Physical hazards control at workplace - Methodology and Strategy

Garima Singh, Aparna R. Sawatkar, A.P.Sathe

Industrial Hygiene & Safety Section
Radiation Safety Systems Division
BARC, Mumbai- 85
Email: tune2gari7@gmail.com

Abstract:

Industrial workers face numerous physical and chemical stresses, exposures to which may
cause injury or illness. Acoustic noise, electromagnetic radiations, extremes of temperature and
pressure could be some of the physical agents causing occupational stresses at workplaces.

Acoustic noise and heat stress are expected in many operations. After identifying the areas
where noise and heat stress hazards exist, such hazards are evaluated and controls are planned to
minimize the hazards and/or keep the exposure of workers within the permissible limits. Periodic
medical check up for the persons working in noisy areas includes audiometry.

In a workplace involving heat stress, evaluation of wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) index
is carried out to decide upon appropriate work-rest regimen. Adopting suitable measures to
reduce heat stress includes such a work plan as well.

Physical hazards can be substantially reduced by control strategies. This includes

Elimination (removal of hazard from workplace), Substitution (alternative operations or
equipment), Engineering controls (mechanize task, isolate source or operator etc.),
Administrative controls (training, job planning, rotation and scheduling, changes in work
procedure), use of personal protective equipment. Some of the effective measures adopted to
control exposure to occupational noise and heat stresses are discussed.

OCCUPATIONAL NOISE:

Sound can be defined as any pressure variation that the human ear can detect. It is
stimulus that produces a sensory response in the brain. Noise is often used to mean unpleasant
sound that the listener does not want to hear.
Noise can be continuous, variable, intermittent or impulsive depending on how it changes
over time. Continuous noise is noise which remains constant and stable over a given time period.
The noise of boilers in a powerhouse is relatively constant and can therefore be classified as
continuous. Most manufacturing noise is variable or intermittent. Different operations or
different noise sources cause the sound changes over time. Noise is intermittent if there is a mix
of relatively quiet periods and noisy. Impulse or impact noise is a very short burst of loud noise,
which lasts for less than one second. Gunfire or the noise produced by punch presses is examples
of such noise.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF NOISE

The two kinds of health effects of noise are non-auditory effects and auditory effects. Noise
induced hearing loss is the main concern related to occupational noise exposure.

Auditory Effects
The main auditory effects include:
Acoustic trauma: Sudden hearing damage caused by short burst of extremely loud noise such as
a gun shot.
Tinnitus: Ringing or buzzing in the ear.
Temporary hearing loss: Also known as temporary threshold shift (TTS) which occurs
immediately after exposure to a high level of noise. There is gradual recovery when the affected
person spends time in a quiet place. Complete recovery may take several hours.
Permanent hearing loss: Permanent hearing loss, also known as permanent threshold shift
(PTS), progresses constantly as noise exposure continues month after month and year after year.
The hearing impairment is noticeable only when it is substantial enough to interfere with routine
activities. At this stage, a permanent and irreversible hearing damage has occurred. Noise-
induced hearing damage cannot be cured by medical treatment and worsens as noise exposure
continues. When noise exposure stops, the person does not regain the lost hearing sensitivity. As
the employee ages, hearing may worsen as “age-related hearing loss” adds to the existing noise-
induced hearing loss.

Non-Auditory Effects
Hearing loss from long-term exposure to noise has been recognized as a hazard for a long time.
However, what the non-auditory effects of noise are is still not certain. In general, the suspected
effects include cardiovascular function (hypertension, changes to blood pressure and/or heart
rate), and changes in breathing, annoyance, sleep, physical health and mental health. In the
workplace, non-auditory effects of noise include problems with oral communications. It has also
been shown that absenteeism appears to be higher among workers in noisy industries. It has not
been concluded whether this is form psychological aversion to noise or from physiological
consequences of noise stress.
Non-auditory effects can be divided into two categories:
Physiological effects can be temporary or permanent. Some of them are as follows:
1. The startling response of the body to loud noise, where muscles burst into activities,
generally, with the intention to protect.
2. The muscle tension response, where muscles tend to contract in the presence of loud noise.
3. The respiratory reflexes, where the respiratory rhythm tends to change when noise is present
4. Changes in the heart beat pattern
5. Changes in the diameter of the blood vessels, particularly in the skin.
All those effects are similar to the response of the body to other stressors.
Performance effects: Noise can interfere with verbal communications and can be distracting
and annoying. The presence of noise interferes with the understanding of what other people say.
If exposed to noisy environments, people generally prefer to reduce the noise loudness, avoid it,
or leave the noisy area if possible. Depending of the type of activity, noise can severely affect
efficiency of a task performance.
Other causes of hearing loss: Noise affects the hearing organs (cochlea) in the inner ear. That is
why noise-induced hearing loss is sensory-neural type of hearing loss. Certain medications and
diseases may also damage to the inner ear resulting in hearing loss as well. Generally, it is not
possible to distinguish sensory-neural hearing loss caused by exposure to noise from sensory-
neural hearing loss due to other causes. Medical judgment, in such cases, is based on the noise
exposure history. Workers in noisy environments who are also exposed to vibration (e.g., from a
jack hammer) experience greater hearing loss than those exposed to the same level of noise but
not to vibration. Some chemicals are ototoxic; that is, they are toxic to the organs of hearing and
balance or the nerves that go to these organs. This means that noise-exposed workers who are
also exposed to ototoxic chemicals (e.g., toluene, carbon disulfide) may suffer from more
hearing impairment than those who have the same amount of noise exposure without any
exposure to ototoxic chemicals.

ANALYSIS OF NOISE EXPOSURE

Sound may consist of one pure tone but mostly it is a mixture of many tones of different
volumes (loudness) and pitches (high or low frequency). The loudness is measured in decibels
(dB). The pitch is measured in hertz (Hz).
The sensitivity of the human ear to sound depends on the frequency or pitch of the sound.
People hear some frequencies better than others. If a person hears two sounds of the same sound
pressure but different frequencies, one sound may appear louder than the other. This occurs
because people hear high frequency noise much better than low frequency noise.
Noise measurement readings can be adjusted to correspond to this peculiarity of human
hearing. A-weighting filter, which is built into the instrument, de-emphasizes low frequencies of
pitches. Decibels measured using this filter are A-weighted and are called dB (A). Legislation on
workplace noise normally gives exposure limits in dB (A).
A-weighting serves two important purposes:
1. Gives a single number measure of noise level by integrating sound levels at all frequencies
2. Gives a scale for noise level as experienced or perceived by the human ear.

Sound pressure level in decibels is defined in the following way:

dB = 20 log (Sound Pressure/Reference Pressure)

The decibel scale for sound pressure uses as the reference pressure the lowest noise that the
healthy young person can hear (0.00002 Pa). It divides all other sound pressure by this amount
when calculating the decibel value. It divides all other sound pressure by this amount when
calculating the decibel value.
Measuring noise levels and workers’ noise exposures is the most important part of a
workplace hearing conservation and noise control program. It helps identify work locations
where there are noise problems, employees who may be affected, and where additional noise
measurements need to be made.
For occupational hygiene purposes, the sound pressure level is measured to determine
noise exposure. Various instruments and techniques may be used. The choice depends on the
workplace noise and the information needed. However, the first step is to determine if there is a
noise problem in the workplace. A walk-through survey helps in making this decision. If the
noise is louder than busy city traffic, people have to raise their voice to talk to someone, at the
end of the work shift people have to increase the volume of their radio or TV to a level too loud
for others, then certainly noise hazard exist. The second step is to determine personal noise
exposure levels; that is, the amounts of noise to which individual employees are exposed. If the
workplace noise remains steady, noise survey data can be used to determine employee
exposures. However, noise dosimetry is necessary if the workplace noise levels vary throughout
the day or if the workers are mobile.
The critical factors in the analysis of noise exposure are the A-weighted sound level; the
frequency composition, or spectrum of the noise; and the duration and distribution of noise
exposure during a typical workday.
The most common instruments used for measuring noise are the sound level meter
(SLM), noise dosimeter and frequency analyzer. The SLM consists of a microphone, electronic
circuits and a readout display. The microphone detects the small air pressure variations
associated with sound and changes them into electrical signals. These signals are then processed
by the electronic circuitry of the instrument. The readout displays the sound level in decibels. A
standard SLM takes only instantaneous noise measurements. This is sufficient in workplaces
with continuous noise levels. However, in workplaces with impulse, intermittent or variable
noise levels, the SLM makes it difficult to determine a person’s average exposure to noise over a
work shift. One solution in such workplace is a noise dosimeter.
A noise dosimeter is a small, light device that clips to a person’s belt with a small
microphone that fastens to the person’s collar, close to an ear. The dosimeter stores the noise
level information and carries out an averaging process. It is useful in industry where noise
usually varies in duration and intensity, and where the person changes locations.
Frequency analysis is measuring noise level at each frequency of pitch. Frequency
analysis is not required when the purpose of noise measurement is to assess compliance with
regulatory exposure limits or to assess risk of hearing loss. For such purposes the A-weighted
noise level in dB (A), percent noise dose or time-weighted average (TWA) equivalent sound
level is sufficient. The frequency analysis is usually needed only for the selection of appropriate
engineering control methods. Sometimes it is necessary to determine the actual frequency
distribution of the noise. A detailed frequency analysis is called narrow band analysis. In this
method, the entire audible frequency range is divided into frequency windows of fixed width of a
few hertz and noise level is measured in dB units at each of these frequency windows. Narrow
band analysis is normally is normally not needed for workplace noise. Such analysis is used for
engineering measurements. For workplace noise, we need octave band analysis.
Octave bands are identified by their centre frequency. The band width increases as the
centre frequency increases. The audible sound frequency range (approximately 20 to 20,000Hz)
has been divided into 11 octave bands for this purpose. An octave band filter set can be attached
to an SLM to measure the sound level in each octave band.
A noise survey takes noise measurement through out an entire plant or section to identify
noisy areas. Noise surveys provide very useful information, which enables us to identify:
1. areas where employees are likely to be exposed to harmful levels of noise and personal
dosimetry may be needed.
2. machines and equipment, which generate harmful levels of noise,
3. employees who might be exposed to unacceptable noise levels, and
4. noise control options to reduce noise exposure.
A noise survey involves measuring noise level at selected locations throughout an entire plant or
sections to identify noisy areas.

PERMISSIBLE LIMITS OF EXPOSURE FOR OCCUPATIONAL NOISE

Permissible limits of exposure have been prescribed in the Model Rules framed by the
Directorate General Factory Advice Service & Labour Institutes (DGFASLI), Ministry of
Labour, Government of India under the Factories Act 1948 for continuous noise. These limits are
laid down based on the duration of noise exposure at various sound levels in a day. The
permissible limits of exposure emphasize that factories should reduce employees’ exposure to
noise to the permissible levels by adopting suitable engineering or administrative controls. If
these effects are not successful, personal protective equipment must be provided to the workers
along with effective Hearing Conservation Programmes in the factory. The permissible limits of
exposure is 90 dB measured with an A frequency weighting for 8 hours exposure and the higher
level permitted is 115 dB (A) for 15 minutes. The permissible limits of exposure for noise are
presented in Table 1 (DGFASLI, 1987).
Table -1

Exposure (continuous or a number of Sound Pressure Level in dB (A)

short term exposure per day in hours)
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1 102
½ 110
¼ 115

The permissible limits for impulse noise have not been prescribed in the Model Rules. However,
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist (ACGIH) has laid down threshold
limit values for impact noise, presented in Table 2 (ACGIH, 1993). No exposures in excess of
140 decibels (peak sound pressure level) are permitted.

Table 2

Sound Level dB* Permitted number of Impulses or

Impacts per day
140 100
130 1000
120 10000

*Decibels peak sound pressure level, reference sound pressure level 20 µp.
METHODS OF NOISE CONTROL:
ENGINEERING CONTROL MEASURES:
1. Machinery and production processes
1. Enclose entire machines, or particularly noisy parts of machines.
2. Service the machines regularly to keep them in good condition and thereby reduce the
noise.
3. Reduce the vibration in component parts and casings, etc.
4. Replace metal parts by parts made of sound-absorbing material, e.g. plastic, rubber or
other soundproof materials.
5. A well-designed soundproof casing can reduce the level up to 55 dB (A).
2. Noisy Equipment
1. Changing the type of pneumatic equipment to reduce high-frequency components.
2. Replacing the equipment with a quieter model e.g. quieter fan with proper blades.
3. Properly fastening some noise-producing parts.
3. Materials Handling: Noise generated by the handling of materials can often be reduced.
Avoid banging and knocking materials during handling, particularly transportation equipment.
1. Reduce the height that goods in bins and racks can fall.
2. Reinforce sheet metal construction that are hit by packets or materials, should be covered
with soundproofing sandwich sheets or similar materials.
3. Reduce sharp blows by using rubber or plastic coverings.
4. Reduce the speed of the conveyor systems.
5. Install several conveyor belts to divide the load and thereby reduce the speed.
4. Work premises: The distribution of sound on the actual work premises can be reduced by:
1. Covering the ceilings and walls with sound-absorbing materials (porous material).
2. Using sound-absorbing screens
3. Building sound-proof control areas and rest rooms.
If noise sources are isolated by a wall or enclosed in sound-proofing casings the noise
level can be reduced both near the source of the noise and further away. Those people who are
working at quieter jobs with quieter machines are not then unnecessarily disturbed by
surrounding sources of noise.
It is often necessary to place machinery, which creates noise on elastic pads or feet. This
isolates the vibrations and prevents them from being distributed through the structure of the
building, ducts, pipes, etc. large, heavy machinery should be placed on individual foundations
separated from the main workshop floor.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Noise, which is injurious to hearing, should be dealt by technical measures. If this is not
possible then personal protective equipment should be used. Examples of this are use of ear
plugs and ear muffs.
It is important that hearing protectors be used as long as the person is exposed to a high
level of noise. Even removing them for short periods can involve considerable risk of damage of
hearing.
If ear plugs or ear muffs are to be used, they should be thoroughly tested. To be effective
they must provide a good sealing effect. Also loosely inserted ear plugs or a worn muff will not
protect hearing. Plugs and muffs must be regularly cleaned and repaired or replaced. Full co-
operation of supervisors and workers is necessary to ensure the consistent use of ear protectors.
MEDICAL CONTROL
Hearing loss is measured as threshold shift in dB units using an audiometer. The 0 dB
threshold shift reading of the audiometer represents the average hearing threshold level of an
average young adult with disease-free ears. The PTS (permanent threshold shift), as measured by
audiometry, is dB level of sounds of different frequencies that are just barely audible to that
individual. A positive threshold shift represents the hearing loss and a negative threshold shift
means better than average hearing when compared with the standard.
An audiogram is a plot of threshold intensity versus frequency. A lower point on the
audiogram indicated higher loss. A typical audiogram (dB HL vs. frequency graph) comparing
normal and impaired hearing is shown in Fig.1. The dip or notch at 4 kHz as shown, or at 6 kHz,
is a symptom of noise-induced hearing loss.

Fig.1: Audiogram of normal ears and impaired ears

An audiometer is an instrument, which is used for carrying out these audiometric tests
and procedures. It is capable of generating pure tones at a specific frequency, specific intensity,
and duration, either singly or in series. Audiometry has established itself as a valuable method
for quantitatively determining the degree of hearing loss of a person.

INDUSTRIAL HEAT STRESS:

“Heat stress” is the net (overall) heat burden on the body from the combination of the
body heat generated while working, environmental sources (air temperature, humidity, air
movement, radiation from the sun or hot surfaces/sources) and clothing requirements. In
foundries, steel mills, bakeries, smelters, glass factories and furnaces, extremely hot or molten
material is the main source of heat. In outdoor occupations, such as construction, road repair,
open-pit mining and agriculture, summer sunshine is the main source of heat. In laundries,
restaurant kitchens, and canneries, high humidity adds to the heat burden. In all instances, the
cause of heat stress is a working environment, which can potentially overwhelm the body’s
ability to deal with heat. Most people feel comfortable when the air temperature is between 20C
and 27C and when relative humidity ranges from 35 to 60%. When air temperature or humidity
is higher, people feel uncomfortable. Such situations do not cause harm as long as the body can
adjust and cope with the additional heat. Very hot environment can overwhelm the body’s
coping mechanisms leading to a variety of serious and possibly fatal conditions.
The healthy human body maintains its internal temperature around 37C. As the
environment warms-up, the body tends to warm-up as well. The body’s internal “thermostat”
maintains constant inner body temperature by pumping more blood to the skin and by increasing
sweat production. In this way, the body increases the rate of heat loss to balance the heat burden
created by the environment. In a very hot environment, the rate of “heat gain” exceeds the rate of
“heat loss” and the body temperature begins to rise. A rise in the body temperature results in heat
illnesses.
The main source of heat gain is the body’s own internal heat. Called metabolic heat, it is
generated within the body by the biochemical processes that keep us alive and by the energy we
use in physical activity. The body exchanges heat with its surroundings mainly through radiation,
convection, and evaporation of sweat.
Radiation is the process by which the body gains heat from surrounding hot objects,
such as hot metal, furnaces or steam pipes, and loses heat to cold objects, such as chilled metallic
surfaces, without contact with them. No radiant heat gain or loss occurs when the temperature of
surrounding objects is the same as the skin temperature (about 35C).
Convection is the process by which the body exchanges heat with the surrounding air.
The body gains heat from hot air and loses heat to cold air, which comes in contact with the skin.
Convective heat exchange increases with increasing air speed and increased differences between
air and skin temperature.
Evaporation of sweat from the skin cools the body. Evaporation proceeds more quickly
and the cooling effect is more pronounced with high wind speeds and low relative humidity. In
hot and humid workplaces, the cooling of the body due to sweat evaporation is limited by the
capacity of the ambient air to accept additional moisture. In hot and dry workplaces, the cooling
due to sweat evaporation is limited by the amount of sweat produced by the body.
The body also exchanges small amounts of heat by conduction and breathing. By
conduction, the body gains or loses heat when it comes into direct contact with hot or cold
objects. Breathing exchanges heat because the respiratory system warms the inhaled air. When
exhaled, this warmed air carries away some of the body’s heat. However, the amount of heat
exchanged through conduction and breathing is normally small enough to be ignored in assessing
the heat load on the body.
In hot weather, the body produces sweat, which cools the body as it evaporates. As the
humidity or the moisture content in the air increases, sweat does not evaporate as readily. Sweat
evaporation stops entirely when the relative humidity reaches about 90%. Under these
circumstances, the body temperatures rises and may cause illness.
HEAT EXPOSURE CAUSES THE FOLLOWING ILLNESS:
When the air temperature or humidity rises above the optimal ranges for comfort,
problem can arise. The first effects are subjective in nature – they relate to how you feel.
Exposure to more heat stress can cause physical problems, which impair worker’s efficiency and
may cause adverse health effects. In moderately hot environments, the body “goes to work” to
get rid of excess heat so it can maintain its normal body temperature. The heart rate increases to
pump more blood through outer body and skin so that excess heat is lost to the environment, and
sweating occurs. These changes impose additional demands on the body. Changes in blood flow
and excessive sweating reduce a person’s ability to do physical and mental work. Manual work
produces additional metabolic heat and adds to the body heat burden. When the environmental
temperature rises above 30C, it may interfere with the performance of mental tasks. Heat can
also lead to accidents resulting from the slipperiness of sweaty palms and to accidental contact
with hot surfaces. As a worker moves from a cold to a hot environment, fogging of eye glasses
can briefly obscure vision, presenting a safety hazard. Several studies comparing the heat
tolerance of men and women have concluded that women are generally less heat tolerant than
men. While this difference seems to diminish when such comparison take into account
cardiovascular fitness, body size and acclimatization, women have a lower sweat rate than men
of equal fitness, size and acclimatization. Laboratory experiments have shown that women may
be more tolerant of heat under humid conditions, but slightly less tolerant than men under dry
conditions.
The risk of heat-related illness varies from person to person. Older and obese people are
generally at higher risk.
Heat edema is swelling which generally occurs among people who are not acclimatized to
working in hot conditions. Swelling is often most noticeable in the ankles. Recovery occurs after
a day or two in a cool environment.
Heat rashes are tiny red spots on the skin, which cause a prickling sensation during heat
exposure. The spots are the result of inflammation caused when the ducts of sweat glands
become plugged.
Heat cramps are sharp pains in the muscles that may occur alone or be combined with one of
the other heat stress disorders. The cause is salt imbalance resulting from the failure to replace
salt lost with sweat. Cramps most often occur when people drink large amounts of water without
sufficient salt (electrolyte) replacement.
Heat exhaustion is caused by loss of body water and salt through excessive sweating. Signs and
symptoms of heat exhaustion include heavy sweating, weakness, dizziness, visual disturbances,
intense thirst, nausea, headache, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, breathlessness, palpitations,
tingling and numbness of the hands and feet. Recovery occurs after resting in a cool area and
consuming cool salted drinks.
Heat Syncope is a heat-induced giddiness and fainting induced by temporarily insufficient flow
of blood to the brain while a person is standing. It occurs mostly among unacclimatized people.
It is caused by the loss of body fluid through sweating, and by lowered blood pressure due to
pooling of blood in the legs. Recovery is rapid after rest in a cool area.
Heat stroke and hyperpyrexia (elevated body temperature) are the most serious types of heat
illnesses caused by prolonged work in hot environments. Signs of heat stroke include dry, hot
skin (due to failure to sweating), body temperature often exceeding 41C, and complete or partial
loss of consciousness. The signs of heat hyperpyrexia are similar except that the skin remains
moist.
 Heat stroke and heat hyperpyrexia require immediate first aid and medical attention.
Delayed treatment may result in damage to the brain, kidneys and heart. Treatment may involve
removal of the victim’s clothing and spraying the body with cold water. Fanning increases
evaporation and further cools the body. Immersing the victim in the cold water more sufficiently
cools the body but it can result in harmful overcoming which can interfere with vital brain
functions so it must only be done under close medical supervision. Lack of acclimatization, poor
levels of physical fitness and pre-existing diarrhea or fever increase susceptibility to heat stroke
and hyperpyrexia. Certain drugs such as tranquilizers and diuretics can also increase an
individual’s susceptibility. Heat stroke occurs more readily when the body has suffered a
previous heat disorder.

ILLNESS CAUSED BY LONG TERM HEAT EXPOSURE

Certain kidney, liver, heart, digestive system, central nervous system and skin illnesses
are thought by some researches to be linked to long-term heat exposure. However, the evidence
supporting these associations is not conclusive. Chronic heat exhaustion, sleep disturbances and
susceptibility to minor injuries and sickness have all been attributed to the possible effects of
prolonged exposure to heat. The lens of the eye is particularly vulnerable to radiation produced
by red-hot metallic objects (infrared radiation) because it has no heat sensors and lacks blood
vessels to carry heat away. Glass blowers and furnace-men have developed cataracts after many
years of exposure to radiation from hot objects. Foundry workers, blacksmiths and oven
operators are also exposed to possibly eye-damaging infrared radiation. A possible link between
heat exposure and reproductive problems has been suggested. Data from laboratory experiments
on animals have shown that heat stress may adversely affect the reproductive functions of males
and females. Exposure of females caused disruption of the reproductive cycle until they became
acclimatized to heat. When animals are simultaneously exposed to heat and toxic chemicals, the
influence of heat exposure seems to accelerate the chemical reactivity. In men, repeatedly raising
testicular temperature 3 to 5C decreases sperm counts. There is no conclusive evidence of
reduced fertility among heat-exposed women. There are no adequate data from which
conclusions can be drawn regarding the reproductive effects of occupational heat exposure at
currently accepted limits. Laboratory study of warm-blooded animals has shown that exposure of
the pregnant females to hypothermia may result in a high incidence of embryo deaths and
malformations of the head and the central nervous system (CNS). There is no conclusive
evidence of teratogenic effects of hyperthermia in humans. (The NIOSH criteria document
(1986) recommends that a pregnant worker’s body temperature should not exceed 39-39.5 C
during the first trimester.)

EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR WORKING IN HOT ENVIRONMENTS

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommends

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for working in hot environments. These limits are given in units
of WBGT (wet bulb globe temperature) degrees Celsius (C) given in Table 3. These limits
closely relate to the human body’s response to heat.
Table 3
Screening Criteria for Heat Stress Exposure
(WBGT values in C)
 for 8 hour work day five days per week with conventional breaks
Acclimatized Unacclimatized
Work Demands Light Moderate Heavy Very Light Moderate Heavy Very
Heavy Heavy
100% work 29.5 27.5 26 - 27.5 25 22.5 -
75% work; 25% Rest 30.5 28.5 27.5 - 29 26.5 24.5 -
50% work; 50% Rest 31.5 29.5 28.5 27.5 30 28 26.5 25
25% work; 75% Rest 32.5 31 30 29.5 31 29 28 26.5
* For unacclimatized workers, the permissible heat exposure TLV should be reduced by 2.5 C
Examples of work loads:
Light work – sitting or standing to control machines, performing light hand and arm work
Moderate work – walking about with moderate lifting and pushing
Heavy work – pick and shovel work, digging

The Wet bulb globe temperature is calculated using a formula that takes into account air
temperature, speed of air movement, radiant heat from hot objects, sunshine and body cooling
due to sweat evaporation.
Air temperature is measured using a conventional thermometer. The contribution due to
radiant heat is measured using a black globe thermometer. A conventional thermometer is
inserted through a rubber stopper into a hollow, six-inch diameter copper ball. The black globe
thermometer normally requires at least 20 minutes to come to equilibrium reading. The cooling
effect of evaporation and air movement is taken into account using a natural wet bulb
thermometer. A natural wet bulb thermometer is a conventional thermometer with its bulb
wrapped with an absorbent cotton wick. The wick extends 30 to 35 millimeters above the
thermometer bulb, and the lower end of the wick is immersed in distilled water. About 25mm of
moistened wick is exposed between the water and the bulb of the thermometer. The moist wick
continuously provides water for evaporation. As with the black globe thermometer, the natural
wet bulb thermometer also requires at least 20 minutes to reach equilibrium. Two different
methods are used to calculate WBGT in the workplace: one for workplaces with direct sunlight,
and the other for workplaces with direct sunlight. When the conditions of the workplace fluctuate
widely, time-weighted WBGT is often used.
The wet globe temperature (WBGT) is calculated by using the following equations.
For outdoors with direct sun exposure:
WBGT = 0.7 X Tempwet + 0.2 X Tempglobe + 0.1 X Tempair
For indoors or outdoors without direct sun exposure:
WBGT = 0.7 X Tempwet + 0.3 X Tempglobe
All temperatures are to be expressed in C
Example:
Workers employed in an outdoor workplace with direct exposure to the sun. Measurement of
workplace conditions produced the following results:
Tempwet = 24C Tempglobe = 42C Tempair = 40C
WBGT = 0.7 X 24 + 0.2 X 42 + 0.1 X 40 = 29.2C

THE RISK OF HEAT-RELATED ILLNESS CAN BE REDUCED BY:

ENGINEERING CONTROLS
Engineering controls are the most effective means of reducing excessive heat exposure. The
examples, which follow, illustrate some engineering approaches to reducing heat exposure.
1. Reducing Metabolic Heat Production (heat produced by the body): Automation and
mechanization of tasks minimize the need for heavy physical work and the resulting buildup
of heat.
2. Reducing the Radiant Heat Emission from Hot Surfaces: Covering hot surfaces with
sheets of low emissivity material such as aluminum or paint that reduces the amount of heat
radiated from this hot surface into the workplace.
3. Insulating Hot surfaces: Insulation reduces the heat exchanges between the source of
heat and the work environment.
4. Shielding: Shields stop radiated heat from reaching work stations. Two types of shields
can be used. Stainless steel, aluminum or other bright metal surfaces reflect heat back
towards the source. Absorbent shields, such as water-cooled jackets made of black-surfaced
aluminum, can effectively absorb carry away heat.
5. Ventilation and Air Conditioning: Ventilation, localized air conditioning, and cooled
observation booths are commonly used to provide cool work stations. Cooled observation
booths allow workers to cool down after brief periods of intense heat exposure while still
allowing them to monitor equipment.
6. Reducing the Humidity: Air conditioning, dehumidification, and elimination of open
hot water baths, drains and leaky steam valves help reduce humidity.

PERSONAL PROTECTION
Ordinary clothing provides some protection from heat radiated by surroundings hot surfaces.
Specially designed heat-protective clothing is available for working in extremely hot conditions.
In hot and humid workplaces, light clothing allows maximum skin exposure and efficient body
cooling by sweat evaporation. Eye protection, which absorbs radiation, is needed when the work
involves very hot objects, such as molten metals and hot ovens. Work that requires the wearing
of impermeable clothing presents an added heat burden as the clothing reduced

TO PREVENT HEAT RELATED ILLNESS

If practical, workers in hot environments should be encouraged to set their own work and
rest schedules. Infrequent or irregular tasks such as emergency repairs of hot process equipment
often result in heat exposure. Experienced workers can often judge heat strain and limit their
exposure accordingly. Inexperienced workers may need special attention as they may continue to
work beyond the point at which signs of heat strain appear. People are generally unable to notice
their own heat stress related symptoms. Their survival depends on their coworker’s ability to
recognize these symptoms and seek timely first aid and medical help.

SALT AND FLUID SUPPLEMENTS:

A person working in a very hot environment loses water and salt through sweat. This loss
should be compensated by water and salt intake. Fluid intake should be equal fluid loss. On
average, about one liter of water each hour may be required to replace the fluid loss. Plenty of
cool (10-15C) drinking water should be available on the job site and workers should be
encouraged to drink water every 15 to 20 minutes even if they do not feel thirsty. Drinks
specially designed to replace body fluids and electrolytes may be taken. Alcoholic drinks should
NEVER be taken as alcohol dehydrates the body. An acclimatized worker loses relatively little
salt in their sweat and, therefore, the salt in the normal diet is usually sufficient to maintain the
electrolyte balance in the body fluids. For unacclimatized workers who may sweat continuously
and repeatedly, additional salt in the food may be used. Salt tablets are not recommended
because the salt does not enter the body system as fast as water or other fluids. Too much salt can
cause higher body temperatures, increased thirst and nausea. Workers on salt-restricted diets
should discuss the need for supplementary salt with their doctor. Although well-trained,
physically fit workers tolerate heat better than people in poor physical condition, fitness and
training do not substitute for acclimatization. Some medications interfere with acclimatization.
For example, hypotensives (drugs causing low blood pressure); diuretics, antispasmodics,
sedatives, tranquilizers, antidepressants and amphetamines decrease the body’s ability to cope
with heat. Workers should seek a doctor’s advice on the suitability of a medication for them if
they work in hot environments.

CONCLUSION

Assessment of workplace environment and control measures against work-related health

risks form an integral part of occupational safety and health management systems. In evaluating
the working environment, emphasis is placed on developing practical methods of measuring
exposure. This paper provides an overview of the techniques being used by occupational health
professionals in the evaluation and management of noise and heat stress hazards in the
workplace.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere gratitude to Shri S. Soundararajan, Head IHSS, RSSD, for his
invaluable help and guidance, which effectively contributed in successful completion of this
paper.

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