Tool Specifications Suggested Supplemental Reading Equations IndexCHAPTER I BASIC ROCK PROPERTIES Well logs may be classified as; those derived during the process of drilling the well bore, and, Wireline Well Logs obtained after the hole has been drilled. The first category includes geological sample logs obtained by observing the cuttings which come up with the drilling fluid, mud logs which detect hydrocarbon traces in the drilling mud and mechanical type logs which record rate of bit penetration, weight on bit, rotary speed, etc. which reflect the drillebility of the formations. This text deals primarily with wireline well logs obtained by lowering e..measuring inst~ runent (sonde) down the hole. The data from the instrument are transmitted to the surface recording equipment via a multiple conductor (usually 7 conductors) cable. The data are presented as a continuous plot of the data measured versus depth. This continuous plot (a well log) is obtained as the instrument ie hoisted from the bottom of the hole to the surface. Many types of measurements (logs) are made as the determination of rock properties of interest in exploration and the determination of hydrocarbon in place require many independent pieces of data before an interpretation can be performed. It is the purpose of this text to discuss the interpretation and analysis of these well logs to obtain the properties of the rocks penetrated by the well bore and determine the capacity of the rocks to contain fluids (porosity), the relative volumes of fluids present (saturations) and when possible the ability of the fluids to flow from the formations into the well (permeability). Logs are run as the sonde is pulled out of the hole so that the cable 4s in tension and the precise depth of any given formation may be determined. ‘The wireline log depths are calibrated to agree with the drilling rig depths. ‘The drilling rig depths are usually obtained by measuring the length of the drill pipe as it is stacked in the derrick. Wireline log depths are not as accurate as everyone would like due to the difficulty of obtaining the Jocation. of a zone 15,000 to 25,000 feet below the surface of the earth. Gable stretch, tool dragging or sticking, and other small inaccuracies result in small discrepencies between logs. and between logs and drill pipe depths. For example if you are measuring a length of 15,000 feet and you have an error of only 1/64 of an inch each foot your measurement would be off almost 20 feet over the total length. A'1% error would put you off-150 feet. Rock ‘Properties Petroleum oriented well logging deals primarily with sedimentary rocks. Well logs measure the chemical and physical properties of rocks and thus there are some discrepencies with normal geological descriptions which are normally visual classifications. It is most convenient to classify rock, when dealing with well logs, according to their mineralogical content. Sandstones, quartz, chert and other S102 look the same to well logs. L1me~ stones and chaulk look alike. Dolomite looks like dolomite. Anhydrite, gypsum and halite all look like themselves. Silt as recognized on well loge {= small grained sandstone. Shales are completely different than the afore~ mentioned rock types. Shales are considered, from a well logging point of view, to be clays or contaminated clays. Clays or shales react differently: on the well logs than the other rocks and must be handled in a different man~ aLner. The relationships which will be developed for reservoir rocks . do no apply to shales or clays. In general one must adopt the philosophy of sepaxating shales (and of course shale interpretations) from all the other sedimentary rocks. Accordingly shaly sands will be handled separately. Porosity Porosity is the fluid-filled volume of a rock divided by the total volume or, $ = volume of pores (1-1) bulk volume where ¢ is the fractional porosity. Rocks laid down by normal sedimentary processes usually contain porosity. this prinary porosity is reduced as the rocks are exposed to overburden pressures from the rocks laid on top of them. Cementation of the graing Piso reduces porosity. Athy showed that in relatively young rocks (ter~ tiary) in a continuous depositional environment the porosity decreases exponentially with depth. 8 = b eve? (a-2) where > is the porosity at any depth D bq is the original or surface porosity (approx. 40%) cis an empirical constant. the highest porosity encountered in sedimentary rocks is about 40% while the lowest approaches zero. If you take spheres of the sane size You can obtain porosities of from 25.9 to 47.6% depending upon how you stack them. Shale porosities also decrease with depth but at a much quicker rate. ‘At the surface, muds have about 40% porosity. Shale porosities decrease fore tapidly with depth than sandstones as shales are basically plastic fe nature, ‘The overburden pressures squeeze the water out, reducing porosity, By the time you are at 10,000 feet deep the shale porosities are typically about 5% if the pressures are normal. Secondary porosity is that porosity which has been created after the rock hes been deposited. Subterranean water movenent, for example, dis~ golves limestone, creating enlarged channels for fluid to flow through. Vuge created by dissolving the rock or by moldic processes represent a significent fraction of all Limestone reservoirs. Fracturing and dol- omitization also ereate secondary porosity. ‘The homogeneity of porosity Gn carbonates (limestones and dolomites) is affected by the type of porosity present. In the interpretation of vell logging data you will Jearn that it is important to be able to estimate whether porosity de relatively homogeneous (granular as in sandstones and some limestones and dolomites) or more heterogeneous. Saturation Saturation is the fraction of a pore volume that is filled with e 1-2vV— given fluid. For example water saturation (Sw) is, Sw = volume of water a-3) volume of pores i In well logging we generally refer to water saturation as that is what is measured. If for example the water saturation is 20% this means that 20% of the pore epace is filled with water and the other 80% is filled with something else, usually oil or gas. Permeability The permeability of a formation is a measure of the ease with which fluids will flow through the particular formation. Permeability is sig~ nificant as the hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) must flow from the formation to the well bore to be recovered. The permeability is usually reported in millidarcies and is a physical characteristic of the formation. The higher the permeability the easier it 1s for the fluids to flow to the well bore. i For a linear system, such as a core, Qe = KA (py ~ Pp) (ara) wt ; where Q, = the flow rate in milliliters/seconé Af = cross sectional area of the core in sq. cm. p = pressure in atmospheres at the front (1) and back (2) viscosity of the flowing fluid in centipoise length of the core in cm. and k = permeability in darcys. ‘The permeability of a rock is governed primarily by the size and number of pores in the rock that allow fluid flow. The larger the pores the higher the permeability. In a well sorted sandstone, pore size and grain size increase together. Although in general, permeability increases with porosity this does not always happen. In many cases grain size decrease while porosity stays about: the same. This means porosity stays the same and permeability decreases. This argument does not carry over to carbonates as grain size is not really sigmificant. What matters in carbonates is pore size. In many carbonaté reservoirs pore size (per meability) is large and porosity is small. The permeability of fractures has been estimated to be a function of the fracture width. k = 50,000,000 x (width)” a-s) where k = permeability in Darcys and width is in inches. ‘This very rough approximation of fracture permeability indicates the reason why fractured rock fluid flow is controlled by fractures if they are present. These fractures only contribute 0.5 to 1.5 % porosity but completely control fluid flow. It can be shown that if a formation has one fracture, such as 0.01 inches in width, over 90% of the fluid flowing to the well bore will be via the fracture. 1-3Permeability with only one fluid in the pores is absogute pormeabétity. Effective Permeability = Effective permeability is the permeability with more than one fluid present in the pores. Effective permeability is less than absolute permeability as the fluid which wets the solid part of the rock (grains) reduces the hydraulic area available for the other fluid to flow through. ‘The author maintains that the great majority, (over 99%) of reservoir rocks are water wet and thus ofl wet rocks will not be discussed in this text. In a reservoir rock, it can be visualized that as the water saturation increases the effective permeability to ofl or gas is reduced as the channels the hydrocarbons are flowing through should be reduced in area. Generally most core analysis reports absolute permeability. Relative Permeability Relative ‘permeability is a ratig of the effective permeability with a specific fluid to the absolute permeability. Figure 1-1 shows a schematic relative permeability diagram for an oil-water systen. At low water saturations it is obvious that only oil is flowing hile at high water P T ox | Swisl h 0 a oil-water relative permeability capillary pressure curve Figure 1-1 Saturations only water is flowing. At low water saturations only ofl is flowing. As the water saturation increases the relative permeability to oil decreases until at some water saturation water and oil both flow. ‘The water saturation at which water starts to flow is often referred to as the critical water saturation. From the relative permeability diagram it can be seen that there is a range of water saturations at which both water and of1 flow and that only water can be flowing although the water saturation is less than 100%. Relative permeability curves are different for different rocks as are critical water saturations. The volume of ofl or water (or gas) flowing at any given water satur- ation is a function of the viscosities of the fluids invoived as well as the relative permeabilities as shown in equation 1-6. 80 Fro tha (a-6) To rw 1sFigure I-2a i | I leery well sorted grains Pe fracture Figure 1-2¢ irreducible water saturation (%) Figure 1-2b 0 sw 00% Figure 1-3. Swi-k-¢ for granular rocks 1s “(after Timurh *Capillary Pressure ‘The pores in permeable and porous rocks are small enough to act as ; capillaries. Capillary pressure is the phenomena by which water, or any wetting liquid, is drawn up into, or retained in a capillary. The smaller the pore diameters the higher the water rises in a capillary or in the case of a fluid displacing the water the more pressure that must be applied. Capillary pressure relationships are: Po = 20 cos @= Ap gh (a7) t where o = interfacial tension between the two fluids cos @= the contact angle between the wetting liquid and solid 4p = difference in density between the two fluids r= radius of the capillary & = is the gravitational constant h = height the wetting liquid rises in the capillary. Figure 1-1 shows a capillary pressure curve for a typical reservoir rock with a normal pore size variation, The irreducible water saturation, the oO asymptote on the capillary pressure curve is controlled by the proportion of very small pores. If the pore spaces are all very small the irreducible water saturation will be relatively large. As more and more pores are larger the irreducible water saturation will decrease. In general high permeability rocks have sharp transition zones and low irreducible water saturations. Low permeability rocks have long transition zones and high dxreducible water saturations.Figure 1-2 shows some schematic capillary pressure curves for some specific conditions. The irreducible water saturation in a gas-water system is less than that of an oil-water system. This is due to interfacial tension and density differences. Although one might believe that this water saturation dif- ference could be used to distinguish oil from gas reservoirs, in reality it ds not possible due to variation in pore size distributions and the fact that this difference becomes very small at lower porosities. Figure 1-3 shows an empirical relationship developed by Timur that relates, for a granular system, irreducible water saturation, porosity and permeability for a medium gravity crude. For a dry gas the indicated permeabilities are too high by a factor of 10. For example if you have a reservoir rock with a porosity of 15% and a permeability of 50 md. and oO it is ofl bearing the irreducible water saturation will be about 20%. If the rock is gas bearing the irreducible water saturation will be more like 7%. ‘The irkeducible water saturation is the water saturation well above the transition zone. The transition zone is that range of water saturations which allow both water and hydrocarbon to flow. 1-6Interpretation Guide Lines, the values used in these guide lines are general and should not be eed as hard fast rules. In the search for petroleum there are no hard fast guide lines that hold everywhere. The reason is that in many cases poor or inaccurate data are used. Sandstones Porosities in sandstones should be less than 40%. When the porosities in sandstones go below 7% in gas bearing zones and 8% in oll bearing zones the permeability is usually so low nothing will be produced from the sand. 9% is often used as the lower limit for good, commercial production. These Should be considered true porosities devoid of measurement inaccuracies. There are sands with apparent porosities that produce lower than these limits which are probably either fractured or the zones are too thin for the logging devices to measure properly. In general lower permeability results in higher water saturations. t normally use a 60% water saturation cut-off. If the Sw is greater than G02 in most cases the sands are not commercially productive. If the sand- reac hae 2 very high shale content none of these guide lines work because the Sw and porosity valués are most Likely bad. carbonates Porosities in carbonates are usually less than 40%. When the porosities in Garbonates are greater than 3% they can be productive. Water saturation-porosity relationships for productive carbonates are considerably more variable than in sandstones. Although 60% Sw is usually the cut-off some carbonates are productive at 70% Sw and others produce water at 30% Sw. Experience in an area and a particular zone is necessary to establish realistic cut-offs. In“carbonates it is often the case that low permeability zones which will produce nothing separate reservoirs. These low permeability zones fare usually characterized as low porosity and high water saturation. Example 1-1 shows an analysis of a continuous 100 feet of limestone with no shale breaks. ‘The separate reservoirs are marked as well as the hydrocarbon-water contacts. Example 1-1 Interpretation of a Limestone Sw Data Sw @% ‘Thickness (ft) Interpretation 00 2 10 wet and non-permeable 100 é 5 will probably produce water 00 3 7 non-perneable 30 9 u hydrocarbon reservoir _ 80 4 9 will produce water ~tY4-/wtr cont. 95 3 2 non-perneabie 90 8 36 will. produce water 1-7Determination of Hydrocarbons In~Place Yo determine the volume of oil (or gas), in-place, i.e. without considering expansion, shrinkage, pressure, temperature or recovery factors I usually do not count any hydrocarbons in zones that have porosities or water saturations below the accepted cut-offs. The hydrocarbons present in reservoirs below the cutoffs generally will not move and thus contribute nothing to the actual production. One Welt ‘The volumetric determination of hydrocarbons for one well requires the thickness (h), porosity, water saturation and an estimate of the rainage area of the well. ‘The latter is usually a guess based on the expected well spacing of 40, 80, 160 or even 640 acres. It is also assumed that the reservoir properties and thickness are constant over this area. The volume of hydrocarbons for one well is; VEABIC Hs (Si) 64) (a8) = AB (hy(1-Swy) 4) + hy (1-Swy) op + hy (1-Sw5) ggt © +) where A= area drained in acres B = 43560 when V is in cubic feet or 7758 when V is in barrels h = thickness in feet 1,2,ete are layers of the reservoir having different properties. To calculate an average porosity or water saturation for the reservoir equations 1-9 and 1-10 are used. javg.” BC; hy) (1-9) Svavg. > E(Swyhy) (1-10) Chg) Thy) Example 1-2 shows an example of these equations in use. Example 1-2 Volumetric and Average Calculations ‘The reservoir has three zones or layers with different water sat- urations and porosities zone Sw 4% (fe) 1 25 22 4 area = 40 acres (A) 2 33 27 6 oil bearing to B= 7758 3 20 29 10 V is in barrels Vir 40 X 7758 (4 X (1-.25).22 + 6 X (1-.33).27 + 10 X (1+.20).29) 40 X 7758 (.660 + 1.085 + 2.320) = 1,261,450 bbis.(or in practical units 1,261,000 bbls) Gavg. = (22 X44 27 X6 + 29X10) (446410) = 27% Swavg.= (25 X 4 + 33 X 6 +20 X10) + (4 +6410) = 25% 1-8A Field In a field it is unusual for the reservoir to have a constant thickness or a constant set of porosities and water saturations. To determine the volume of a reservoir it is first necessary to find the thickness of oil at each well and then create, by contouring, an isovolume map. To determine the height of of] at a well use equation 1-8 with A and B =1. This gives the equivalent height of ofl at that point for 100% porosity and hydrocarbon saturation. Plot all these points on @ location map. The most difficult contour to establish on an isovolume map is the zero out side edge. It is not correct to draw the zero line through all the adjacent dry holes. ‘The best method is to assume the reser voir is decreasing uniformly if the Soomaeiy or ne-deeaedeacteraneecna fare estimated. The edge then can be J fr~e Tee of tbe estimated by a cross-section extre- ~ _ reservoir polation as shown in Figure 1-4 or well edge] >. the equivalent) of making @ con- = Sens 7 7 J Pie view stant distance between the inner thickness contours (which mugt be drawn first) and the zero line. Figure 1-4 A dipmeter or seismic data may aid in the determination of the reservoir shape. Example 1-3 shows the determination of a reservoir volume using the trapezoidal rule to relate the areas determined to the total hydrocarbon volume. Example 1-3 Determination of the Oil Volume In-Place of a Lower Cretaceous Oil Field Each of the numbers beside the wells on the map Example 1-3 represents the vertical feet of oil as calculated by equation 1-8 with A=B=1. Well G had two zones with porosities of 12 and 10%, water saturations of 45 and 53% and thicknesses of 6 and 7 feet respectively. These give a hydrocarbon height of .73. The map was contoured on an interval of 0.1 feet. The zero thickness line was constructed as a best estimate as the aforementioned techniques were not applicable. The areas inside the zero, .1, .2, ete contours were determined as 1776, 1021, 434, 302, 158, 83, 45, and 10 acres respectively. The volume of the reservoir may be determined by use of the trapezoidal rule which for the areas becomes; Vin H Get, + Ay Ay toes + AL + AD) where V is the volume in acre feet of oil His the contour interval in feet and A's are the areas, in acres, inside the zero, first, second, ete contours. which for this case becomes V = 0.1 Gs X 1776 + 1021 + 434 + 302 + 158 + 83 +45 + a X 7758 bbls/a-ft. = 2,278,000 bbls of oil in place 1-9Chapter 1 Problems 1. ta sandstone reservoir you have calculated the following values from well logs. Each de an average of a five foot thick zone. what is the permeab: contact and what would you pi this well drains 40 acres cal barrels. Porosity% 28 26 25 29 28 26 28 CO’ 2. ta carbonate reservoir ‘and porosities. What flui zone and where are the producin; Water Saturation Thickness Porosity% 1 3 8 1 12 10 4 7 3 {lity of each zone, Water Saturation’ 12 13 25 22 30 50 100 100 90 90 100 30 65 100 95 35 20 85 20 uSasu Lu ub son where is the oil water roduce from each zone. ‘culate the oil in-place in reservoir Assuming, you have the following water saturations d= would you expect to produce from each .g hydrocarbon-water contacts? (ft) TE the reservoir hydrocarbon is gas, what are the cubic feet of gas in-place at reservoir t emperature and pressure. Assume a drainage area of 160 acres.3. The following data have been derived fron sandstone reservoir. Well Location NW SE SE SE NW SE SE NE ww sw SE SE NW NE sw NW SW 33-58-76W SW 33-58-76W SB 32-58-76W NE 32-58-76 NE 4-57-76 SE 33-58-760 NW 33~58-76W SE 32-58-76W NW 3-57-76W SW 34~58-76W NW 3-57-76W NE 3-57-76W SE 3-57-76W NE 32-58-76W SE 32-58-76 NW 4-57-7601 7488 7548 7555 7281 7534 7510 7505 7521 7530 7470 7512 7522 7520 7548 7571 7549 Muddy Top xB 3685 3682 3690 3701 3663, 3670 3690 3691 3670 3675 3664 3698 3668 3703 3690 3680 well logs for a muddy Sw 41 39 44 42 45 37 95 45 5 48 Determine the resérvoir barrels of oil in-place. 1-12 an 20.6 16.7 16.4 15 20.9 15.2 14 17.8 14 20.2 n(ft) 20 13 17 16 25 7 4 0 10 coocoGyCHAPTER 2 RESISTIVITY the electrical resistivity of any material is related to the resistance by} Rera : Q@-v L where Ais the area the current is flowing through Lis the length of material r is the electrical resistance in ohms R is the electrical resistivity in ohm meters in normal logging units where A and L are in meters. Resistivity is a property of materials just as density is. Fluids the resistivity of fluids are measured by devices similar to the “gud cup" shown in figure 2-1. The resistivity of hydrocarbons, such as oil and gas, is in-the order of millions of ohm meters which makes them Giectrical insulators. i.e. from a practical point of view they do not Gliow electrical currents to flow through them. Water on the other hand A veir pie VeIRL or=CR A where V is voltage I ds current r is resistance R is resistivity C is a constant Figure 2-1- A Mud Cup for measuring liquid resistivity has a variable resistivity depending upon the salinity (amount of salt)~ Distilled water has a resistivity over one million ohm meters while saturated salt water resistivity is less than 0.1 ohm meters. The most prevalent salt in water is sodium chloride. Salinities in well logging are usually quoted in parts per million (weight percent) of sodium chloride. Sea water for example is 30,000 - 35,000 ppm (parts per million)” A saturated ealt solution at room temperature is about 250,000 ppm or about 25% salt by weight. Potable water is usually under 500 ppm. At room temperature this makes potable water resistivity about 10 ohm meters, sea water about 0.2 ohmfeters and 2 saturated solution 0.04 ohm meters. The resistivity of water is not only a function of the salinity but also a function of temperature. The higher the temperature, the lower the resistivity for a given salinity. Figure 2-2 shows the relationship between water resistivity, salinityijand temperature. At least tyo of beL :“+ (do QUAL + 660) AR = hy :eImwI0y sdxy Sy) porewuroxdae srazoKo stm UE ‘UMOYS VoIsTOntOD a4, “96°0 = Ry PBOF (G wWlod) 091 = (La) ainresadwio,, uoneULIOA re ‘2|durexa 103 ‘saamyesodusoy Jeyno 28 *y pug os (sontuies yuvsuoa) satu Sunes yo puss olfo4 (rey to y auiod) 41.62 18 21 ta satduters, (S¥314W-WHO) NOLLNTOS JO ALIAILSISIN, | 30, o g eo zo ro 40° 99°50" 90 Grsdsequnyiog 46995009) z-¢ eanBTa su : cox $ on = vf a 031 ( sy on 3" oi fm aunuvusN3L 2-2 or i laosioquniics 3 SNOILA108 oF; 190N YOd Havuo ALIALLSISAY q NOlLW¥LN3ONOD FON ithe three varisbles aust be known to uniquely define a solution. Tf {deperature and salinity are knom resistivity can be determined. of setyetivity and temperature are know the salinity can be determined. The problen worked on figure 2-2 shows a typical use of the chart. The od, of water resistivity is known at some temperature. To correct this resistivity to another temperature you assume no change in salinity takes place and just follow the constant salinity Line down or up to the new temperature. puring a well logging operation a maximum reading thermometer is run which measures the bottom hole temperature. ‘To determine the temperature at any other location in the bore hole it is assuned that the geothermal gradient is linear. The relationship between temperatures and the geothermal gradient is Te = To + Bode (2-2) 100 where Tz is the temperature of any formation Tf is the mean surface tenperature gg is the geothermal gradient in 0/100 feet DC 4s the depth to the formation. the surface feuperature-is the average of day-by-day, and season-by- see aon and year-by-year variations. Seventy to one hundred feet below the surface of the earth these variations all average out. This surface tre evatare 1s dependent upon where you live. According to the US. Dept. of Agriculture the following are average surface teiperetures. Gulf (of Mexico) Coast 70°F Oklahoma 60+ Colorado (oil country) 50 Wyoning 40 California 60 Alberta 35 In genetal of] people use higher temperatures than these. For example jn the Gulf Coast 80° is used, in the Rocky Mountains 60° is used and ja Alberta 40° is used. ‘Thie surface variation is not usually significant ae most reservoirs are well away from the surface. Geothermal gradients Gf 1 to 2 degrees per 100 feet are conmon. Equation 2-2 is easily solved by figure 2-3. See the problem worked on the figure.If 2 calculator is used, equation 2-2 may be rearranged to Te ~CgyFe) Be + Mo 2-3) where"Subseripts TD refer to total depth . € refers to the formation in question 22-3Depth in feet Figure 2-3 Estimation of Formation Temperature SS 2000 4000 6000 9000-4 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 22000 2000 VEER, furface ten. Example: wo ye 00 io qo 7 1Q0 30 160 140 120 1190 t 180 160 149 130 200 240 180 200 160 180 150 170 ‘The bottom hole temperature surface temperature is 40°, is oF 2-4 240 260 he 40 200 220 190 210 280 260 240 230 300 2.80 260 250 320 300 280 270 0 afo oho pate y aio is 320°F at 14,000 feet. The The temperature at 8000 feet (answer- 200°) 380 360 3ho 330eee Figure 2-4 Determination of Water Resistivity from Chemical Composition t i ubsi* ontssi® (courtesy of Schlumberger) 20 20 L nig tt9r HH k LO =Ne ane cr oh Noeedcl | Gi ‘ 7 ui 304 IN i KU £03) iE 2 Eros(ossr meal 0 Hips een aay [30,7] 32 Prom TY cog 9 y al © Savi 7 I \Wig—po"""30 100-200-500 KKK OCIOK 2 BOK 100K 300K 20900 TOTAL SOLIDS CONCENTRATION, ppm *Mtultptiers which do not vary appecishy for low concentrations (tess TaN BUCY ISEB Soelore AB se ak args oF te chars ‘A formation water sample indicates 400 ppm Ca, 1500 ppm $04, 11,500 Na | and 7500 ppm.Cl. : i ‘The total solids concentration = 400 + 1500 + 11500 + 7500 = 20,900 ppm Enter chart above with 20,900 ppm and determin€ multipliers for different ions. Jon ppm_— multiplier equivalent NaCl ppm ca 400 “81 324 80, 1500 245 675 Na~> 11500 1.00 11500 “cl © 77500 1.00 7500 total equivalent NaCl ppm ----- ~ 19999 Using Figure 2-2 the resistivity at 100°F is 0.23 ohm m \ 25 : ‘If a chemical analysis of a water is available this can be converted to resistivity by use of the figure 2-4. A problem associated with this figure explains the technique. This is not as good a way of obtaining - the water resistivity as measuring the resistivity directly. Reservoir Type Rocks The resistivity of a rock or formation can be measured in a similar manner as that used for liquids (md cup). Reservoir rocks, sandstones limestones, and dolomites, are made up of mostly materials that are electrical insulators. The resistivity of these dry rocks is over a million ohm meters. When these rocks are saturated with salt water (with @ resistivity of Rw), the resistivity of the rock (Ro) is related to Rw bys Ro = Fp Rw @-4) Where Fp (formation resistivity factor) is a function of porosity or if you wish the amount of salt water in the rock. In a general form oO Rea gm (2-5) where a and m are empirical constants which are loosely related to the pore geometry. Constants a and m have been evaluated by thousends of measurements and of course are effected by the tortuosity of the path that electrical current must take while flowing through the sores ; of a rock. For generalized use the following two relationships are. used; oS Fy= 62 ¢°2-15 for granular systems such as sandstone (2-6) this tlhbie relationship Je sonetines replaced by the almost equivalent Tixter relationship Fee 81 97? (2-7) which also applies to granular systems only is easier to calculate. In other types of rocks Reg? (2-8) is use. “rt must be ronenbered that these are general relationships. oO Investigators such as Caruthers have published mote specific ‘relationships. If the specific relationship for a reservoir is know use it. Otherwise use equations 2-6 or 2-7 and 2-8... Figure 2-5 solves these equations. Equation 2~4 shows the relationship of resistivity of a rock filled with water and the resistivity of the water. The only material carrying electricity was the water. When ofl or gas enters the.pore spaces and displaces some of the water the ‘current carrying material is reduced and the path of flow even more tortuous. Oil and gas are insulators and take the central location in the pores. When irreducible water saturation is reached the water only coats the solid surfaces and remains in the small, spaces where the grains touch. Thus the resistivity of an oil or gas zone is much higher than a water zone as the amount of material carrying the current is severely reduced. The empirical Archie relationship is: 2-6(ig) ror2eg AATATITSTSeU WOTIEUZEE 000: 008 00% oor 0s 090s on Oe 0% ore os # € 2 1 or éyysuopqe Ter PTqUNH x gt et 79 = oz oe on Aaysozog onsxoa (8g) xox9eg AagaTaeTSEy VOFIwUXOE GS-7 eanBIs % Aresoz0aRB, = Fr Ry (2-9) where Rt is the resistivity of the rock in ohm m. and’n is the water saturation exponent usually = 2 Water saturation is used instead of hydrocarbon saturation (S,) a8 water saturation is what is being measured. Hydrocarbon saturation Ql. ~ Sw) is inferred if Sw is less than 100%. Equation 2-9 is used for clean formations (those with less than 10% shale content). Most interpretations today use equation 2-9 or in terms of water saturation sw = fix Be (2-10) Re He The determination of good values of water saturation are tied directly to obtaining good values of porosity and thus Fg, water resis tivity and formation resistivity. Poor values of any of ‘these variables will result in poor water saturation values. Equation 2-10 may be solved using Figure 2-6 4 more general chart which may be used with different m and n's is Presented in Figure 2-7. An example is worked on the chart. The Borehole Environment The drilling of a well with md usually results in the contamination of the permeable formations. ‘This is caused by the need to mairitain the mud pressure in the borehole higher than the formation fluid pressure. Failure to do this may result in a "blow out", The amount of contamination (usually called invasion) is a function of the mud weight (borehole pres~ sure) and the mud water (filtrate) loss. The mud, in the process of filtering into the formation, leaves a mud cake on the wall of the hole. This mud cake (which is formed by the solids in the mud, mostly bentonite) limits the amount of water loss into the formation because of its low permeability. Relatively deep invasion occurs in low Porosity formations because they are drilled generally with high water loss mud. Shallow i invasion typically occurs in high porosity fortlations because.they are OQ. drilled with low water loss mud. This latter is required to prevent bore- hole caving in the’ higher porosity more poorly consolidate formations. It should be remenbered that shales are often damaged during drilling. 4 This damage may be the result of hydration of the shales by the drilling i nud, causing them to expand, weaken and slough into the hole. iydration | not only changes the resistivity of the shales but also most other logging | | i i Parameters in the zone immediately around the borehole. Figure 2-8 shows a schematic cross section of a wellbore penetrating @ permeable formation. Below the figure is a recap of the changes in the Archie equation that take place in the permeable bed when the formation fluids are replaced by mud filtrate which filters through the mud cake. The fluids in the transition zone are a mixture of mud filtrate and formation 2-8Figure 2-6 sends & granulars Fp = 062 215 R Rwa and Sw Chart om , porosity Bou Sas REESE BEES ye Seskese ee Example: Porosity is 20% in a sandstone. Rt is 15. ‘These give you an Rwa of 0.72. I£ Rw is -095 then Sw = 36% 2-9 ®% uoqaeangeg s07e4 wee 0001 oz 98 on os 09 08. 004, os ooe oz O oO . (My) x0a0eg 4zaqastsey uoTzeMI0g oor 09 ty ay, 0305 on 1 oe oz ore 9s oz = ¥a fuorzerax atquny Ben suospurs 202 = Ar¢s0x0d roTdwexg, Oe oe as 4 9, ne Ty = 1 - xopuy Aazaraeqs0y cet exn8ta noe oz t oz oe on % &apsox0g ootFigure 2-8 Schematic Cross Section of a Well Bore [O- tessotsviey of sone — Resistivity of water in the zone L\> Water saturation in the zone © Schlumberger courtesy Schlumberger HOLE DIAMETER Parameter Flushed Zone Total Invaded Zone Virgin Zone resistivity Rxo RL Rt porosity ¢ $ 4 : Water ‘saturation 5x0 si Sw water Rm Re Rw ? i equations Sxo =/Fp Rmf si fp Re Sw =/Fg Rw. a A xo Ri Rt * note: with invasion Sx > Si> Sw unless all are 100% Sxo = Si= Sw-and Bw in all pores. QeLLfluid. Resistivity measuring devices are generally classified by the depth of the measurement. If the device measures only a few inches into the formation it is called an Rxo too. If the measurement is in the range of ten's of inches it is an Ri tool and if the tool reads much deeper then the previously mentioned tools it is an Rt tool. It should be renenbered that if the invasion is very shallow or nonexistant all the devices will read Rt. Resistivity Profiles in Permeable Beds Figure 2-9 shows some typical variations in resistivity from the wall of the borehole into the formation. ‘These changes are solely caused by invasion of the mud filtrate. If the mud filtrate has a higher resistivity than the formation water and there are no hydrocarbons in the Permeable formation the resistivity will decrease as you move away from the borehole. Alternately if the mud filtrate has a lower resistivity than the formation water (salt mud) the formation resistivity will increase as you move into the formation. Obviously if the resistivity of the mud filtrate and formation water are the same and the formation is still water bearing you will see no change between the invaded and virgin zone. When the formations are hydrocarbon bearing, the resistivity contrasts between the invaded and virgin zone are not as predictable. ‘This is because the process of invasion moves some of the hydrocarbons out of the invaded zone. In a salt mud system (where Rmf is less than or equal to Rw) the resistivity always increases as you move away from the bore- hole if the hydrocarbons are moved by invasion. In a fresh mud system (where Rnf > Rw) the resistivity may increase, decrease or stay the sane as you move from-the invaded to the virgin zone. This is because the saturation of mudfiltrate in the invaded zone is higher than in the virgin zone. This may or may not offset the Rmf-Rw contrast. Sometimes during invasion of a hydrocarbon zone, a bank of salt water (annulus) is formed in front of the invading filtrate. The result is a low resic— tivity zone between the invaded and virgin zone. The only time this ennulus can occur is when the formation contains hydrocarbons. The annulus appears to be a dynamic phenomena which occurs in some formations some of the time and in a few formations (such as the Morrow sandstone in the Oklahoma Panhandle) often. The annulus is not a common problem. ‘The annulus is dynamic in that given time it usually disappears. Shale Resistivity Shales may be considered to be predominately clays. Clays are generally conductive materials when wet with water. Clays are often relatively low in resistivity. . As they become contaminated with sand, lime or other grains the resistivity increases as show schematically in figure 2-10. Figure 2-10 represents a binary system of clays and let us say sand grains. The limit to the increase in resistivity is experienced when sufficient sand is in the bed to create porosity and permeability. At this point this figure 2-10 becomes invalid. 2-12 oO OFigure 2-9 Resistivity Profiles in Perneable Invaded Beds Invaded water zone Rw < Rn + R : away from borehole + Cc invaded walter or ——=Rt ofl or gas zone + fu > Rok 7 Invaded water zone 7 ot ® Rt away from borehole > Figure 2-10 Resistivity of a Binary Clay percent clay > Invaded ofl or gas zone Rw < Re Re TRE Rt away from borehole > xo Rt antfus away from borehole + Sand Mixture 100% 2-13Chapter 2 Problems : 3. The mud engineer on your well analyzed your wud as having a resistivity of 2.7 ohm m at 55°F. What is the resistivity at 12,000 feet? The well is in the GQlf Coast and the bottom hole temperature was 360°F and the total depth-of the well was 18,000 feet. 2, You caught a water sample from your producing well and it analyzed out at 90,000 ppm NaCl. What is the resistivity of the formation water if the reservoir temperature is 175°F7 3+ In the following table £111 in the blanks (T, = 200°r). formation water salinity Rw 4 Re Sux a. sand 150,000 35 10 b. sand 27 221 c. sand ' 27 2.2 a. sand 13 10 O e. sand 20 3 £. lime 75,000 ee 5 8 g- lime 7 3 100 h. lime : 10 100 100} i. Lime ae 4 100 + The formation you have just logged has a porosity of 12% and you are in a sandstone. ‘The Rw is 0.1 ohm m and the Rnf is 1.0 ohm m. If the zone has a Sw of 100% calculate the expected values of Rxo and Rt 5. In problem 4 ‘you are not in a water zone and the Rxo is 100 oha m and the Rt is 90 ohm m calculate the water saturations in the flushed and’ virgin zone. You have just logged a zone’with a porosity of 18% and it is a dolomite. The water salinity is 220,000 ppm NaCl. The surface temperature is 60°F, ‘he hole is bottbmed at 8000 feet and the oO bottom hole temperature is 180°F. The Rt is 10 ohm m. What is the water saturation of this zone and would you complete this as 4 producing zone? 7. The sandstone you have just logged has a porosity of 15% and an Rw of .2 at Tg. The Rt is 22 chm m. What is the water saturation for this zone. What’ is your estimate of the permeability if this is an oil zone? What would the permeability be if this were a gas zone? 8. Rt ="20 ohm m., porosity is 18%, rock is a sandstone and Rw = .2 chm m, Determine the changes in Sw if each of these values are off by 4202. 2-14a CHAPTER 3 RESISTIVITY MEASURING DEVICES ‘This chapter will be limited to discussing the more commonly used induction resistivity type’ logs and the associated resistivity curves. Induction Electric Logs and Dual Induction Logs are combinations of several curves. In general one curve is an Rt curve that measures deep into the formation and another is an Ri curve that reads mostly in the invaded zone. The Dual Induction has another resistivity curve that reads between these two so that corrections for invasion can be made when necessary. The other curve on induction logs is a Spontaneous Potential which is the subject of Chapter 4. Induction Concepts Induction systems measure conductivity, c 1000 oD z , where C is conductivity in millimhos/meter and R is resistivity in ohm meters. Induction systems are coil systems that induce currents in the for- nation. Figure 3-1 shows a schematic aye of a simplified induction sonde. ee The oscillator supplies alternating a 4 current to the transmitter coil. The oseiutron alternating current in the coil creates an alternating field around the coil. The alternating field creates a current in any conductors RECEIVER AMPLIFIER receiver || gol cnouno, such as the ground loop shown in the oR figure. This is the equivalent of : . waving a magnet by a wire which is ioe the conventional way to create elec~ comment rat tricity. If you will now ignor the i transmitter and think only of the SraiaunTeS ground loop.which has an alternating _ |_oscituaror current flowing: through it. The alternating current in the ground loop creates an alternating field. This alternating field cuts the stationary receiver coil. An alternating current ie dadueed in Figure 3-1 Schematic induction sonde the receiver coil. The amount of (courtesy of Schlunberger) current induced in receiver cohh,©|©—©§_ ——————________— é ds a function of the conductivity of the ground loop. It is like a trans- former. If you change the amount of slug material in the transformer: you will vary the amount of current in the secondary. There is no mutual induction between the transmitter and receiver coils recorded as the receiver system has a phase sensitive detector that eliminates out of phase signals. The system shown is overly simplified to make understanding, 3eLthe principles easier. In reality induction systems are combinations of five, six and eight coils. The extra coils are used to eliminate - undesired signals or if you wish to focus the measurement to the volume of material desired. By this means the material close into the sonde, such as the borehole and invaded zone ate virtually eliminated from the materials being measured Induction log vertical resolution is about five torsix feet in resistive beds (beds with higher resistivity than the adjacent beds) anda little over two feet in conductive beds (those with lower resistivity than the adjacent beds). This non-linear response happens because the induction system "prefers" iow resistivity materials. This basically means that the induction curve will not pick put thin resistive beds but will Figure 3-2 Schematic Bed Thickness i pick out thin conductive beds. This Response of Induction bias must be remenbered when selecting ===TL] bed thickness (ft) | (picking) values from the induction Ys curve and comparing or using with some aac other curve that responds differently. 4 oO Figure 3-2 shows some idealized induc- =F] 6 tion responses to various beds. posi i The deep induction curve (ILd, , . shy ee. 6FE4O, Deep induction) are Rt type Wee curves. They generally read close to 2 Rt and where no correction for in— 3 vasion is possible are assumed to be 4 Rt. The value recorded on the curve == 4 is usually referred to as Ra (apparent a= resistivity) f 6 Figure 3-3 shows schematically “7 10 how T pick values from a continuous resistivity curve. The philosophy Resistivity > ist if the bed is thick and homoge- neous the curve will "flat top", £9 ©§©§ ——————____ the bed is thin the curve will peak : or point. The flat top you take an O average of, the peak I take at the peak or valley as in most cases this pick" is a thin bed and the value should probably be higher. I am effectively breaking the section into a series of "homogeneous" beds. The nost difficult zone to extrace good data from 1s the long transitional zone. This is almost like trying to pick data at a bed boundary as the two or more other curves you must use inconjunction with this data prob ably have different vertical response Hee than the induction log. eae tet Figure 3-3 Picking bed values from a continuous resistivity 32 iSRi Companion Curves Three basic invaded zone resistivity curves are run in conjunction with the deep induction curve. ‘The older logs have a short normal while the newer use a Spherically Focused Log (a Schlunberger trade mark) or a laterolog. The laterolog used is either a laterolog 8 or a short Jaterolog 3 depending upon the service company. ‘The theory regarding Jaterologs is covered in chapter 11. From a practical point of view ip Ge difficult to visually detect the difference between 2 Spherically Focused log and a laterolog. short Normal the Short Normal is 2 measuring device which passes current from fan electrode on the sonde through the mud into the formation. This device is similar to the mud cup in chapter 2 only it is three dimen— gional and the electrodes are placed in the borehole. Figure 3-4 shows a schematic of the electrode array. In reality the two electrodes at tn nettace are in the hole only placed very far way from the A and M. The current flows from A to B Pee and the potential is measured Meter between M and N. The volume of everial measured 9 roughly [fererter} on twice the distance 4M (typically 16 inches) in diameter. This is = the part of the formation which is usually invaded. N Figure 3-5 shows the ideai~ ized curve responses for the short normal, The short normal does a reasonable job of meas— uring thick beds (over 4 feet thick) and of measuring relatively thick conductive beds. Thin resistive beds are poorly measured. More discussion of the short normal will occur in chap~ ter 5 when the Induction Electric Log (IES or IEL axe abbreviations) is discussed as a total of all it components. >= Figure 3-4 Schematic electrode arrangement of the Short Normal (courtesy Schiumberger) 33Figure 3-5 Short Normal Response Curves Cr pa tay ie Sr eae (courtesy of Welex) 34 yspherically Focused Log the Spherically Focused Log (SFL) is quickly becoming Schlumberger’ cole Ri device. The SFL is used because it - has a better vertical resolution than the short normal and does not read as deep into the fornation. It is being used on both the induction and dual induction logs. Figure 3-6 shows the electrode array for the SFL. Essentially what is happening is that the borehole is being jammed with a current so that the survey current (Io) is forced into the formation. Once in the formation it is allowed to flow where it pleases which is a spherical pattern. ‘The vertical resolution of the SFL is two feet. Figure 3-6 Sphericaliy Focused electrode array Corrections Correction charts are available for most logging devices. The correction charts are usually made for ideal situations which you seldom correct ee'ig nature. For example,bed thickness corrections for the induction anon Guply @ single bed of constant resistivity inbedded in another bed cece aeergtant resistivity. They imply that the second bed plus the first {the otal thickness) must be in excess of 25 feet. We seldom (1f ever) (neuter this eituation. The correction charts are presented here for Ctupleteness although, in reality, I use them only occasionally: prefer sore Gaterpretation techniques; which are included in this text, that are self- compensating for errors. Induction Bed Thickness Corrections = * Figures 3-7, 3-8 and 3-9 aze bed thickness corrections for induction jogs as published by Schlumberger. Figure 3-7 ie for thick zones ang Figure 28 is for thin conductive zones for the Thd or GFFAO vhich ate Tie ttandard tools. Figure 3-8 needs some words as they use Ryp instead wee a eeneenal Ra for the apparent resistivity from the log. Figure 3-9 $e the lim which de the medium induction on the dual induction log, Example 3-1 Bed Thickness Corrections for Ild ‘a)For Rs (adjacent bed resistivity) of 1 ohmm, a bed thickness of 12 feet and the apparent resistivity of 15 ‘ohm m see the uper left hand chart of figure 3-7. You follow bed thickness vertical until you reach Ra and then read Rt from the scale on the left as Rt = 18 in this case. b)For a thin conductive bed where Rs is 5 ohm m, the bed thickness is 3 feet and the apparent resistivity from the curve is Ra = Ryp = 2 ohm me Tae Rep cor,/Rrp feo the chart ts «87. RE OF yp cor. ~ P75 ohm m. 5Figure 3-7 (courtesy Schlumberger) INDUCTION LOG BED THICKNESS CORRECTION 6FFAO or ILd and 6FF28 SO 6 a «8 6 20 a 28 ee 2- Sree erect eee Figure 3-8 CORRECTION FOR THIN, CONDUCTIVE BEDS 6FFAO, ILd, 6FF28 Note: Ryp = Ra (courtesy Schlumberger) 0.9 Cc a@ ira 0.8 5 x 2 x 07 Cc Mi Ole atillole 04 06 0.8 1.0 Rip 7R, Ra = 2-44 Rs 5 Rup cor. = poe x 8p = 87 X25 1.74 ohm m= Rt ‘1D or re = REX Re = .35K5= 1,75 ohm si PRCEEEEPESePEECEEere Figure 3-9 (courtesy of Schlumberger) INDUCTION LOG BED THICKNESS CORRECTION ' ‘ tLm a ete 1, © Sehlumbereey © Schlumberger, 8 te te 2 ae ae oe Bed Thickness, fectea - Induction Borehole Corrections 7 Induction log borehole corrections are for round boreholes, where the Rm is constant and the borehole bit size correction will be a constant. ‘There are a couple of traps when it cones to making borehole corrections: one is that when a hole caves larger than bit tize they are not generally round. Hilchie showed that calipers must fe used carefully when the hole is not round. In a non-round hole you may nake too large or too small a correction depending upon the Zaliper used. Second, in regions where there are high resistivity formations the logging engineers often make the correction in the hole. These should be noted but often are not. Figure 3-10 shows a borehole correction chart. for Schlumberger tools. Induction logs are designed te be run with 1.5 inch stand-offs. The chart shows clearly that if no stand-off is used the borehole signal can be large. Data such as Seand-off, etc. may be found on the log heading. To correct for borehole effects the apparent resistivity from the induction log must be con- Nerted to conductivity after which the borehole’ signal is subtracted. Example 3-2 Induction Borehole Correction the appatent formation resistivity from the induction log is 25 ohm m- The borehole is 14.6 inches in diameter. The mud resistivity at that depth and temperature is +325 ohm m. The stand-off is 1.5 inches. From figure 3-10 the correction is 5.5 millimhos/m. Ga = 1000/Ra = 1000/25 = 40 Ce (borehole corrected) = Ca - correction ~40 ~ 5.5 ~ 34.5 millimhos/a. Ra = 1000/34.5 = 29 ohm m. ‘This example uses a very large borehole and a modestly salty mud so the correction is larger than normally experienced. Tavasion Corrections to perforn an invasion correction, i.e. to correct the apparent resistivity for the effects of the depth of invasion and the resistivity vf the invaded zone, requires a minimum of three resistivity curves with different depthe of investigation that cover the invasion front. the fest situation is where one curve is reading the Rxo zone, one mostly beet at sone and the third about the Same amount of both. If invasion is Nery, very deep all three curves will read the sane, Rxo. . Tf invasion Je very shallow the three curves will read the sane, Rt, and an invasion ie wertton dg trivial. ‘The Induction Electric Log end Induction Spherically focused Log only have two resistivity curves end thus are not invasion Correctable. ‘The Dual Induction logs have a deep induction, a medium Seuuetion and an SFL or laterolog. These can be corrected for invasion assuning the invasion acts like a piston and the transition between the invaded zone (assumed to be honogeneous) and the virgin zone 4s Sharp. It should be renenbered that invasion is really an electrical property change. Tf Rxo = Rt the logs will show no invasion. Figure 3-11 is a tornado chart for a Schlumberger Dual Induction spherically Focused Log (DIL-SFL). Charts for other dual induction logs 39Figure 3-10 (courtesy of Schlumberger) INDUCTION LOG BOREHOLE CORRECTION INDUCTION LOG BOREHOLE ‘CORRECTION ——6FFA0, IL ILm STANO-OFF| (inexes) ae 6FF4O He) e ioe HOLE DIAMETER (INCHES) “ee 20" BOREHOLE GEOMETRICAL FACTOR WOLE sionaL = HOLE GE Vem t 4g 20 25 30 noc—> fy, SIGNAL {meos/m) 40are included in the Appendix which contains all charts used in the text. The plotted paraneters from the log are the apparent resistivities from the deep induction (Ryp), the medium induction (Ryy) and the SFL. (Rgy_)- The correction factor, Rt/Ryp, is read from the center part of the Ghart. The other data such as dj(dtaneter of invasion) and Rxo/Rt are not realistic because of the assumption that a piston type invasion was assumed in the construction of the chart. If for any reason the chart you use is not skin effect correct you will not have made a big enough correction for invasion. Skin effect is the loss that occurs when an electromagnetic wave is transmitted through a media with a conductivity greater than zero. Induction logs are automatically cor- rected for skin effect and so charts must also be corrected for skin effect. Exaaple 3-3” DIL-SFL Invasion correction ‘The deep, medium and SFL readings are 10, 14 and 90 ohm m respectively. Rse 90 9 > ®m, Wl Rp 7 we yp” 10 Rt/Ryp from the chart is .89 Re/Ryp X Rpg 5 Re = 89 X10 = 8.9 or 9.0 ohm m. 311Figure 3-11 (courtesy Schlumberger) DUAL INDUCTION-SPHERICALLY FOCUSED. LOG Rsei /RipCHAPTER 3. PROBLEMS (optional) 1 Classify the following resistivity curves as Rt, Ri, Rxo or if the curve falls between two of the classifications so state. &. deep induction, SFL, short normal, medium induction, 6FF40 laterolog 8. The deep induction reads an apparent resistivity of 22 ohm m in a bed that is 12 feet thick. What is Re if the adjacent shale bed has a resistivity of 3 ohm mn? A thin bed of 2.5 feet thick hae an apparent induction resistivity (itd) of 2 ohm m, The adjacent bed resistivity is 9 ohm m What ds Re? ‘A wedium induction has an apparent resistivity of 25 ohm m. The pit size is 10.75 inches in diameter and the stand-off is 1.5 inches. If the mud has a resistivity of 1 ohm m @ 75°F and the temperature at that depth is 25°F. What is the resistivity after making a orehole correction? A DIL-SPL shows the following values opposite a formation: Ripa = 3:05 Ry = 4 and Reg = 18- What is Re, diameter of invasion ‘and Rxo according to the charts? 3-13CHAPTER 4 SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) LOG =~ ‘The Spontaneous Potential (SP) curve is a record versus depth of the direct current potential of a moving electrode in the borehole add a fixed reference surface electrode. ‘The SP is used to: 1) identify. permeable beds, 2) locate the boun- davies of permeable beds and to correlate these beds from well to well, 3) determine the values of formation water resistivity (Rw), and 4) give a qualitative indication of formation shaliness. the SP is recorded as a linear relative direct current potential with no recorded zero. The amplitude of each excursion is recorded in millivolts with the base reference being the shale baseline. Opposite Shales the SP records a relatively constant potential with @ small | @rift either positive or negative. The SP is normally recorded on the extreme left hand side of the log grid. Typically the shale baseline is about two divisions to the left of the depth column. ‘The Electrochemical Component of the SP Vounce and Rust used.a simple experiment to show that two waters of Gifferent salinities and a shale, all separated by permeable membranes, gre an electrochemical cell. As shown in Figure 4-1 the current flows from the fresh to the salty water and then through the shale. The voltage created is 2 function of the salinity Gifference between the fresh and salty Current catterenst eles, Te both wacers Kms have the same salinity the voltage is zero. If you reverse the two waters the current flows in the opposite direction. This cell is similer to the conditions existing in the wellbore, where the drilling mud is fresh and the + formation water is salty. Figure 4-2 i Permeable shows this equivalent situation. The electrochemical component of the SP nay be separated into two components} the membrane potential and the 1iquid=———————_ junetion potential. Figure 4-1 Mounce and Rust Model Fresh Mud: ater Fresh Curent Shale, Mud > =| or Water Salty Water fe) eee sand. ore.) (Permeable) Thote Figure 4-3 SP menbrane and liquid- © Figure 4-2 The SP cell borehole junction potential equivalentthe membrane potential (shown in’ Figure 4~3) results fron’ the shale being essentially an ion selective membrane which allows the passage of cations (Nat), but not anions (CI). ‘The Liquid junction is a result of the Salty formation, water being iin contact with the fresh mud filtrate. ‘The ions migrate'from the very salty to the fresher water. ‘The chlorine ion has a much greater mobility than the sodium ion and thus migrates more quickly. A net negative charge is created in the less saline water. The liquid-junetion represents about 17% of the total potential. For a clean (non-shaly) formation ‘the electrochemical potential is Ee = ~ Ke log ay 1) nf where Ec is the potential of the cell in millivolts ds the activity of the formation water a’, is the activity of the mud filtrate and Ke‘is proportional to formation temperature and is Ke = 0133. T + 61 (4-2) where T is in degrees Fahrenheit. When converted to resistivities euation 4-1 becomes Be =~ Ke log Rafeg. (4-3) Rveq where Rmfeq is the equivalent resistivity of the mud filtrate ‘and Rweq is the equivalent resistivity of the formation water. a Figure 4-4 solves equations 4-2 and 4-3 for Rweq. The SP used should be corrected for bed thickness (if necessary). SSP is Ec or SP (corrected). Rnfeq is at formation temperature. Figure 4-5 shows the relationship between Rweq and Rw, and between Rnfeq and Rmf. I recommend the use of only the solid lines on Figure 4-5. These Gre for NaCl solutions. The dashed lines are for average amounts of calcium and magnesium and I do not use them. Rmfeq = Rmf when the values are greater than 1 ohm m. Rweq = Rw when the values are greater than .1 ohm m. Experience has indicated that the solid lines on Figure 4-5 work even in areas like Wyoming and Eastern Venezuela where the dashed lines were developed for. If you are calculating Rw from the SP and you have a gyp or KCl mud, see the appendix for Chapter 4.Figure 4-4 Nomograph for Rweq determination from the SP a) If Rnf is less than 0.1 ohmm convert to Rmfeq with Figure 4-5. Otherwise Rmf = Rmfeq >) Tf Rweq calculated is less than 0.1 use Figure 4-5 ‘ro convert to Rw. Otherwise Rw = Rweq. c) KCL muds and Gyp muds use special procedure in Appendix. STATIC - Rmfeq/Rweq Rweq 001 420. © Schlumberser SSP © Ee = -(.193 T (OF) +61) log Bafea °P, (4) +40: Ryeq : qi) courtesy Schlumberger. . 4-3, xFigure 4-5 Rw and Rweq (also Rnf and Rmfeq) Relationships Schidmbereet 05 0.2 ohm al Rw (or Bmf) 002° 005: Ol 02 05, Yor o2 O08 10 2 Rweq (or Rmfeq) at Formation Temperature (courtesy Schlumberger) 4-4Figure 4-6 An SP example with 2 permeable bed NV SOHLUMDERCER WELL SURTEVING CORPORATION CONDUCTIVITY, millimhos/m = RESISTIVITY ‘ohms. fm ‘SPONTANEOUS-POTENTIAL olla shale BaselineThe Electrokinetic Component of the SP 7 the electrokinetic (streaming) potential results-from the flow of an electrolyte through a non-metallic permeable medium. The pressure Grop across the material and the resistivity of the electrolyte all con~ tribute to the magnitude of this potential. Generally it is considered thar the electrokinetic potential is created across the mud cake and also shales. These two potentials are usually equal and thus cancel each other out and thus are ignored. Blectrokinetic effects can occur opposite pressure depleted formations or where very heavy mud is used opposite subnornaily pressured formations. The effects may also be seen in very low permeability formations where the pressure drop occurs across the formation rather than the mud cake. Electrokinetic effects can be quite large. In general electrokinetic effects on the SP usually make the SP anomaly larger. In general Gleetrokinetic effects are ignored due to our inability to correct for them and the infrequent occurrence. Permeability ‘the formation containing salty vater must be permeable for the SP to develop. The amplitude of the SP (millivolts) is not a function of Gither permeability or porosity. If the formation is permeable, and the med-formation water contrast exists, the SP will develop. The formation does not have to have sufficient permeability for commercial production, just enough to allow ion flow. ‘he sp has @ remarkable ability to repeat upon subsequent runs. Each variation of the SP is physically significant. ‘This becomes apparent when nany small variations correlate from well-to-well over @ wide area. ‘The SP Log Figure 4-6 shows a typical SP log in the Lover Cretaceous in Wyoming. ‘the apparent shale baseline is not as smooth as is often seen in the Gulf Coast. ‘This is probably due to much of the shale section being silty. The large anomaly at 6850-6869 is a permeable bed (the Muddy Sandstone), The amplitude ‘of the SP is taken, as shown, from the shale baseline to the maximum amplitude in the permeable section. Each divi- sion represents 10 millivolts and if you move from the shale baseline fo the permeable bed in a negative direction the SP is in negative mi11i- volts, This is a situation where the formation water is saltier than ‘he mad filtrate. If the reverse were true the SP would deflect positively in the permeable bed (the opposite or right direction). Factors Influencing the SP the statie SP (SSP) refers to the maximum SP that can be obtained for a given shale and the two waters of different salinity, Tt is essentially the potential of the electrochemical cell with no current flowing. the SP, as measured in the borehole, is influenced by bed thickness, bed resistivity, invasion, borehole diameter, shaliness and of course Rnf/Rw ratio.Bed Thickness and Resistivity Influences Figure 4-7 shows the influence on the SP of both resistivity and bed thickness. The extreme left hand figure shows the SP where the formation resistivity is low. The upper thick bed SP reaches out to the SSP and has a flat top which is an indication the bed is thick- The bed lover show vhat a thin bed looks like. The curve is pointed. A thin perneable bed does not reach out to the full potential just as as thin shale stringer does not pull the SP all the way back to the shale baseline. In general it takes a permeable bed to move the SP curve out to the clean permeable bed line and it takes a shale to pull the SP back towards the shale baseline when the SP is out at the cléan permeable line ‘he bed boundaries on the SP are at the inflection point. Shown on Figure 4-7 is en increase in formation resistivity as you look towards the right. Higher resistivity reduces the amplitude ve the SP when the bed is not very thick and also rounds the bed boun- Garies. The amplitude and shape are thus affected by the resistivity Gnd the bed thickness. Figure 4-8 quantitatively shows the influence of both resistivity and bed thickness. It sliould be noticed that no matter how high the bed resistivity, if the bed is thick enough the SP will teach its SSP. The bed thickness for this chart is taken from the SP and Ri is the resistivity of the short normal, SFL or laterolog associated furh the induction curves. This chart is for a permeable bed that is Homogeneous (no shele stringers in the middle) imbedded in a thick shale bed. If you do not have this condition the chart only tells you the qualitative magnitude of the correction. Figure 4-7 B shows the influence of impermeable beds interspersed with sheles and permeable beds. An impermeable bed surrounded by shale Will have no influence on the SP shale baseline. When you get a shale, then an impermeable bed (like a tight limestone) and then @ permeable bed the current from the cell is restricted to the borehole opposite the impermeable bed because this is the easiest flow path, and the SP Sndicates a sloping straight line. In sectiots like the lower part of Figure 4-7 B it is alnost impossible to distinguish the permeable streats from the others. Shales always pull the SP back towards the shale baseline but if you are out at the SSP and an impermeable bed is encountered there is no change in SP and the SP stays where it was, In short it is very @ifficult to analyse the SP in long thick carbonate sections. Borehole and Invasion Influences It is the author's experience that borehole and invasion influences are significantly less than would be indicated by the literature based Gs model studies. In general these effects can be ignored when dealing with the SP. WoT ceFigure 4-7 ‘SP RESPONSE CURVES A) The Influence of Bed Thickness and Resistivity smo et B) The Influence of Impermeable Zones {after Dail) 4-8Figure 4-8 Empirical SP CorrectionChart (after Doll) 100 90| 80 70) 6! 80 a SP Correction Factor 40 30 20) 1s bed thickness — feet 10 12 15 20225. ~3 4 s 6 7 8 910 SP cortection factor 9Shale Influences Shale reduces the SP amplitude in permeable zones. In water bearing zones the SP reduction is essentially proportional to the amount of shale in the permeable bed. If the volume of shale in the permeable bed is 25% the SP is reduced 25%. In hydrocarbon bearing beds the SP reduction is greater than the volume of shale present. This sP shale “hydrocarbon supression" is thought to result from a change in the oxidation- hydrocarbon zone reduction potential of the bed. Hydro- carbon suppression as shown in Figure water zone 4-9 is often used as @ qualitative indication of the presence of hydro- carbons. The author has found that shale gas zones tend to exhibit more suppres- sion than ofl zones but both oil and Figure 4-9 SP hydrocarbon Suppression gas zone suppressions are not predic~ table. The zone must have some shale in it if hydrocarbon suppression is O to occur. Shale Baseline Shifts The shale baseline normally drifts. Sometimes the logging engineer will mechanically shift the SP so that it will stay on the grid. These should be marked but are not always. Sometimes they are sharp while other times the logging engineer slowly shifts the curve over several hundred feet. Some shale baseline shifts occur due to changes in shale type or changes in geological ages. It is generally difficult to determine if the baseline shift is due to geological reasons or the engineer unless it occurs ina great number of wells. Miscellaneous Factors Influencing the SP this is a list of anomallies.that show up on SP's that sometimes can be remedied and other times not. In an elenentary discussion of log int- ertpretation such as this these should only just be mentioned. Oo Magnetism Some moving part of the logging truck, such as the drum, clutch or driving chain becomes magnetized. As this magnet moves by the cable it induces a voltage on the SP. These are usually cyclic and may appear as a sine wave or a "chopped" sine wave such as Figure 4-9. These can be remedied by the logging engineer in the field. Bimetallic Effects These occur when the logging tool or cable head are not properly insulated. ‘wo dissimilar metals will form a bimetalic cell, like in corrosion, and when the logging tool passes a high resistivity zone the cell currents are held within the borehole and effect the SP. ‘This is ot common on induction logs but very comon on $P's run with a Sonie log.¢ Figure 4-9 Magnetism Influence on the SP SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL Magnetism on the SP ‘ooes 006s ae RESISTIVITY,Figure 4-10 An example of SP bimetalism on the SP (courtesy W.L.Burnham) RESISTIVITY LONG AND SHORT NORMALS 0090T coop sp —> | RUN # 2 1 BIMETALLIC EFFECT Run fl/ oozoT 4-12Figure 410 is a good example of bimetalism on the SP. The shape is very characteristic. Insufficient “Invasion Figure 4-11 shows an example where the lower part of the sand is not invaded and the upper part is. This occurs in formations with high Vertical permeablity where the mud filtrate can "float" on top of the Very salty formation water. The SP is reduced in the lower section beceuse there is salty water on one side of the mud cake and fresh mud on the other side. This is the condition to create a menbrane potential This positive influence reduces the SP. Telluric Currents ta Northern North America telluric currents are quite common, The currents that flow through the earth are particularly active when the Syorthern Lights" are active. Figure 4-12 shows an example of telluric currents on the SP. The SP is useless and would have been better to have be taken off the log. The multiple runs show no correlation between runs- 7 4-13Figure 4-11 An example of insufficient ‘invasion on the SP (courtesy M.P.Tixter) SCHEMATIC. SP schematic of problem sHaLe Ne 0600 sP Zz? eo 30700 Run #1 Rm 1.3 @ 180° 4, = 9 7/8" Run #2 Rn 0.95 @ 180° Lolisiana 4-14,4-15ALGORITHM 1 Rw DETERMINATION FROM SP 1. 2. 3. 10. n. ALGORITHM 1 DATA SHEBT 4 10. Tr 1D T (surface) 1 Raf = oF Rm @ oF SP from log av. Bed thickness ft. “sp correction Ri sR /Rm correction factor Establish the shale baseline on the SP Pick out permeable zones Do all the thick zones have about the same SP? yes ~~ pick any thick zone no -- pick thick zone near or the zone you are interested in. ~if in transitional zone (see figure right) be very careful. Determine formation temperature~ Fig. 2-3 or Eqn. 2-3 need ~ surface temp, bottom hole temp. and total depth Determine Rmf and Rm at formation temperature-----Pig. 2-2 Read SP amplitude from shale baseline to maximum constant deflection. Determine bed thickness from SP deflection points. Do you need to, or can you correct for bed thickness effects 4f SP looks like: needs no correction q correctior needs correction---Read Ri from short normal, {SFL} or LL c ~--use Figure 4-8 Using SP from step 8 (corrected if necessary) go to Rmf less than 0.1 correct to Rfeq ~-Fig. 4-5 Enter Fig. 4-4 - with SP, Tg, Rmi or Rmfeq Come out with Rweq Convert Rweq to Rw with Fig. 4-5 use solid NaCl lines Fig. 4-4 Check Rw from SP against ancther source if available Rweq Rw : 4-16