CE202

Strength of Materials

Chapter One
Concept of Stress
 1.1. Introduction
• The main objective of the study of mechanics of
materials is to provide the future engineer with the
means of analyzing and designing various machines
and load bearing structures.

• Both the analysis and design of a given structure

involve the determination of stresses and
deformations. This chapter is devoted to the concept
of stress.
 1.2. Review of Statics

• Perform a static analysis to determine the internal

force in each structural member and the reaction
forces at the supports
Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from supports
and the loads and reaction forces are
indicated

• Conditions for static equilibrium:

∑ M C = 0 = Ax (0.6 m ) − (30 kN )(0.8 m )
Ax = 40 kN
∑ Fx = 0 =Ax + C x
C x = − Ax = −40 kN
∑ Fy = 0 = Ay + C y − 30 kN = 0
Ay + C y = 30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations
Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
∑ M B = 0 = − Ay (0.8 m )
Ay = 0
substitute into the structure
equilibrium equation
C y = 30 kN

• Results:
A = 40 kN → C x = 40 kN ← C y = 30 kN ↑

Reaction forces are directed along boom

and rod
Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two
forces which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel

to to an axis between the force application
points, equal in magnitude, and in opposite
directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:
∑ B =0
r
F
FAB FBC 30 kN
= =
4 5 3
FAB = 40 kN FBC = 50 kN
 1.3. Stress definition
STRESS: The force per unit area, or the intensity of
the forces distributed over a given section.

P
σ = .....(1)
A

Units : ( N ) = Pa
(m2 )
 •Units of stress (SI metric)
1000 Pa = kPa
106 Pa = MPa
109 Pa = GPa

Positive sign indicates a tensile stress and

negative sign indicates a compressive stress.
 Type of Stresses

1. Normal Stress
2. Shear Stress
3. Bearing Stress
1.5. Axial Loading: Normal Stress

The resultant of the internal forces for
an axially loaded member is normal to
a section cut perpendicular to the
member axis.

The force intensity on that section is
defined as the normal stress.

P
σ ave =
A

The normal stress at a particular point may not be
equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy

∆F
σ = lim
∆A → 0 ∆ A

The detailed distribution of stress is statically indeterminate, i.e.,
can not be found from statics alone.

The normal stress varies across a section in a

slender rod subjected to equal and opposite
concentrated loads P&P’.

The variation in stress is quite noticeable in the

neighborhood of points of application and
small at the section away of these points.
Centric & Eccentric Loading

A uniform distribution of stress in a
section infers that the line of action for the
resultant of the internal forces passes
through the centroid of the section.

A uniform distribution of stress is only
possible if the concentrated loads on the
end sections of two-force members are
applied at the section centroids. This is
referred to as centric loading.

If a two-force member is eccentrically

loaded, then the resultant of the stress
distribution in a section must yield an
axial force and a moment.

The stress distributions in eccentrically

loaded members cannot be uniform or
symmetric.
1.6. Shearing Stress

Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to
the member AB.

Corresponding internal forces act in the

plane of section C and are called shearing
forces.

The resultant of the internal shear force

distribution is defined as the shear of the
section and is equal to the load P.

The corresponding average shear stress is,

P
τ ave =
A
 Y

τmin

τmax τ

τave

Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the member surfaces to

maximum values that may be much larger than the average value.

The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to be uniform.
 Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

P F
τ ave = = τ ave =
P F /2 F
= =
A A A A 2A
1.7. Bearing Stress in Connections

Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces
of the members they
connect.

The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the
force exerted on the pin.

Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
σb = =
A td
 1.8. Example

Determine:
A. Maximum Normal Stresses in rod BC and Boom AB.
B. Maximum Shearing Stress on the bolts at A, B, and C.
C. Bearing stress at bracket A and rod AB at A.
 Solution:

Determine forces in each member.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN
(compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

FAB = -40 kN FBC = + 50 kN

A. Normal Stresses

Rod BC: FBC = + 50 kN

(The rod is in tension with

an axial force of 50 kN)

Rod center
(circular cross-
section)

Rod end

σmax = 167 MPa

A. Normal Stress

Rod AB: FBC = -40 kN (The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40)
A = (30 mm )(50 mm ) = 1.5 × 10−3 m 2

Note: The minimum area sections at the boom ends are unstressed
since the boom is in compression.
Note: The cross sectional area occupied by the bolts is subtracted from the
gross area of the section when computing normal tensile stress since stress
does not transfer through the hole which host the bolt.
TENSION COMPRESSION
 B. Pin Shearing Stress

Bracket C: (Single shear)

2
 25 
A = πr = π  = 491 mm 2 = 491x10 − 6 m 2
2

 2 
P 50x10 3 N
τ ave = = −6 2
= 102 MPa
A 491x10 m

Bracket A: (double shear)

P 20x10 3 N
τ ave = = −6 2
= 40.7 MPa
A 491x10 m
Bracket B:

PG 25x103 N
τave = = −6 2
= 50.9 MPa
A 491x10 mm
C. Bearing Stress

To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom
In member AB at A:
AB, we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,

P 40x10 3 N
σb = = = 53.3 MPa
td ( 30 mm) (25 mm)

In Bracket at A:

To determine the bearing stress at A in the
bracket, we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d =
25 mm,

P 40x10 3 N
σb = = = 32 MPa
td (50 mm) (25 mm)
1.11. Stress on an Oblique Plane
Stress in Two Force Members

Axial forces on a two force member
result in only normal stresses on a
plane cut perpendicular to the
member axis.

Transverse forces on bolts and pins
result in only shear stresses on the
plane perpendicular to bolt or pin
axis.

Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with
respect to a plane other than one
cut perpendicular to the member
axis.
1.11. Stress on an Oblique Plane

Pass a section through the member
forming an angle θ with the normal
plane.

From equilibrium conditions, the
distributed forces (stresses) on the
plane must be equivalent to the force P.

Resolve P into components normal and
tangential to the oblique section,
F = P cosθ V = P sin θ

The average normal and shear
stresses on the oblique plane are
F P cosθ P
σ= = = cos 2 θ
Aθ A0 A0
cosθ
V P sin θ P
τ= = = sin θ cosθ
Aθ A0 A0
cosθ
Maximum Stresses

Normal and shearing stresses on an
oblique plane
P P
σ = cos 2 θ τ = sin θ cosθ
A0 A0

The maximum normal stress occurs when
the reference plane is perpendicular to the
member axis,
P
σm = τ′ = 0
A0

The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane
at + 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
τm = sin 45 cos 45 = = σ′
A0 2 A0
1.12. Stress Under General Loadings

A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into two
segments by a plane passing through
Q

The distribution of internal stress
components at point Q may be defined
as,
∆F x
σ x = lim
∆A→ 0 ∆A

∆ V yx ∆ V zx
τ xy = lim τ xz = lim
∆A→ 0 ∆A ∆A→ 0 ∆A

Note that the first subscript in each stress

component indicates that stresses are
exerted on a surface perpendicular to the
x-axis, whereas the second subscript
identifies the direction of the stress
component.

Normal stress is positive if tension and negative
otherwise.

The shearing stress components are positive if the

corresponding arrows point, respectively, in the
positive x, y or z directions.

Note that if we pass a section through Q parallel to

the zx plane, we define in the same manner the
stress components σy, τyz, τyx. Finally, a section
through Q parallel to the xy plane yields the
components σz, τzx, τzy.

To facilitate the visualization of the stress condition at point Q, we shall
consider a small cube of side a centered at Q and the stresses exerted on
each of the six faces of the cube.

Note that only three faces of the cube are actually visible and that
equal and apposite stress components act on the hidden faces.

The stresses acting on the faces of the cube differ slightly from the
stresses at Q, however the error involved is small and vanishes as
side a of the cube approaches zero.

To drive the relation between the shearing stress components, we

shall transform the stresses to forces by multiplying by ∆A (the area
of each face).

The combination of forces generated by the stresses must satisfy
the conditions for equilibrium:

ΣFx = ΣFy = ΣFz = 0...................{A}

ΣMx = ΣMy = ΣMz = 0...............{B}

Equations {A} are satisfied since forces at hidden faces and shown
ones are equal and opposite.

To apply Equations {B}, the projection of the cubic element and

forces on each of the three planes xy, xz, and zy is considered.

Consider the moments about the z axis:
∑ M z = 0 = (τ xy ∆A)a − (τ yx ∆A)a
τ xy = τ yx
similarly, τ yz = τ zy and τ yz = τ zy

It follows that only 6 components of stress

are required to define the complete state
of stress

The stress components number reduces

from 9 to 6.

It should be indicated that at a given point, shear cannot take
place in one plane only, an equal shearing stress must be
exerted on another plane perpendicular to the first one.

Consider again the case of the a
member under axial loading. Consider,
also a small cube with faces
respectively parallel to the forces at the
member and recall the results obtained
before.

The same loading condition may lead

to different interpretation of the stress
situation at a given point, depending
upon the orientation of the element
considered.
1.13. Design Considerations: Factor of Safety

Ultimate Strength: The largest stress which may be applied to the
specimen and after which either it breaks or begins to carry less
stress (σu). It is defined as the ultimate load divided by the cross
sectional area of the specimen. There are several procedures to
determine the ultimate strength of a material.

Pu
σu = where σ u is the Ultimate Normal Strength
A
Tu Pu

Necking
Plugging

Tu Pu

Ultimate Shearing Strength: Determined by different procedures.

Pu Pu

Double Shear Single Shear

Vu
τu = where τ u is the Ultimate Shearing Strength
A

Pu ,b
σ u ,b = where σ u ,b is the Ultimate Bearing Strength
A

The structural member must be designed so that its ultimate load is
considerably larger than the load the member or component will be
allowed to carry under normal condition of utilization. This smaller load
is referred to as the allowable or working or design load. The ultimate
load (stress) is reduced to the allowable load by the Safety Factor,
defined as:
UlitmateLoador Stress
Factorof Safety=
AllowableLoador Stress

The factor of safety ranges from 1.5 to 3 for most engineering

applications. The selection of the appropriate Factor of Safety requires
engineering judgment based on many considerations such as:

(1) Variation in material properties

(2) Fatigue Load
(3) Type of Loading: Static.. Dynamic
(4) Type of Failure: Sudden, Gradual
(5) Uncertainty in Analysis Methods
(6) Material’s Deterioration
(7) Importance of Designed Member