BS Topology-I 145

Now let us suppose that X is normal and T1 space we will prove that X is a completely regular
space. For this let us suppose that x∈ X and C is any closed set in X such that x∉C
Since X is T4 space so X is normal and T1 -space. By T1 -axiom each singleton set { x} is closed.

Thus { x} and C are two disjoint closed sets in X.

So by (1) there is a continuous function f : X → [ 0 , 1 ] such that

f ( x ) = 0 and f (C ) = 1.

Thus for any closed set C in X with x ∉ C there is a continuous function f : X → [ 0 , 1 ] such

that f ( x ) = 0 and f (C ) = 1
Hence X is completely regular space.

Thus every T4 space is a completely regular space.This completes the proof of the theorem.

Convergence and Completeness in Metric Spaces

Convergent sequence in metric space

Cauchy sequence in metric space
Complete metric space
First category and second category
Bair’s category theorem

Definition:
Let { xn } be a sequence in a metric space ( X , d ) we say that a sequence { xn } converges to a

point x ∈ X iff for any ε > 0 there is some positive integer N such that

d ( xn , x ) < ε whenever n ≥ N

i.e. xn ∈ B ( x; ε ) whenever n ≥ N

We write xn → x as n →∞
lim x n = x or lim d ( x n , x ) = 0
n→∞ n→∞

We call x is the limit of the sequence { xn }

Theorem: The limit of a convergent sequence in a metric space is unique.

BS Topology-I 146

Proof:
Let us suppose that a sequence { xn } is a convergent sequence in a metric space ( X , d )

we need to show that its limit is unique.

For this let { xn } converges to two distinct points x and y of X. we will prove that x = y

Let us suppose that x ≠ y , let d ( x, y ) = r then r > 0

Since xn → x , so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some positive integer N1

Such that

d ( xn , x ) < ε whenever n ≥ N1
2
Similarly xn → y , so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some positive integer N 2

such that

d ( xn , y ) < ε whenever n ≥ N 2
2
Let N = max { N1 , N 2 }

Then from above we have

d ( xn , x ) < ε , d ( xn , y ) < ε whenever n ≥ N

2 2
Since ε is an arbitrary so take ε = r
Then
r = d ( x, y ) ≤ d ( xn , x ) + d ( xn , y )
<r + r
2 2
=r

i.e. r < r, which is impossible.

This impossible result is due to our wrong supposition that x ≠ y .
Thus our supposition was wrong and hence x = y
Thus the limit of a convergent sequence in a metric space is unique.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
Definition:
A sequence { xn } in a metric space ( X , d ) is said to be a Cauchy sequence iff for any

ε > 0 there is some positive integer N such that

d ( xn , xm ) < ε whenever n, m ≥ N
BS Topology-I 147

In other words a sequence is a Cauchy sequence iff the terms of the sequence become
arbitrary close to each other as n gets large.
i.e. d ( xn , xm ) → 0 as n, m → ∞

1
Examples: (1) Let xn = , then xn is a Cauchy sequence.
n

(2) Let x n = co s nπ , then xn is a Cauchy sequence.

n

Theorem: Every convergent sequence in a metric space is a Cauchy sequence.

Proof:
Let us suppose that a sequence { xn } is a convergent sequence in a metric space ( X , d )

we need to show that { xn } is a Cauchy sequence. Since { xn } is a convergent sequence,

let x is the limit of { xn } i.e. lim xn = x

n→ ∞

Since xn → x , so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some positive integer N1

such that d ( xn , x ) < ε whenever n ≥ N1

2

Also for some positive integer N 2 , we have d ( xm , x ) < ε whenever m ≥ N 2

2
Let N = max { N1 , N 2 }

Then from above we have

ε ε
d ( xn , x ) < , d ( xm , x ) < whenever n, m ≥ N
2 2

Thus d ( xn , xm ) ≤ d ( xn , x ) + d ( xm , x ) whenever n, m ≥ N

ε ε
< + =ε whenever n, m ≥ N
2 2
i.e. d ( xn , xm ) < ε whenever n, m ≥ N

Thus { xn } is a Cauchy sequence. Hence every convergent sequence in a metric space is a

Cauchy sequence. This completes the proof of the theorem.

Note:
(1) The converse of this result is not true in general that is a Cauchy sequence in a
metric space may not converge in that space.

Let X = ( 0, 1) with usual metric then  , , ............. is a Cauchy sequence in X

1 1 1
2 3 4 
but it does not converge in X as it converges to ‘0’ but 0 ∉ X .
BS Topology-I 148

(2) If a sequence has a convergent sub-sequence then it is not necessary that the whole
sequence should also converge.

Let us take a sequence < xn >= ( −1) , then < xn > is not convergent but it has a
n

convergent sub-sequences < −1 > and < 1 > which are convergent to -1 and 1.
Theorem: A Cauchy sequence in a metric space converges iff it has a convergent sub-
sequence.
Proof:Let us suppose that a Cauchy sequence { xn } is convergent in a metric space ( X , d ) we

need to show that { xn } has a convergent sub-sequence.

Since { xn } is a Cauchy sequence, which converges to a point x ∈ X

Then { xn } it self is a convergent sub-sequence of it.

Conversely, Let us suppose that a Cauchy sequence { xn } has convergent sub-sequence { xn } k

converging to x. i.e. xnk → x as k →∞

We need to prove that { xn } is convergent.

Since { xn } is a Cauchy sequence, so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some positive

integer N1 such that

d ( xn , xm ) < ε whenever n, m ≥ N1
2

If m = nk , then d xn , xnk < ε

( ) whenever n, nk ≥ N1
2

Since xnk → x , so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some positive integer N 2

such that

(
d xnk , x < ε) 2
whenever nk ≥ N 2

Let N = max { N1 , N 2 }

Then for each n ≥ N we have

( )
d xn , xnk < ε
2
, (
d xnk , x < ε ) 2
whenever n ≥ N

Thus ( ) (
d ( xn , x ) ≤ d xn , xnk + d xnk , x ) whenever n ≥ N

<ε +ε =ε whenever n ≥ N
2 2

i.e. d ( xn , x ) < ε whenever n ≥ N

Thus { xn } converges to x. i.e xn → x as n→∞

BS Topology-I 149

This completes the proof of the theorem.

Definition:
A metric space ( X , d ) is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges

to a point of X.
A sub-space Y of a metric space ( X , d ) is said to be complete if Y is complete as a

metric space.
Examples:
(1) Let X = ( 0, 1] with usual metric space d ( x , y ) = x − y

Take a sequence { x n } =  1 
n 

Then xn → 0 as n→∞

Thus { x n } is a Cauchy sequence in X converging to ‘0’ but ‘0’ is not in X

Thus X is in complete.
If X = [ 0, 1] Then X is complete.

(2) ℝ with usual metric is complete space, because each Cauchy sequence in ℝ
converges to a point of ℝ .

Remark: The term ‘Limit’ and ‘Limit point’ are used for a sequence and a set respectively.
Note that a sequence may have the limit but may not have a limit point.
Example: The constant sequence {1,1,1...........} in the real line ℝ has limit ‘1’ but the set

of points of this sequence is the set {1} which has no limit point.

Theorem: A metric space X is complete iff each Cauchy sequence in X has a convergent sub-
sequence.
Proof:
Let us suppose that metric space X is complete. we need to show that each Cauchy
sequence in X has a convergent
For this let { xn } be a Cauchy sequence in X, then { xn } must be convergent in X. Thus

{ xn } it self is a convergent sub-sequence of it.

Conversely, Let us suppose that a Cauchy sequence { xn } has convergent sub-sequence xnk { }
converging to x0 . i.e. xnk → x0 ∈ X
BS Topology-I 150

We need to prove that X is complete.

For this let { xn } be a Cauchy sequence in X, so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some

positive integer N1 such that

d ( xn , xm ) < ε whenever n, m ≥ N1
2

Since xnk → x0 , so by definition for any ε > 0 there is some positive integer N 2

such that

( )
d xnk , x0 < ε
2
whenever nk ≥ N 2

Let N = max { N1 , N 2 }

Then for each n ≥ N we have

( )
d xn , xnk < ε
2
, ( )
d xnk , x0 < ε
2
whenever n ≥ N

Thus ( ) (
d ( xn , x0 ) ≤ d xn , xnk + d xnk , x0 ) whenever n ≥ N

<ε +ε =ε whenever n ≥ N
2 2
i.e. d ( xn , x0 ) < ε whenever n ≥ N

Thus { xn } converges to x0 . Hence X is complete This completes the proof of the

theorem.
Definition:
(1) Let ( X , d ) be a metric space and A be a subset of X.

A point x ∈ X is called a limit point of A iff each open ball with centre x
contains a point of A other than x.
i.e. ( B ( x : r ) \ { x} ) ∩ A ≠ ∅
or B ( x : r ) ∩ ( A \ { x} ) ≠ ∅

In other words a point x ∈ X is called a limit point of A iff each open set
containing x contains a point of A other than x.
(2) A subset Y of a metric space X is closed if it contains all of its limit points.
Theorem: A subset Y of a complete metric space X is complete iff Y is closed.
Proof:
Let Y be a complete metric sub-space of X is complete. we need to show that Y is
closed. Equivalently we need to prove that Y contain all of its limit points.
BS Topology-I 151

Let y be a limit point of Y. To prove the required result it is enough to show that y ∈ Y

consider an open ball B  y :  ,

1
n ≥1
n  
Since y is a limit point of Y, so by definition there is an open ball such that
  1 
 B  y : n  \ {y} ∩ Y ≠ ∅ ∀ n ≥1
   

  1 
L et y n ∈  B  y :  \ { y }  ∩ Y ∀ n ≥1
  n 
  1 
⇒ y n ∈  B  y :  \ { y}  ∧ y n ∈ Y ∀ n ≥1
  n 
 1
⇒ y n ∈ B  y :  a nd y n ∉ { y } ∧ y n ∈ Y ∀ n ≥1
 n
1
⇒ d ( yn , y ) < fo r a ll n = 1 ,2,3 ...........
n
1
so d ( y n , y ) < =ε ∀ n ≥1
n

Thus yn → y , being convergent.

So the sequence { yn } is a Cauchy sequence, because every convergent sequence is a Cauchy

sequence.
Since Y is complete so y ∈ Y . Thus Y is closed.
Conversely, let Y be a closed sub-space of a complete metric space X. We need to prove that Y
is complete. For this let { xn } be a Cauchy sequence in Y Then { xn } is a Cauchy sequence in X,

but X complete so xn → x ∈ X

Since Y is closed so x ∈ Y
Hence Y is complete. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Definition:
Let A be a non-empty subset of a metric space ( X , d ) then the diameter of A is

denoted by δ ( A ) and defined as

δ ( A ) = sup {d ( x , y ) : x , y ∈ A}

or δ ( A ) = sup d ( x , y )
x , y∈ A

If δ ( A ) < ∞ , Then A is bounded.

If A is not bounded then it is unbounded.

Note: The line which is passing through centre of a circle is called diameter.
BS Topology-I 152

Definition:
(1) A sequence { An } of subsets a metric space ( X , d ) is called a decreasing

sequence if A1 ⊇ A2 ⊇ A3 ⊇ ...............

(2) A sequence { An } of subsets a metric space ( X , d ) is called nested sequence if

(i) An ⊇ An +1 for n = 1, 2, 3......... i.e. { An } is decreasing sequence.

(ii) δ ( A) → 0 as n →∞

Theorem: (cantor’s intersection theorem)

Let {cn } be a nested sequence of closed sets in a complete metric space.

Then ∩c n ≠ ∅ moreover ∩c n is a singleton set.

n n

Definition:
Let A be a subset of X Then
(1) The interior A0 of A is defined as the union of all open sets of X that are
contained in A. i.e. A 0 = ∪ oi where each oi is open and oi ⊆ A
i

(2) We say that A has empty interior i.e. A 0 = ∅ iff A does not contain any
non-empty open set.

( )
0
(3) We say that A is nowhere dense in X iff A has empty interior. i.e. A =∅

Definition:
(1) A topological space X is said to be of the first category if it is a countable union
of nowhere dense sets. i.e. The union of countable collection of closed sets in X
having empty interior.
(2) A topological space X is said to be of the second category if it is not of the first
category i.e. X can not be expressed as a countable union of nowhere dense sets.
Theorem:
Let U be an open subset of the metric space X and let A be nowhere dense in X then
there exist x ∈ X and r > 0 such that

B(x : r) ⊆ U and B(x : r)∩ A = ∅

Bair’s category theorem

Statement: Every complete metric space is of the second category.
BS Topology-I 153

Proof:Let ( X , d ) be a complete metric space and {C n : n ∈ N } be a countable collection of

nowhere dense subsets of X. In order to show that X is of the second category, we will show
that X ≠ ∪ Cn i.e. we will show that there is a point in X which is not in ∪C n
n n

Since C1 is nowhere dense so there exist an open ball B1 ( x0 :1) such that

B1 ( x0 :1) ∩ C1 = ∅

Consider a closed ball of radius half of the radius of B1 i.e.

 1  1
B1  x0 :  =  x : d ( x.x0 ) ≤ 
 2  2

Then B1 ∩ c1 = ∅

Now ( )
δ B1 = sup d ( a, b ) = 1
a ,b∈B1

 1 
Since C2 is nowhere dense so there exist an open ball B2  x0 : 2  such that
 2 
B2 ∩ C2 = ∅

 1
Consider a closed ball of radius half of the radius of B2 i.e. B2  x0 : 3  , then
 2 

B2 ∩ C2 = ∅

Now ( )
δ B2 =
1
22
Since C3 is nowhere dense so there exist an open ball  1  such that
B3  x0 : 4 
 2 

B3 ∩ C3 = ∅

Consider a closed ball of radius half of the radius of B3 i.e. B3  x 0 : 15  ,Then

2 

B3 ∩ C3 = ∅

Now δ (B ) =
3
1
24

Continuing in this way we get a decreasing sequence of closed balls Bn such that { }
Bn ∩ cn = ∅ and ( )
δ Bn =
2
1
2n−2

( )
Then δ Bn → 0 as n → ∞
BS Topology-I 154

{ }
This shows that Bn is nested sequence so by cantor’s intersection theorem,

we have ∩B n ≠∅ and ∩B n
is singleton set.
n n

L et ∩B n = {z }
n

Note that z ∈ X , but z ∉ cn ∀n (B ∩c

n n =∅ )
So z ∉ ∪ c n
n

i.e. X ≠ ∪c n
n

Hence X cannot be expressed as a countable union of nowhere dense sets and thus X must be
of the second category. This completes the proof of the theorem.
************************************************************************

Connectedness

Separation
Connected and disconnected
Components
Path wise connected
Arc wise connected
Locally connected
Definition:
Let X be a topological space. A separation (or disconnection) of X is a pair A, B of
disjoint non-empty open sets in X such that X = A∪B
The space X is said to be connected if there does not exist a separation of X.
Equivalently X is connected if it is not the union of two disjoint non-empty open
subsets of X
X is disconnected if it is not connected.
Note that we can replace ”open” in this definition by “closed”.
Examples:
(1) Let X = {a, b, c, d , e} and τ = {∅, {a} , {c, d } , {a, c, d } , {b, c, d , e} , X } be a topology on X.

Let A = {a} and B = {b, c, d , e}