Chapter 16: Evolution of Populations

Variation is Key to Evolution

● Genetic variation is studied in populations
○ Population: group of individuals of the same species that interbreed
○ Gene pool: consists of all genes, including all the different alleles, that are present
in a population
○ Variation in genes arises from mutation, creating differences in genes: a difference
in genes is called an allele
○ Greatest way for variation to be increased is through the processes involved with
sexual reproduction
○ Natural selection can only act on variation with a genetic component

Sources of Genetic Variation

● New genes and alleles can arise by mutation or gene duplication
● Independent assortment of chromosomes
● Crossing over during gamete formation
● Random fertilization

Formation of New Alleles

● A mutation is change in nucleotides sequence of DNA
● Only mutations in cells that produce gametes can be passed to offspring
● A point mutation is a change in one base in a gene

Mutation Brings about Variation

● Effects of point mutations can vary:
○ Mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless
○ Mutations to genes can be neutral because of redundancy in genetic code
○ Can cause variances in the final product which can alter the function (either
enhance or not)

Altering Gene Number or Position

● Chromosomal mutations that delta, disrupt, or rearrange many loci (location of a gene)
are typically harmful
● Duplication of small pieces of DNA increases genome size and is usually less harmful
● Duplicated genes can take on new function by further mutation
● An ancestral odor-detecting gene has been duplicated many times: humans have 1,00
copies of the gene, mice have 1,300
Rapid Reproduction
● Mutation rates are low in animals and plants
● The average is about one mutation in every 1000,000 genes per generation
● Mutation are often lower in prokaryotes and higher in viruses

Sexual Reproduction: Increasing Variation

● Sexual reproduction can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations
● In organisms that reproduce sexually, recombination of alleles is more important than
mutation in producing the genetic differences that make adaptation possible

Variation Within a Population

● Both discrete and quantitative character contribute to variation within a population
● Discret characters can be classified on an either-or basis
○ Example: purple or white flowers
● Quantitative character vary along a continuum within a population
○ Multiple gene inheritance patterns
● Always bell shaped curve

Variation and Gene Pools

● Relative frequency of an allele is the number of time the allele occurs in a gene pool,
compared with number of times other allele for same gene occur
● Relative frequency is often expressed as a percentage

The Smallest Unit of Evolution

● Microevolution: change in allele frequencies in a population over generations
● Three mechanisms cause allele frequency changes
○ Natural selection
○ Genetic drift
○ Gene flow
● Only natural selection causes adaptive evolution

Misconception: Organisms Evolve During Their Lifetimes

● Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve
● Example: a population of medium ground finches on Daphne Major Island
○ During a drought, large-beaked birds were more likely to crack large seeds and
survive
○ The finch population evolved by natural selection
Review Questions 3/29
1. A the relative frequency of an allele is not related to whether the allele is dominant or
recessive.
2. A gene shuffling
3. A gene shuffling and mutations
4. B single gene trait (discrete)
5. B polygenic trait
6. E mutation
7. B contribution to the gene pool of the next generation

The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

● The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes a population that is not evolving (in
equilibrium)
○ Frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population remain constant from
generation to generation
● If a population does not meet the criteria of the Hardy-Weinberg principle, it can be
concluded that the population is evolving

Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

● The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a hypothetical population that is not evolving
● In real populations, allele and genotype frequencies do change over time
● The five conditions for non-evolving populations are rarely met in nature:
1. No mutations
2. Random mating
3. No natural selection
4. Extremely large population size
5. No gene flow
● Evolution of populations is on a gene by gene basis

Applying the Hardy-Weinberg Principle

● We can assume the locus that causes PKU is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium given that:
1. The PKU gene mutation rate is low
2. Mate selection is random with respect to whether or not an individual is a carrier
for the PKU allele
3. Natural selection can only act on rare homozygous individuals who do not follow
dietary restrictions
4. The population is large
5. Migration has no effect as many other populations have similar allele frequencies
● Occurrence of PKU is 1 per 10,000 births
○ q^2 = 0.0001
 ○ q = 0.01
● Frequency of normal alleles is
● P = 1 - q = 1 - 0.01 = 0.99
● The frequency of carrier is
● 2pq = 2 * 0.99 * 0.01 = 0.0198

Review Questions 4/2

1. B red = 0.6, white = 0.4
2. A

Allele Frequencies Alterations in a Population

● Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about ost evolutionary change:
○ Natural Selection
○ Genetic Drift
○ Gene Flow

Genetic Drift and the Founder Effect

● The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger
population
● Allele frequencies in the small founder population can be different from those in the
larger parent population

Genetic Drift and The Bottleneck Effect

● The bottleneck effect is a sudden reduction in population size due to a change in the
environment
● The resulting gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population’s gene pool
● If the population remains small, it may be further affected by genetic drift

Effects of Genetic Drift: Summary

1. Genetic drift is significant in small populations
2. Genetic drift causes allele frequencies to change at random
3. Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations
4. Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed

Gene Flow
● Gene flow consists of the movement of alleles among populations
● Alleles can be transferred through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes
● Gene flow tends to reduce variation among populations over time
● Gene flow can also increase the fitness of a populations
○ For example, the spread of alleles for resistance to insecticides
Review Questions 4/2
1. B disruptive selection
2. B a few individuals from a large, diverse population leave and establish a new population
3. C genetic equilibrium
4. B random mating
5. A all five of the Hardy-Weinberg conditions are met
6. C 1/25, or about 4%
7. E balancing selection
8. B founder effect