© chapter 5 Trent an i tii se in es of ston ay nace tion, is characterized as the consequence ofthe interaction between the object and its surroundings. This interaction is commonly represented as a force. In chapter 2 we considered the forces due to body mass and those due 10 the surroundings that ean be imposed on the ‘human boxy to change its momentum or its mechanical eneygy, "The forees involved in human ‘movement, however, include not only these interactions but also the mechanical interactions within the musculoskeletal system. To examine these musculoskeletal forees, we draw free body diagrams and apply Newton's laws of motion to each body segment that participates in the movement. In chapter 2, this approach was desorbed as a segmental analysis. The purpose of chapter 3 is to describe the properties of tne musculoskeletal forces that are encountered in such an analysis and to present the procedures used to estimate the magnitudes and directions of these forces, MUSCULOSKELETAL FORCES ‘Through the application of Newton's law of acceleration toa segmental analysis of the human body, itis possible to determine the magnitude and direction of forces inside the human body. We call these interactions musculoskeletal forees. To accomplish this we draw a free body diagram that ends ats joint; this allows us fo include these forces as external effects acting on system (e.g., figures 2.2,2.3, 2.10). Whenever we draw a free body diagram that includes part of the body and ends ata joint, we need to include a joint reaction force and a muscle foree in the diagram. The joint reaction force is typically drawn as a force acting into the joint, which represents the reaction of the missing body segment to the compressive force in the joint. The muscle force is usvally shown acting back across the joint w represent the net pulling setion of the muscles that cross the joint. In addition, when the free body diagram ends anywhere in the trunk, we need to include a fores due to the pressure inside the abdomen or the thorax. Joint Reaction Force ‘When a system for a free body diagram is defined so that it ends at a join, the concept of a Joint reaction force (F) is invoked to represent the reaction of the adjacent body segment to the forces exerted by the isolated system. This isa three-dimensional force that has one com- ponent normal to the joint surface and, like the ground reaction force, two components that are tangential tothe surface. The normal component is typically directed into the joint surface and represents a compressive force. The two tangential components comprise the shear force that acts along the joint surface, the Body a1ere eee eee Eee 92 <> Neuromechanies of Human Movement “The joint action force canbe influenced by any effect ineladed on the fee boy diagram. Beamples are forces that are transmitted from one end ofthe segment to the other end (©, | ground reietion fore), forces due to joint-related soft issue structures (eg, ligaments, joint Capsule), and the forces exerted Ly the muscles, The magnitude ofthese forces can be large. ‘Allfhough the magnitude of the forces transitted by soft tisues, espocially te Higaments, has been controversial, it now appears that these forces ean be significant aod that they vary over the range of motion of the joint (Mommerstecg eal, 1997, Shelbume & Pandy, 1997) "The most significant and consistent contribtor to the joint reaction force isthe force due to muscle activity (Duda etal, 1997; Komistek et al. 2005; Lu et al, 19975 ‘Taylor et uh, 2004). Whe a muscle contacts, one component of the muscle force vector is transmitted ino the joint as a compressive Free, Given that muscles havea shallow angle of pull most of the muscle fore is directed into the joint. For example, Lu and colleagues (1997) found that ‘hea subjets stood in an upright position and performed isometric contractions with the hip flexor, extensor, auctor, and adductor muscles, the compressive fore along the Femur was 20 times greater than the shear force measured at the ankle. For these contractions, the hip rmaseles exerted average forces of ~2000 N. Itis difficult to measure F, experimentally, and such measurement usually involves either sive procedures or mathematical modeling (Komisteke., 2005) For example, Bergan and colleagues (1993) implanted force transducers to measure the hip joint reaction foree in two patients who had been fited with hip joint prostheses. When these patients walked on & treadmill at 11 mv, the joint reaction forees atthe hip varied during a stride as shown in figure 3.1. The vetical component was directed downward (compression) with a peak magnitude of three tines body weight; the media-laterl component was directed medially with a peak mag nitude of about body weight; and the front-to back component was directed fist forward and thon buciwvard witha pesk magnitude of sbout 0.5 times body weight. Similar measurements have been made on patient during performance of activites of daily living and exercises in ‘he first year after total knee arthroplasty (D'Lima et al., 2005). nost studies, however, esearchersestmat the magnitde of F by determining al the otter forces on a free body diagram and assuming that the remaining effect duc tof (Shetbume et a, 2005; Thambyah ct a, 2005) this procedure is known as aesidual analysis. We cam use a residual analysis, for example, ifthe system is in equilibrium, which means tat all the forees acting on the ystem snus be balanced, Alternatively, itis possible to use various mathematical procedures, suchas minimizing muscle stress, fo estimate the magnitude of F, ‘Anand colleagues (1984) used sueh an approach on the elbow (humeroulnar) joint when a Toad was applied at the ‘wrist perpendicular to the forearm, ‘When th joint was rotated overarange cof motion from complete extension toa right angle, F, atthe elbow joint was 6 to 16 times greater than the load at the ‘wrist. When the loads encountered in normal dily activities were considered, this meant that values for F, of 03 t0 (0.5 times body weight were commonly ‘encountered atthe elbow joint. ‘Values for F have been estimated by residual analysis for such activities as standing, moving from sitting to stand- ing, walking, running, weightlifting, Time (s) and landing from a dvop (sommarized Figare3.1_ Joint eactio forces atthe hip joint fortwo sance phases in Harrison et al, 1986). Even the (HS =the site; TO = toe off daring walking on a read common task of going from an erect patent 1. Reeulant Force (% body weight)Forces Within the Body "© 93 posture toa squat position and then tising again is associated with large joint reaction forces. For this task, the maximal compression component of the tibiofemoral joint reaction fores ranged from 4.7 105.6 times body weight, whereas the shear component ranged from 3.0 to 3.9 times body weight (Dahikvist etal, 1982). Powerlifters experience maximal compressive forces of 17 times body weight and maximal shear forces of 2.3 times body weight at the L4- LS joint during the pecformance ofthe deadlift (Cholewickiet al., 1991). Results suchas these emphasize thatthe joint reaction force varies over the range of motion and that it ean have a substantial magnitude, especially in comparison with the Toads that are encountered by the limbs in daily activites ‘An alternative approach to residual analysis for estimating Fis to measure acceleration and use inverse dynamics to determine joint reaction forces and torques (Bogert ct al, 1996). Attaching four accelerometers at known locations to the trunks of individuals made it possible 10 estimate the joint reaction force atthe hip during walking, running, and skiing (Bogert el, 1999). ‘The peak forces, in terms of body weight (F,), averaged about 2 times #, for walking at 1.5m, 5 times F,, forrunning at3.5 avs, 410 7 times F, for alpine skiing, 4 times F,, for 0ss-country skiing, and 7 to 13 times F, for skiing mnoguls. Such information indicates the range of forces in an active individual (Heller etal, 2005). that a hip prosthesis must be able to withsta ft fa _EXAMPLE 3.1, ' Absolute Magnitude of the Joint Reaction Force ‘The joint reaction force is usually determined from the net forces between adjacent body segments. To determine the absolute magnitude ofthe joint reaction force, however, itis, necessary fo consider each force rather than calculating a not effect. An interesting example. of the difference between the net and absolute cffects was provided by Galea and Norman, (1985) ina study of the muscle actions across the ankle joint during a rapid ballet move- tment, a spring from flat feet onto the tes. In this analysis, the model used to perform these calculations (Figure 3.2a) cook into account the major muscles crossing the ankle joint and therefore those that contributed to the muscle- dopendent component of the: joint reaction force. The muscles included extensor hallucis, longus, tibialis anterior, flexor hallucis longus, peroncus longus, and gastrocnemius/soleus. For the caleulations, the force exerted by each of these muscles was estimated based on its electromyogram (EMG), length, and rate of change in length (Hof, 1984; Hof & van den Berg, 1981, be, and), Once Galea and Norman (1985) had esti- ‘ated a force for each muscle, the forces were grouped (figure 3.25) into those that contrib» © ited to aplantarflexor torque (Fy,Q and those Figure 3.2 Muscles thet are active across the ankle join that contributed toa dorsiflexor forque (Fy). during fll pointe: ines of action ofthe involved muscles, ‘The absolute force was calculated as the com- (0) separation ofthe muscalar effects (F) into those that exert, essve component ofthe Fa yctorplsthe rier A) an planareve (ps) ean: Compressive component ofthe Fa, ¥eetor.The. Tse force, BEL = extensor halls longus F of net joint reaction force (figure 3.20), however, faltels Tongus: GS = gavtocnemias/soleus; PL. = peroneus ‘was calculated as the compressive component 1OOEt TA = tibialis anterior. i of the resultant muscle force (F), where F., ebb) Roruen tem Ole oe Wane one is the difference between Fad Fy. For tc edly D.A Winter eta (Chanaig I: Hama Kiet 72, ° °94 ++» Nouromechanies of Human Movement ‘one subject, Galea and Norman calculated 2 net joint reaction force due to muscle activity ‘of 732 N during the movement and an absolute joint reaction force of 6068 N, which is a huge difference. For movements or parts of movements that do not involve concurrent activation of oppos- ‘ng museles, itis possible to estimate the bone-on-bone force from the calculated net forces, ‘Simonsen and colleagues (1995) performed such an analysis atthe ankle, knee, and hip joints 1s individuals walked with and without a load (10 and 20 kg). They recorded EMG activity over ‘opposing muscles atthe thee jints to confirm the absence of coactivation. The peak bone-on- bone fomces ranged from 3.32 KN at the ankle joint without a locd up to 6.4 KN at the hip ‘when people were canying 2 load of 20 kg. The bone-on-bone forces increased a both the ankle and hip joints when the individuals carried the loads, whereas there was no difference atthe knee joint. There weve, however, considerable differences between individuals. Muscle Force 1n tho segmental analysis of human movement, muscle force is often the ‘most significant component tha is included on a free body diagram. When the system defined in a free body diagram ends ata joint, the mascle force ‘vectors shown as geting back across the join to represeat the pulling effect of the muscle on the segment, This vector usually represents the net muscle activity about a joint Because muscles can exert only a pulling force on a segment, oppos- ing sets of muscles (agonists and antagonists) control movement about a joint, An extension-flexion movement about the elbow joint, for example, is controlled by one muscle group that causes acceleration in the extension direction (elbow extensors) and another group that eauses acceleration in the flexion direction (elbow flexors). “Tho muscle force vector can be represented as an arrow and described in terms of its magnitude and direction, In a segmental analysis, the force is represented hy line of action that extencis between its proximal and distal attachments. Figure 3.3 shows an example for 24 muscles inthe human leg; this model was used to estimate the joint reaction force atthe hip (Duda et al, 1997), In this scheme, the application of force is represented as acting, ata point, which is reasonable for most muscles (Brand et al., 1982). Ifthe attachment site is substantial (e.g, trapezius, pectoralis major), a muscle may be represented by several lines of action (Davis & Mirka, 2000; van der Helm & Veenbaas, 1991). Furthermore, the lines of action of some muscles (e.g, neck and trunk muscles) are most appropriately represented bby curved paths (Arjmand et a., 2006; Kruidhof & Pandy, 2006). Obvi- ‘ously, care must be taken to determine the lines of action as accurately as possible (Nussbaum et al, 1995), Magnitude of Muscle Force Both the magnitude and direction ofthe muse force vector ae dificult to measure. To measure the magnitude of mugce force diel, we mast ease the fre ransmited bythe tendon (Pukashio etal, 1995; Komi, 1990), Te anisolated-muscle experiment, his measuresent involves con necting the tea to a force transducer (Ralston etal, 1947. In human Figure 33 Lines of soon of txperimens in which the tendon isnot detached from the one, we cin Déansckes in thease Ineasore muscle force by using a surgical procedure citer to thretd @ pn fon aru ends tenon though an F-hape buckle orto inset fiber optic cable (0 mm "tera diameter) throug the tendon, When a buckle ransucer was placed on the ‘seh ene ty an Achilles tendon daring cycting, Gregor snd clleagos (1987) measured Pm on tre smeTorces Within the Body on™ 95 peak tendon forces of about 700 N in the right Achilles tendon for subjects pedaling at arate of 90 mpm while producing 265 W of power, When a fiber optic cable was inserted through the Achilles tendon, Finni and colleagues (1998) recorded peak forces of 1430 N during the stance phase of walking, The peak foree ‘was similar across walking speeds (1 t02 m/8), but the rate of force development increased by 32% when individuals went from a slow to a fast walk. Most human subjects, however, are not willing to volunteer for such invasive proce ° 2 a 6 3 io dures, and itis necessary to use more indirect techniques to assess muscle force. Much of the information available on the magnitude and direction of muscle forces has been derived from indivectestimates. Onecommon approach 799, : has been to determine the eross-seetional area Estimated force (N) cof muscle from sections that are made per 600} pendicular to the orientation of the muscle & fibers and to use this information to estimate 8 500 maximal muscle force Fick, 1904). Cross- sectional area, a measurement of the end-on = viow of the area at the level at which the 99 section (cut) has been made, indicates the number of force-generating units (myofibrils) 200- that azo lying in parallel inthe muscle. ‘These ‘measurements can be obtained through dissec- aE a se sa At > Cross-sectional area (en tion of cadavers or through the use of imaging procedures on volunteers (ultrasound, com- Figure34 Relation between the cross-sectional area of muscle puted tomography, magnetic resonance imag ing) (Bamman et al., 2000; Kawakami etal, 1994; Klein etal, 2001; Morse etal, 2007; Tate etal, 2006). The relation between the cross-sectional area of a muscle and its maximal force is shown in figure 3.4a. There is linear relation and its maximal fore. (a)'The measured tetanic force was lin carly related to the maximal foree estimated from the product ofcross-sectional area and specific tension for selected muscles in the hindlimb of the guinea pig. (6) The peak force exerted by the quadriceps femoris mosele during an isometric maximal voluntary contraction was linearly related to cross-sectional area as measured with computed tomography in men (led cicles) and women (open circes), EDL = extensor digitorum longus; between the maximal tetanic force evoked by Ft. = flexor hallueis longus; LG ~ lateral gastrocnemius, lecticel stimulation and the esirted pesk 446 medial gastocnemius, PLT = plantas, SOL= sles force based on cross-sectional area. The slope Ta = tials anterior; TAA = tibiels anterior aecessorius. Of the regression line is referred to a8 specific py jum pow 198; ons et 1988. tension and has an average value of 22.5 Nlem? for these data, The solens muscle, however, has a significantly lower specific tension of 15.7 ‘Nom, presumably due to the high proportion of type I muscle fibers, Despite this association, the cross-sectional area of muscle accounts for ony about 50% | ‘of the variance in strength across individuals during a voluntary contraetion (Figure 3.46). In studies on humans, normalized force varies from 16 to 60 N/ent across studies, with @ nominal value of 30 Nicm? (Bdgerton etal, 1990; Maganaris etal, 2001; McDonagh & Davies, 1984; [Narici eta, 1992). Five factors that often contribute to this variation are (a) the use ofa single ‘measurement of cross-sectional area when, for most muscles, cross-sectional area Varies along, the length of the muscle (Kawakami et al, 1995; Nariei et al., 1988); (b) the need to identify all of the muscles that contribute to the force; (¢) the difficulty associated with keeping the antagonist muscles silent during performance of a maximal contraction with the agonist muscles;96 5 Table 3.1 Summary Data on Cross-Sectional Areas (CSA) and Moment Arms for the Neuromechanics of Human Movement (@) the assumption that the entire muscle mass can be activated (Kandarian & Willianns, 1993; Kandarian & White, 1990); and (e) the variation in muscle architecture (he way muscle fibers ae atganized), wich appears to modulate the estimated specific tension (Fukunaga etal, 1996), Because of these imitations, the measurement of muscle fore relative to cross-sectional area at the whole-musele level should be referred (o as normalized musete force rather than specific tension, The term specific tension shouldbe used to denote the intrinsic force capacity of single muscle fibers and in situ measurements on isolated muscles. Given an accurate estimate of specific tension, dhe maximal foree a muscle (F) can exert is estimated from = specific tension x cross-sectional area ey If biceps brachii has a cross-sectional area of 5.8 cn? (table 3.1), then on the basis ofa specific tension of 30 N/em? we estimate that it can develop a maximum force of 174 N. Together, the ‘maximal force that could be exerted for the elbow flexor muscles would be 657 N based on the cross-sectional data listed in table 3.1. However, Edgerton and colleagues (1990) report that the largest cadaver in their sample of four had a cross-sectional area of 34.7 em? and therefore that the elbow flexor muscles could have exerted a maximal force of 1297 N. In addition to the data available on the muscles that cross the elbow joint (able 3.1), there ate data for most other musele systems, such asthe hip, leg, and wrist (Brand et al, 1986; Clark & Haynor, 1987; Hilkkinen & Keskinen, 1989; Lieber e al., 1990; Murray et al., 2000). (One issue of interest to muscle physiologists is whether specific tension cam vary. Is it pos sible, for exsunple, for the cross-sectional area of a muscle in two individuals to be the same bat for the maximal force to differ? Specific tension is # functional measure (the intrinsic Force capacity) of the number of myofibrils per unit of cross-sectional area. Theoretically, therefore, specific tension would very when the density of the myofibrils changes, as might occur when a muscle fiber swells or when the myofibrils are packed more closely. There is some evidence, based on single-fiber measurements, that specific tension can vary with physical activity (Frontera etal, 2003; Kawakami etal, 1995; Riley et al., 2000) and that it differs across fiber types. For example, Larsson and colleagues (1996) found that the specific tension of muscle ‘Bber segments taken froma the vastus lateralis muscle of volunteers decreased by 40% after six ‘weeks of bed rest. Similarly, the specific tension of type I muscle fibers appears to decline ‘with age (Larsson et al, 1997). Furthermore, specific tension can vary across muscle fiber types and can be different forthe same fiber type in different muscles. Hartidge and colleagues (1996) found the specific tension of type Ha muscle fibers to be 22.3 Nécm* in soleus and vastus lateralis and 38.6 N/em? in triceps brachii, whereas it was 22.6 Niet for type I fibers in wiceps brachii, Similarly, at the whole-muscle level, the maximal force capacity normalized to cross-sectional area differs among muscles. ‘The ankle plantarflexor muscles, for example, Elbow Flexor and Extensor Muscles CSA Predicted force Moment arm = —____ortue_ (cm) _W) (em) (Nem) (% maximum) Biceps brachii 56 1% 38 66 3 Brachiatis 14 22 29 64 a” Brachioraiais 20 0 6a a7 18 Pronator teres 36 108 16 a2 6 Extensor carpi radials longus 34 93 30 28 “ “Triceps brachii 238 m4 - = 7 ‘ote Praia eee was einai by mupyng the SA vain by a pec twoson af 30 Wn True was deterined asthe pod of wedicted fore and monert am Th Se asin date ideas the cortotine of he respective elbow Rexr meses tate tal bow Recor tre. beta ae fom egrton eta. 1990.Forces Within the Body + ** 97 exhibit a maximal normalized force that is twice as lange as that of the dorsiflexor muscles (Fukunaga etal, 1996). In contrast to estimating the maximal force capacity of muscle based on its cross-sectional area, we can use the amplitude of the EMG to estimate the actual muscle force exerted during & contraction. Because the EMG measures action potentials as they travel along many ofthe activated use fibers, EMG annplitude changes with muscle activation, Under isomenic conditions, he EMG i amplitude can be highly correlated with muscle force (Doorenbosch et al, 2005; Staudenmann et | al, 2006). Although this association is essere for anisometic conditions (Calvert & Chapman, 1977; Milner Brown & Stein, 1995), itis possible to estimate the magnitude ofthe muscle force from the EMG (Davis & Mika, 2000; Le etal, 2003; Lloyd & Bese, 2003; Wang & Buchanan, 2002), The most typical strategy in using EMG to estimate muscle fore is to measure the EMG signs! doring «maximal voluntary contraction and then to normalize subsequent EMG recordings to ths maximum (Burden eta, 2003; Keenan etal, 2005). Wit this approach we can describe the quantity of EMG during a particular movement as percentage ofthe value recorded during a maximal voluntary contraction performed in the same testing session, EXAMPLE 3.2 Muscle Force in Humans oe ‘The divect measurement of muscle cc force in humans can be accomplished ogee ‘only with invasive techniques, which ‘were pioneered by Komi and colleagues (Romi, 1990, 1992). These procedures | involve either the afachment of a force | ‘ransducer to tendon or the insertion | ‘of an optic ber trough tendon Fian ct al, 1998; Fukashiro et al, 1995; Gregor etal. 1991; Komi etal, 1996). ‘With such procedures, itis possible to estimate the tendon foree during vari- ‘08 activities. In addition t0 the foree measurement, subjects are videotaped -O4 — -02 ° 02 oa while they walk rn, hop, jam, or ust volt in) ‘Meabictesodatcungsinmische gar 8 Frcs mnsnied ty he Ailes edn (ones ctles) and patellar tendon (led cies) rele ‘one such experiment, in which tendon tive to the velocities of the triceps surae and quadticeps forces were measured with the optic femoris muscles during two-legged hopping. Touchdown Ger technique, are shown ia figure (TD) oeaumed a the lft endian or (70 the 35, Changes in muscle length wore righ codon of the raph The fine between cach da estimated as afunctionofointangles point was 5 ms (Hawkins & Hull, 1990), The data Deu ttom Fina ett, 2000. repreteat Achilles tendon and pellet tendon forces and the length changes of the triceps surae and quadriceps femoris muscles; negative velocity indicates lengthening of the tendon, When the fot contacted the ground, the fore increased to o peak value of about 1.7 KN inthe Ackles tendon and 2.2 KN in the patellar tendon, The peak fores occured atthe transition from the lengthening to the shortening coutractons a Direction of Muscle Force When 2 muscle force is included on a free body diagram, the fore vector should be drawn so that itis directed back across the joint. We can think of the muscle as pulling on the bodyeuromechanics of Human Movement segment so that iC rotates the segment about the joint. Most joint systems in the human body are designed as third-class levers in which the muscle force applied to the skeleton and the load experienced by the lever lie on the same side of the joint, withthe point of application of the musele force being proximal fo the load. This type of arrangement maximizes the linear velocity of the endpoint of the lever (v = ri) bat requires large muscle forces to control the ‘motion of the lever about the fulerum. ‘The angle between the muscle force vector and the skeleton is referred to as the angle of pull. Although the angle of pull of a muscle is generally shallow when a joint is in its ‘anatomical resting position, the angle does change over the range of motion and can become substantial. When the elbow joint is a a tight angle (1.57 rad, for example, the angles of pull Of the muscles that cross the elbow joint were shown to be 1.4 rad for biceps brachii, 1.2 rad for brachialis, 04 rad for brachioradiais, 0.2 rad for pronator teres, and 0.05 rad for triceps brachii (An etal, 1984), “Muscle and Load Torques During Knee Extension Consider a person recovering from knee surgery who does seated knee extension exercises 4 weighted boot. The exercise involves siting at the end of an exercise bench and raising the lower leg (shank + foot) from a vertical (knee angle = 1,57 rad) to a horizontal position and then lowering the leg again. What torques about the knee joint (K) would be involved in this exercise? Figure 3.6 depicts the appropriate system, from the knee joint down tothe toes, and the four forves—joint reaction force (F), resultant muscle foree (Fy), 3.6 Free body dingram ofthe leg ofa person pevforming leg extension exercies: (a) whake-body iggram; (b) free body diagram ofthe lower leg; (c) the Fores tat exest a torque about the knee joi; (a) te tree torques produced by these frees.Forces Within the Body limb weight (F,), and boot weight (F,,)—that represent the interaction of this system with its surroundings. The first step in determining the toryues is to draw in the moment arms (a, b, ©). This involves extending the Jine of action for each force and then drawing a perpendicular line from the line of action to the axis of rotation (Figure 3.6c). Because the Tine of action forthe joint reaction force passes through the axis of rotation, its moment arm, ‘and therefore its torque about the knee join, is equal to zero. Thus, forthe system indicated in figure 3.6, there are three forces that produce a torque about the knee joint during this exercise, Figure 3.6d shows the resultant muscle torque (,), the torque due to the weight ‘of the boot (7), and the torque due to the weight of the leg (7,). The torque due to the total Joa! is determined as the sum of 7 and 7,. The direction of the curved torque aesow is the same as the rotation thatthe torque causes, [Now suppose that the person performing this exercise has an 80 N weight attached t0 the ankle, a body weight of 700 N, and a resultant muscle force with a magnitude of 1000 NW and an angle of pull of 0.25 rad; calculate the three torques about the knee joint. We also know that the distance along the shank from the muscle force vector to the knee is 5 em. and thatthe length ofthe shank (knee to ankle) is 36 cr, The simplest approach for now is to calculate each of these torques separately. First, let us determine the torque produced by the resultant muscle force about the knee joint and draw a diagram (figure 3.7) that shows and ils momentarm (a). As we discussed in chapter 2, torque is calculated as the produet of a force and its moment arm, which is the shortest distance from the line of action of a force vector to the axis of rot Figure 3.7 The magnitude and direction of muscle force (F,) and the associated moment ara (a) the knee joint t= F,xa =1000xa sin 025=—2— 0.05 a= 0.05sin0.25 =0.0124 m ‘The torque due to the weight of the limb can be determined in a similar manner. We ean also take the opportunity to review the methods we learned in chapter 2to estimate the ‘weight and center-of-inass location of body segments. The weight ofthe shank and foot can be estimated from the combined shank and foot regression equations in table 2.1. Similarly, from table 2.1 we can estimate the center-of-mass location (i... point of application for the ‘weight vector) for the lower leg (shank + foot) as being ata distance (4) of 43.4% of shark. length, as measured from the knee joint. We begin by drawing a diagram (figure 3.8) that shows F, and its moment arm (6). Once these two variables have been determined, we can calculate the torque due to the weight of the system (1,) (figure 3.9). 99100 Neuromechanies of Human Movernent knoe Figure 3.8 The magnitude and direction ofthe weight vector (P,) andthe associated moment arnt (8) to the knee joint d= 0.36 x 0.434 156m P= (0,044 7001.75) + (0.009 x 700 + 2.48) =u78N eos 5= a b= 015600805 b=0.14m t t ‘The torgue about the knee joint due to the ankle weight (z) can be determined in a similar manner, g=08 rad re3.9 ‘The magnitude and direction of the ankle weight vector (Fi) and the associated moment arm (6) 0 the knee joint. BaRxe =80Ke c e0s05= 55 ¢=0.36e0805 = 032m,Forces Within the Body ++ * 101 .bout the knee joint in this example by summing the magnitudes and taking into account the direction of each torque (i.e., counterclockwise indicates positive). As discussed previously, we can determine the direction of each torque vector with the right-hand-thumb rule. Inthe present example, the forces F, and F, produce clockwise rotation and thus are identified as negative torques, To determine the net effect ofthese forces on the system, we sum (2) the moments of force (Lorques) about the knee joint (5): y x ‘The net torque, therefore, has a magnitude of 18.4 Nem and acts in a clockwise direction. Does this mean that the leg is being lowered’? No, the clockwise direction of the torque . vector says nothing about the direction of the limb displacement. Recall from chapter 1 that a ball tossed into the air first goes up and then down while experiencing @ downward acceleration throughout the entire trajectory. Similarly, a negative tongue (acceleration) ‘provides no information on the displacement about the knee joint, The leg could be going ‘or down while experiencing a net torque about the knee joint that acts in a clockwise direction, We need (0 have position, velocity, and acceleration (torque) information for a ‘complete description of the motion. Xa), XD) XO) i =124-$2-256 184m Moment Arm Because torque sequal othe procnctofforce and 60 ‘moment arm figure 2.4), the rotary effect of free can beater by either factor As we just discussed, _ ruses generally have a sallow angle of pall Ey, and are located else to the joint ebout which they = exert s torque. Because the angle of pull is shal- E55 | low, anatomical moment arms are typically short. | But moment arms change throughout the range of £29 motion, a shown for the knee extensors in figure # 3.10. Three techniques ean be used toestimate the 40 ‘moment arm: the geometric imaging method, the tendon excursion method, andthe drectloadmes. 9 surement method (Tsaopoulos ct al, 2006). These ‘methods can yield different estimates fora moment arm (figure 3.10). Nonetheless, the moment arm at ‘many joints is maximal at intermediate joint angles Because strength is a measure of the capacity of 1uscle o exert torque, i is influenced not only by the size of the muscle (musele foree) but also by differences in the moment arm from the muscle force vector to the joint. Based on the moment arm values in figure 3.10, ifthe force exerted by the knee extensors is constant over the indicated range of motion, then strength will be greatest at intermediate kuee angles when the moment arm is greatest. gure 3.10 Values from two studies For the m of the patellar endon relative tothe flexion-extension axis of rotation forthe knee joint. In one study, the measurements were performed on six eadavers using a threedimensional analysis With the geometric imaging method. The moment arms ofthe Uiyee women (open circles) were less than those of the thee sen (filled cirles) Jn another study, the messarements were performed on 10 young men (filled wionses) using a geometric maging method based on estimating the location ofthe poi ‘of application of the joint reaction forees between the tibis and femus, at son Krein. 200; Kelis and npn 199.102 << Neuromechanics of Human Movement Data from An and colleagues Table 3.2 Moment Arms (em) Associated (1981) indicate that the moment With the Elbow Flexor and Extensor Muscles tums for the major elbow flexor muscles double as the elbow goe Elbow extended Elbow flexed from a fully extended position “Wusete Neutral Supinated Neutral Supinated to 1.75 rad (100*) of flexion. In.§ eS i o———rerovore contrast, the moment arm for FLEXOR triceps brachit (elbow extensor) Bieps brachi) LAT 1.96 23 320 decreases by about one-third over Brachials 09 087 x 198 the same range of motion (table oe 43.2), Similar observations have Srachiordiais 2.47 257 4.6 5.19 ‘been made for other arm muscles EXTENSOR (Bremer etal, 2006;Lorenetal, caps trachh 2.81 ae a aia 1996; Murray etal, 2002; Pigeon tal, 1996) and those around the shoulder joint (Kuechle et al, 2000), for muscles that cross the hip joine (Nemeth & Ohlsén, 1985; Visser et al., 1990), and for muscles that eross the ankle and knee joints (Herzog & Read, 1993; Maganaris, 2004; Rugg et al., 1990; Spoor ct al., 1990), Furthermore, the length of a moment arm can change as the line of action of the muscle force varies during a contraction (Ito etal, 2000; Maganaris et al., 1999). Noe: The rent as ae ted withthe eno i fell cxtesion anda LTS a feston and wit he hand nes ad sepia postion at fom fn al. 9981 ae “EXAMPLE 3.4 Moment Arm Changes Influence the Point of Failure During Push-Ups Let us examine the significance of the variation in a moment arin over a range of motion. Consider an individual who performs push-ups to exhaustion. The prime mover for push- ups is the elbow extensor muscle, triceps brichii. Suppose this musele is maximally active as the individual approaches failure and, on the basis of the cross-sectional data presented previously, is exerting a force of 714 N. According to the data in table 3.2, the moment arm for the triceps brachi is about 2.81 em with elbow extended (Figure 3.1 1a) and about 2.04 now Py Fy > e Figure 3.11 A person performing a push-up exercise: a) straightarm position (0) bent-arm postion e) fice body diagram that isolates the resultant muscle force (F,) exerted by the extensor muscles about the elbow joint, The net torque (F,) about the elbow joint is equal vo the product of F, and the moment ae, dForees Within the Body *** 103 cm with the elbow flexed to 1.75 rad (figure 3.12). This variation in moment arm length is indicated asa change in length of din igure 3.L1c: Because of this variation, che maximal torque would be approximately 20.1 Nem for the extended position and 14.6 Nem forthe flexed position. Thais, in the flexed position the torque due to the triceps brachii force, tne prime mover for the exercise, is less than inthe extended position. Donkers and colleagues (1993) found thatthe peak elbow extensor torque during a normal push-up was 56% of tne maximal isomeric torque that could be exexted by the elbow extensor muscles and that this | value declined to 29% when the hands were placed farther apart and increased to 71% when the hands were placed together. Consequently, failure to perform any more push-ups is more likely to occur inthe flexed position, where the maximal torque i least. In this ease, failure occurs because ofan inability to raise body weight, a constant load, up and down. A similar rationale applies to the point of failure daring pull-ups. The moment arms for the elbow flexor muscles are minimal with complete elbow extension, and ifthe anscle force is reasonably constant throughout the range of motion, that isthe point at which faire occurs. Tendon and Aponeurosis ‘The movements we perform are a consequence ofthe forces applied to the skeleton by our muscles, The work done by muscles, however, depends not only on the activity of the cross- bridges within the sarcomeres but also on the elasticity of the tissues that connect the force ‘enerators to the skeleton, When a musele is activated by the nervous system, the force it exerts is trasmited wo the skeleton by the aponeurosis and tendon und is modified by dhe material properties ofthese tissnes (Bojsen-Mellr et al, 2004; Fukunaga ct a, 2001; Hansen et al 2006; Kubo et a, 20014). ‘The mechanical properties of these tissues can be characterized through measurement of the sttetch that oceurs when a fore is applied. When the magnitude ofthe strctch is reatively small (within the range of Ato B in figure 3.122, the resisting force provided by the tissue can be represented by the relation for an ideal spring (Hook's fay) Fake 62) ‘where F, elastic force, k= spring stiffness, and.r= amount of stretch, Equation 3.2 san equa- tion fora siraight line, which has an intercept of zero and a slope of & The slope corresponds 100: 5 ae 3 60 = ; I & 0. a 6 é 0 % 2 a ‘Streteh (mm) > Strain (%) Figure 3.12 ‘Theresistanes of connective tse oan imposed strech, (a) An idealized force length elation for connective issue stetched beyond ts elastic region int its peste regon.(b) Sress-aein relation for an extensor dgitorim longus tendon Strain indicates the change Jn length ofthe tendon relative tot ntl lengths (Al?) 100), whereas tess represents the force per nit area (Nin am opt ro Schema Bader 197104 Neuromechanics of Hunan Movement to the stiffness of the tissue. Acconding to equation 32, the eistc force exerted by the tissue is proportional to the amount of stretch. The proportionality constant (&) of a tissue depends on both the composition and the organization ofits constituents, which caa change with physical activity and with aging (Karamanidis & Arampatzis, 2005; Kubo etal, 2008; Magnusson et nl., 2003); Reeves et al, 2006). ‘When young adults exerted a near-maximum force with the triceps surae muscles, the stff- ness of the Achilles tendon averaged 306 Nenvrad (Hof, 1998). Under these eo the muscle-tendon length shortened by about 28 mm (8% of tendon + aponeusosis length) dain, ‘ maximal isometric contraction, For high-force lengthening contractions ofthe triceps surae muscles, the Achilles tendon might be stretched by as much as 10% of its resting length (Hof, 1998), Such findings underscore two Features of muscle function. Fist, some ofthe work per forined by the cross-bridges is used to stretch the tendon and aponeurosis, which then funetion 28 more rigid connector between the muscle and te skeleton, For this reason, lager muscles have thicker (cross-sectional area) tendons (Loren & Lieber, 1995), and the elastic propecties of tendon are correlated with muscle strength (Muraoka et al,, 2005). Second, the elasticity of these tissues enables them to store und release energy, which can significantly reduce the metabolic cost of perfortning some movements (Alexander, 1997, Biewener & Roberts, 2000; Gabaldon et al,, 2004; Priutsky et al,, 19964). ‘There isa limi to how fer tendon and aponeurosis ean be stretched until they break (point C infigure 3122). Based on in vitro measurements, rupture occurs in tendon (extensor digitorum longs) when it is stretched by about 15% of its inital length (Schochtman & Bader, 1997) ‘anc! in ligament (medial collateral) ater a stretch of bout 20% (Liao & Belkoff, 1999). With less substantial stretches, the tissues either behave Tike a spring (equation 3.2) as they operate in the elastic reglon (between points A and B in figure 3.122) or the stretch extends beyond the yield point (point B in figure 3.122) and into the plastic region (between points B and C in figure 3.12a) where the structure of the tissu is altered and the slope of the foreelength relation changes. If the tissue is stretched to point D (figure 3.12a) and then released, it will assume «new resting length (point A') that is longer than the initial length (point A) due to plastic changes in its structure. The controlled lengthening of connective tissue into its plastic region will increase its resting length, which expands the range of motion about a joint. ‘The force-length relation of tendon and aponeurosis varies, both between tissue types and among different stractures of the same tissue type. Many of these differences are due to variation in cross-sectional urea and length. For example, the stiffness of two tendons with the same Iength vavies according tothe difference in eross-sectional area; a tendon with twice the cross-sectional arca of another has twice the liffness, Similarly, the stiffaess of two tendons With the samie cross-sectional srea vari on the basis of differences in length; a tendon that is twice ws tong as another il have one-half the stiffness. For this reason, the comparison of ‘connective tise properties across conltions and subjects i based on normalized vales, which are expressed as a stress-strain relation (igure 3.120), Stress (Pa) represents the force applied perunitarea of the tissue, where areais measured inthe plane that is perpendicular to the force vector (cross-sectional area). Strain (4) indicates the change in length of te tissue relative to its initial length, which can vary along the length of a tendon and aponeurosis (Magnusson et al, 2001; Stafildis eta, 2005). Stress and strain characterize the intrinsic foree capacity and extensibility of connective tissue. The slope of the elastic egion of a stress-strain relation is ‘quantified as the modulus of elasticity (B), which is defined asthe ratio of stress (6) to strain {€) and represents the normalized stiffness ofthe tissu. be 63) Normalization of the Foce-length relation as stress-strain curve, however doesnot aout forall the ciferenees between various stactures ‘Te mls of clasity for mammalcn tendon, frexample, vate from abou 0.8 to 2 GP, wth an average vile of 1.5 GPa Bennett eta, 1986; Magnusson ei, 200%). Some of this variability ean probaly be explained by the location on the sress-stn curve where te slope (anodulus) is measured. Por example,Foroes Within the Body + ++ EXAMPLE 3.5 Tendon Properties ‘As indicated by the stess-stran normalization procedure, tenlons vary in thiekness (ross Sectional area) and length, The major determinant ofthese differences appears to be the ‘magnicude ofthe physiological loads experienced by the tendon. This is evident, farexample, if we compare the stress-strain relation of two tendons that differ in size (table 3.3) Table 3.3 Mechanical Properties of Two Tendons Extensor carpi Achilles radiatis brevis tendon tendon avimal muscle force (N) 38 "5000 Tendon length (mm) 204 350 Tendon thickness (mm) 146 6 Elastic modulus (MPo) 726 1500 Stress (MPa) 4.06 768 Strain (4) 2a 5 stiffness (W/em) 105 7357 ‘These two tendons have similar values for strain and somewhat similar values for stress at the maximal muscle foree, but the Achilles tendon is much stiffer than the tendon of the Wrist extensor muscle, Loren and Lieber (1995) found no difference in the modulus of elasticity among the muscles ‘hat cross the wrist when the slope was measured al the maximal force the muscle could exert. ‘These values ranged from 0.438 GPa for extensor carpi radials longus to 0.726 GPa for extensor carpi radialis brevis. However, when the modulus was measured at forces ess than maximum, there were significant differences among tendons, which suggested differences in material properties between tendons at low forces. Intra-Abdominal Pressure "The pressure inside the abdominal cavity varies in the course of our daily activities. It can range from low values that eause air to flow into the lungs to high values that make the trunk rigid. The magnitude of the intra-abdominal pressure and trunk rigidity is controlled by the activity of the trunk muscles. The principal muscles are those that surround the abdominal cavity, including the abdominal muscles anteriorly and laterally (rectus abxlominis, external ‘and internal obliques, and transversus abdominis), the diaphragm above, and the muscles of the pelvic floor below (Hodges & Gandevia, 2000). Intra-abdominal pressure is increased through closing of the epiglotis and activation of these muscles; fluctuations in the intra-abdominal pressure tend (o parallel most closely changes in the EMG activity of the transversus abdominis muscle (Cresswell etal, 1992). Voluntarily presgurizing the abdominal cavity, which we do when lifting heavy loads or anticipating high- pact forees, is referred to asthe Valsalva maneuver. In most activities we perform, however, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles are activated automatically and the intra-abdominal pressure is altered without a need for voluntary (conscious) intervention (Hodges et al, 2004). When the trunk muscles are activated, both the intrathoracic pressure and the intra- abdominal pressure increase (Hodges et al, 2005). The pressures in these two cavities tend to chango in parallel during many activities, with the intra-abdominal pressure usually being greater (Harman et al,, 1988). The force generated by intra-abdominal pressure is estimated as 105106 =» Neuromechanics of Human Movement Fash Seine Diaragin Abcominat cay Hip . a Powe Figure 313 The effect of intarsbdominal pressive on the tank: (a) thee-teyineat system with the intra-abdominal cavity ide th balloon when the trunk is pushed forward; () free body dingram that represented as a balloon; () increase in pressure Jnchudes the force de tothe itta-abdoranal pressure. the product of the pressure and the cross-section areaof the eavity (smallest transverse section), with the force acting tthe center of pressure (Daggfeldt & Thorstensson, 1997). Intra-abdominal pressure has been proposed as ‘a mechanism to reduce the Joad on back muscles during lifting tasks (Cholewieki et al., 1999; Dag- sfeldt & Thorstensvon, 1997; Monts et al, 1961). Pressutization of the abdominal cavity provides & force that causes the trunk to extend about the hip joint, This effect is shown in figure 3.13. Imagine a three-segment syste that enmprises a base (pelvis), aan upright trunk) component, and an upper support ‘Giaphragm). Between these elements is an inflated ‘balloon (intra-abdominal cavity). When the system. is pushed forward about the hip, the balloon will be compressed and the pressute inside the balloon will increase (Figure 3.13). When the pushing fore is released, the pressure inside the balloon pushes the system back to an upright position (Hagins ot al,, 2006; Hodges et al, 2001). Similarly, the intra- abdominal pressure provides a force (F) that acts through the diaphragm to oppose hip flexion loads (igure 3.136). For example, if the person shown in figure3.13c lifted aload of91 kg (F,,) without inereas- ing the inlra-sbdorinal pressure, the back and hip muscles (F,.) would have to exer a forve of 8223 Ny and the joint reaction foree (F) would be 9216 N just to support the load. However, if this lifter increased his inza-abdlominal pressure to 19-7 Pa (force of 810 1) then F, would be reduced to 6403 N and F would decrease 10 6599 N (Morris eta, 1961). Tntrn-abdorinal pressure ean be measured with a pressure transducer that is attached to acatheter and ingerted into the abdominal cavity through the nas cavity, Figure 3.14 provides an example of sich @ recording during a weightlifting exercise (Lander et al, 1986). In this Bf, the individusl began from an y 1s: 8 ae SS Kae 7” ‘Trunk & thigh angle (cad) Knee angle (a) Thigh 2600: 2200: Force (N) +600 0 8 ‘Time (% duration) Figure 3:14 Changes ia joint angles, vertical componeat of the ground reaction force, and intra-abdominal pressure during a squat lift by a weightlifter. Trunk and thi fs absolute angles relative tothe horizontal suc thatthe angles te 1.57 rad when the individual was vertical. The knee angle is ‘veletive angle between the thigh and shank. ‘Ada by elon, LE Lan, ET hs, F Dei, 1986 ‘romans es cers ing aod eee of as ‘Main See Spr ane Brie 8473.the Body =r erect position and lowered the load until the thighs were parallel tothe ground (the trunk, knee, and thigh angles reached minimal values) and then returned to.an eect posture. Because the load (weight ofthe lifter and the barbell) was 2.2 KN, the vertical component ofthe ground reaction force (F,,) Nuctuated about this value. F, values less than 2.2 kN indicate that the system was acceleraling downward; conversely, values greater than 2.2 KN depict an upward acceleration of the system. The increase in intra-abxlominal pressure tends to coincide with values greater than 2.2 KN when the Toad (system acceleration) on the trunk muscles is greatest ‘Asa pressure in a confined volume, the intra-abdominal pressure exerts a force over the surface area of the absiominal cavity." force that he intra-absominal pressure exerts onthe trunk isusually estimated asthe product of ints-abdorinal pressure and the surface area of the disphragrn, ‘which Morris and colleagues (1961) estimated fo be about 0.0465 m for an adult. If his estimate is combined withthe peak intra-ahdominal pressure of 25 kPa shown in figure 3.14, then the force acting on the diaphragm due to the intra-abdominal pressure would have been approximately 1163 N during the squat lift. The magnitude ofthe intra-abdominal pressure can be influenced by the use of a weightlifting belt (Harman etal, 1989; lvancic et al, 2002; Lander etal, 1992; McGill et a., 1990). Clearly, this is a significant force in human movement. Despite the correlation between various movements and changes in intra-abdominal pres- sure, there is some controversy over the functional role ofthis mechanical effect (Arjonand & Shirazi-Adi, 2005; Marras & Misa, 1992) ILnas been proposed, for example, that ono effect of int-abdominal pressure is to reduce the compressive forces that act on the intervertebral disks ‘However, Nachenson and colleagues (1986) showed that although the Valsalva maneuver does increase the intra-abdominal pressure, it can also increase te pressure on the nucleus of the L3 disk. for some moderate tasks. Nonetheless, for the most swenuous tas, in which the subjects leaned forward 0.53 rad while holding an 8 kg load in outstretched arms, a Valsalva manenver increased the intra-abdominal pressure from 4.35 kPa to 8.25 kPa and reduced the intradiseal pressure from 1625 kPa to 1488 kPa, Such a mechanism would likely have a significant cumulative effect, (on the stress experienced when performing manual labor (Bssendop et al., 2002). STATIC ANALYSIS Now that we have discussed musculoskeletal forces, we have considered all the forces that we ‘might need to include on a free body diagram. The three categories of forces arc those due to body mass (gravity and inertial force), those due to the surroundings (ground reaetion force and air resistance), and musculoskeletal forces (joint reaction force, muscle force, and the force due to intra-abdominal pressure). Our next task is to consider the formal procedures that we vse to determine unknown forees after we have drawn a free body diagrat, When we apply Newton's law of acceleration (ZF = ma) to study the motion of an object \we commonly distinguish among movements in which acceleration is zero and those in which itis not zero, When acceleration is zero, the right-hand side of the equation is zero, which means that the sum of the forces acting on the object is equal to zero. This is veferred to as a static condition because acceleration is zero and all the forces are balances. When this occurs, the object has zero acceleration, which means that it has a constant velocity; that is, itis either Stationary or moving at a constaat speed Inastatic analysis, the sum ofthe forces in any given direction is zero (ZF =0) and the sum ‘of the torques is also equal to zero (22, = 0). At most, there are three independent scalar eque- tions available (o solve statics problems in which the movement is confined to a single plane: Yreo Gay =o 65) Da=0 G6) Fxquations 3.4 and 3.5 refer to the sum (E) of the forces in two linear directions (x and y) that are perpendicular fo one another. Equation 3.6 represents the sum of the torques about point 2, whieh may oF may not be the center of mass ofthe system, 107108 = Neuromechanics of Human Movement ‘When performing a static analysis, we follow a number of steps. These incinde drawing a free body diagram, weiting the equation to be used, expanding the equation to include all the orees shown on the free body diagram, and then solving for the unknown term. The following ‘examples demonstrate these procedures. ae ___EXAMPLE3.6 Finding the Magnitude and Direction of an Unknown Force Consider the rigid body in figure 3.154, which is in equilibrium (a =0) and upon which are acting three known forces and one unknown force. What is the magnitude of the unknown, force? The first step is to draw a five body diagram. Although figure 3.1Sq indicates all the {forces acting on the rigid body and does comprise a free body diagram, the most convenient hown in figure 3.15b. A free body diagram must include a coordinate system, which indicates the positive Linear and angular directions, For most of our problems this will include the x-y directions and a rotation. In figure 3.15b, the positive x direction isto the right, the positive y direction is up, and the positive rotation is counterclockwise. This is the most common convention: any horizontal force directed to the right is regarded as positive, and any to the left is negative. The declaration of the horizontal-vestical directions is also an indication that only forces in these directions will be used in the analysis and thus any force (e.g. R) not in ether direction must be resolved into such ditections (figure 3.15)). "The second! step in the analysis isto write the equation of motion, which will be one of i the versions of Nevton’s law of acceleration (equations 34 through 3.6). The actual equation | needed depends on the question. For example, if we want to determine the magnitude of a force inthe x direction, then we should used equation 3.4 as it involves this direction. Once form | ton 10N 6N 8N 3N aN e Figure 3.45 Distbution of forces acting ona ighd body: (a) free body diagram; (b) resolution of R into x and y components; (c) calealation of the direction and magnitude of R.Forces Within the Body = #* 109 the equation bas been written, the third step is to expand the equation based on the forces identified in the free body diagram. This step, which represents the second line ofthe solu tion, should identify the magnitude and divection of the forces acting in the chosen direction ey, oF a rotation). So to determine the magnitude of R,, we should proceed as follows: Note that inthis example, the diccton ofthe unknown force (R,) is indeated as postive on the second ine af he sluton Tis dizection cams from te fee boy dingra gue 3.15b), There are two forces ang onthe rgd body in hex decton: ein the negative diretion with a magaitad of 3N and the oer the postive xdiecion wih an uleown magnitude. Because the system iin guilinumy the clcoation shows that the mages ofthe two forees are equal but dat the directions are opposite. Now we do the same procedure in the ydiectin, Aun, we begin by writing the ne. essary equation; then we expind the equston from the free boty agra, and ily we solve forthe unknown variable. Yr,=0 5410-2, =0 R=15N According to figure 3.15, there are three forces aeting in the y direction. The direction of all three forces is known. Because the system is in equilibrium and the magnitude of two forces is known, we ate able to determine the magnitude of the known Force (R,). ‘Once we have determined R, and R,, we can find the magnitude and direction of I (figure 3.15e). The magnitude ofthe resultant (R) can be determined by he Pythagorean relation: eee Vee R=153N ‘This result, however, speifes only the magnitude ofthe resultant and not its direction, We can atually indicate the direction of R relative o several references; fr example, we could determine the angle relative to a horizontal (R,) or a vertical (R,) reference. Let us calculate the direction of R relative to the system (igure 3.15c). By the parallelogram rule, isthe diagonal of the rectangle, which has Rand, as its sides. Tis R,, R, and R represent the sides of triangle and we cam determine 8 as R, cos sing =" Accordingly, = cos" 0.196), @=1.37 md ‘The answer to the question is that R has a magnitude of 15.3 N and is directed to the right at an angle of 1.37 rad below the horizontal,110 = Neusomechanies of Human Movement a EKAMPLESS Calculating a Net Muscle Torque ‘A person sitting on an exercise bench has a light load attached to his ankle while performing aa kee extension exercise. Suppose we want to estimate the magnitude ofthe force exerted by his knee extensor muscles (quadriceps femoris) when he hols the loud stationary inthe riddle of the range of motion, We can do this by performing a static anelysis because the Torces would have tobe balanced to hold the load stationary ‘To estimate the muscle force abont the knee joint during the knee extension exercise, the free body diagram must include the knee joint at one end (figure 3,16). One way ta drav the free body diagram for this analysis is to have the foot and shank comprise the system and then to show how the surroundings interact with this system. In this type of analysis, the muscle force (F) and the joint reaction force (F,) indicate separate effeets of the surround ings (the rest ofthe body) on the system. The object of the static analysis is to determine the agnitade and direction of the resultant muscle torque about the Knee joint (K), required to hold the leg inthe specified position, Figore 3.16 shows two moment arms (= 0.11 and c=0.32:m), the joint section force (F), the system (shank + foot) weight (Fy=41 N), and the weight of the load (F; = 80 N). Suppose the individual had to hold the limb at an angle of 0.5 rad below the horizontal: What resultant muscle torque (7) must the person generate to accomplish this task? ‘The first step is to construct the free body diagram (figure 3.16). This involves defining the system, drawing the system as 1 simplified diagram such a8 a stick figure, and showing how the system interacts with its surroundings. These interactions ea include forees due to body mass, forces due to the surroundings, and forces due to the 5 rusculoskeetal system, The second steps to scleetthe appropriate equation (equations 3.4 ‘rough 3.6). To determine angular effects, as im this example, we should choose equation 3.6 to sum the torque about the somersault taxis through the knee joint. Dae The thied step is to expand the equation, ‘which is the sccond line of the solution, In individual perforating anes extension exercise. this example, thore are three forces (Pa Fs and F) and one torque (acting onthe system as indicated by the vectors in figure 3.16, By choosing point K (the knee joint) asthe point shout which to sum the torques, we ean ignore the joint reaction force because its line of action passes through this point and its moment arm is therefore zero. Consequently, Yn-0 Sy XD) ~(FX T= Pex DEX) (41 x 0.11) + 80.0 x 0.32) 514256 1,230.1 Nem Figure 3.16 Free body diagram of the shank and foot of anForces Within the Body _~ ‘This analysis indicates that when the shank-Toot is held in the middle ofthe range of motion for the exercise, che weight ofthe sysiem (R,) and the load attached to the ankle (F) exert a torque of 30.1 Nem about the knee joint. To hold the shank-foot stationary, the net muscle Corque must equal the magnitude of this Toad torque. EXAMPLE3.8 Solving for Two Unknown Forces ‘A student sits atthe end of an exercise bench and uses a rope-pulley apparatus to strengthen her quadriceps femoris muscle group with an isomettic exercise. Let's determine the mus- loskeletal forces atthe knee joint. Again, the first step is to draw the free body diagram. If we are to calculate the musculoskeletal forces at the knee joint, one end of the free body diagram must be the knee joint. The simplest system comprises the shank and the foo, from te knee (X) joint down to the toes (figure 3.17)."The forces that must be included on the free body didgram are the weight of the system (F,), the musculoskeletal forces (F,, and a b in igure 3.17 (a) Free body diagram ofthe lower leg (shank + foot) of an individual as she performs an isometric exercise to strengthen her quadriceps femoris muscle group. (b) The forces can also be resolved into normal (n) and tangential (2) components F), and the load dye to the apparatus (F). The student's leg weighs 30 N, and the center cof mass of the system is 20/cm from the knee joint (2). She applies a force of 100 N to the rope-pulley apparatus, which is attached to an ankle cuff at a distance of 45 cm from her kee joint (c), The muscle force (quadriceps femoris) vector acts back across the knee joint with an angie of pull (9) of 0.25 rad and a point of application that is 7 cm from the knee joint (@). The join reaction force (Fis shown as two components, one inthe normal (F,) direction andthe other inthe tangential (P,) direction. The free body diagrarn shows the system at an angle of 0.7 rad below the horizontal, which moans thatthe angle of F, (8) is 0.87 rad and the angle of F (7) i 0.7 rad, ‘The next step isto write an equation for the calculation. Because this problem has two unknowns (F., and F), we must choose an equation that does not include both terms. Thus ‘we choose equation 3.6. If we sum the torques about point K, we ean momentarily ignore at112 Neuromechanics of Human Movement F, because the moment arm from its line of action to K is zero. This involves summing the torgues about point K due tothe weight ofthe system (F,) and the load exerted by the rope- pulley apparatus (F) and setting these equal tothe torque associated with the quadriceps femoris muscle activity (F,)- This equality exists because the person is performing an {somotic contraction, which means thatthe forees are balanced and the systems in equilib- rium, So we perform the calculation by writing the equation irs Hine) and then expanding the equation to include al the torques acting on the system about point K (second line). The riagnitude of each torque is calculated as the product of the force and its moment arm. The calculation proceeds as follows: Lr=0 xasind)—(F,, xbsinB)-(F, xesin7)=0 (8, X1.7)~G0%15.3) (100 x29.0) = 0 (F,, X17) = GOX15.3) + (100% 29.0) (F, x1.)=459+2900 23359 i F,, =1976N Fg F, ‘To determine the magnitude of F,,und F.,, we need to resolve cach force into its normal and tangential components (figure 3.17) and then sum the forces in each direction. ‘The ‘components are the following: Fin 087 =30sin 087 =23N sin 0.70 (00 sin 0.70 64N Fqy = Fug 08 0.25 = 1975 cos 0.25 30.cos 0.87 =19N Fy= F008 0.70 100 £08 0.70 16N ‘These values represent the magnitudes of the normal and tangential components as they are shown in figure 3,17b. The magnitude of the tangential component ofthe joint reaction force is determined asFosces Withi the Rody ¢«+ 113 DA=0 Fy- Fut Peg Fu=0 Fis Pas Past Py = 1914-19+76 1971. ‘The magnitude of the normal component can be found in a similar manner: Dr Fi, F, Faye —Fraat Pag t Puy = 489-4234 64 Fjg=-402.N ‘The magnitude of Fis determined as negative 402 N. This does not mean that itis a nega. tive force but rather that its direction is incorrect on the free body diagratn (gure 3.170) When the free body diagram was drawn, we were told thatthe system was in equilibrium, ‘This means that the forces in each direction must add to zero. For the tangential direction, we assumed that F, was acting in the postive direction; this tumed out to be correct. Also, we assumed that F, would have to actin the positive direction in order forthe system to be in equilibrium. But this was incorrect, as indicated by the negative value that we calculated for F, The calculation indicates that acts inthe negative direction in ard forthe system tobe in equilibrium. Now that we know the magnitude of F, and #,, we ean determine the magnitude ofthe resultant joint reaction force (F,) with the Pythagorean relation: = aor oF 2013. N ‘Thus, when a 100 N load is applied at the ankle, the knee joint expesiences a joint reaction force that is almost 20 times larger than the load. inal, we can calculate the direction of the resultant joint reaction force with respect to the axis of the shank as i972 0=02 rad ‘The resultant joint reaction force, therefore, has 2 magnitude of 2013 N and is directed 0.2 rad below the longitudinal axis of the shank:114 one Neuromechanies of Human Movement ___ EXAMPLE 3.9 Locating the Balance Point ‘Actigid body of uniform density, which weighs 20 N and has a length of 22 em, has a load ‘suspended fiom each end (figure 3.18). Acone end the Toad is 30N, and atthe other end the load is 60 N. To balance the rigid body on an extended finger, what is the magnitude of the force that we must exert with the finger, and where should the finger be placed? To answer this question, the frst step is to daw a free body diagram. The rigid body has a uniform density, which means thatthe center of mass is located in the middle of the object. So we know the magnitude and direction of three forces acting on the rigid body. For the rigid bouy to balance on a finger, the finger must exert a force equal in magnitude but opposite {in direction so that the forces are all balanced. With this information, we can draw the free body diagram (figure 3.18b). Once we have the free body diagram, we ean choose an equa- tion, expand it, and solve for the finger Force: Yr=0 30-20 = 60 + finger force Finger foe : oon on] eon ow Because the londs at the two ends of the system are not equal, the balance point (finger Tocation) will not be in the middle of the rigid ‘body, The balance point essentially a fuleran: ‘The Toads on one side pull the rigid body in one dlireetion, and those on the other side pull it in the other direction. ‘The balance point, there- fore, is the location about which the torques in each direction are equal and the rigid body does not rotate, This is the definition of the center of mass (CM); iis the point (@ locaton) about which the mass of the system is evenly distributed. Because the balance point (CM) 1 e represents the location aout which the system is in equilibrium, we can find it by performing static analysis. To find the balance point, we can sum the torques abour the origin of the scale in figure 3.18 snd find where the 110 N force must be located forthe rigid body to be balanced Ln=0 ~430%6)~ (20% 17) + (110d) (6028) = 0 G06) + 2017) + (60%28) - 110 8 0-2 4 6 8 1012 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Figure 3.18 The location and magnitude of an opposing force ‘hat will balance a Toaded rigid body: (a) the system, (the free body diagram, a d=206m So, to balance the rigid body shown in figure 3.184, itis necessary fo exert an upward force (of LION that is applied at 20 em along the seale.Forces Within the Body + * 115 __ EXAMPLE 3.10 Center of Mass for the Human Body _ ‘The same approach as described in example 3.9 can be used to find the location of the CM of a system iat comprises several different parts, such as the human body, The approach involves using equation 3.6 to find the point about which the mass ofthe system is evenly distributed that is, the balance point. The location of the balance point depends on the relative position of the different parts in che system, For the human body, this means the location of the individual body segments, y ‘To demonstrate this technique, let us determine the location of the total-body CM of a gymnast about to perform a backward handspring (Figure 3.19). The necessary steps include the follow: ing: 180m 1. Identity the appropriate body segments. The hhuman body is divided into multiple parts for a segmental analysis (figures 2.7 and 2.9). The number of segments to be used in, an analysis is determined by the nuanber of joints that experienco an angular displace ‘ment during the movement. If there is no rotation about the elbow joint, for example, then the arm (upper arm + forearm) can be. represented as a single segment. For this example, we will use 14 segments: head, trunk, upper arms, forearms, hands, thighs, a 12 cme aicdereias| shanks, and feet, These segments are indi- Figure 3.19 Location of whole-body center of mess cated in figure 3.19 by the marks over the (CM) as a function of the position of the body segments: joint conters that represent the proximal (a limit of th respective body segments; (8 location of and distal anatomical landmarks for each the segmental CMs asa percentage of segment length segment. 2. Connect the joint-centor markers to construct a stick figure (figore 3.176). 3. From table 2.1, determine the location of the CM for each segment as a percent- age of segment length. These lengths are measured from the proximal end of each segment (able 3.4), 4, Estimate segmental weights as a function of body weight (F,) (table 3.5). The zymnast weighs 450N. ‘5, Measure the location of segmental CMs relative to an x-y axis (table 3.6). The location ofthis axis is mbitrary and does not influence the location (with respect to the body) of the total-body CM; you can convince yourself ofthis by doing the calculation twice with the xy axis in a different location exch time 6, With the segmental weight F,) and location (x,y) data, sum the segmental torques about the y-axis (2a, = F,, » x) and the x-axis (2p, = F,% y). Double the imb segmental weights to account for both limbs (table 37) 7. Find the location of the balance point. This is the point that produces the same torque for total-body weight about the x- and y-axes as that due to the sum of the segmental effects. Ths procedure i the same asthe one used in example 3.9. This similarity is shown in figure 3.20, which illustrates an end-on view of the gym- nast represented as a rectangular object. The arrows indicate the magnitudes of| the segmental weight vectors (I = head, 2 = tunk, 3 = upper arm, 4 = forearm, 5-=hand, 6= thigh, 7 = shank, 8= foot) and the total-body weight vector (F,) with the locstions representing the x-coordinate for the CMs.Table 3.4 Genter of Mass (CM) Locations Table 3.5 Segmental Weights for Figure 3.19 for Figure 3.19 Segment CM location (%) Proximal end Segment Equation Weight (N) Head 63 “Top ofthe head “Head 0.052 F,+I810~ 3810 Trunk sea “Top ofthe neck Trunk 0.532 > f, - 6.93 = 232.47 Upper arm 507 Shoulder Upperam 0.022 x f+ 4.76 14.66 Forearm 47 Elbow Foam O13 x Rye 241= 8.76 Hand 51s Wrist and 0.005 x f, +0.75 = 3.00 Thigh 398 tip Thigh 0.127 x F,— 14.82 = 62.33 Shank “3 koe Shank 0.064 x f, ~ 1.75 = 18.05 Foot 400 Ankle Foot 0.009 » f+ 2.48 = 653 Table 3.6 xy coordinates of the Centers of Mass for Figure 3.19 Table 3.7 Resultant Weight Torques for Figure 3.19 coordinate Segment (cm) Head a6 Thank 69 Upper arm 65 forearm 42 Hand 28 Thigh 66 shank 80 Foot 80 116 ‘ycoordinate (on) “168 ne 233 ns 96 a2 39 oa Segme Yo Fas nt (cm) (cm) (N) Head! Trunk Uppee a Forearm Hand Thigh Shank Foot 86 168 33.10 69 128 R47 m 65 133° 29.32 62 5 16.82 28 96 6.00 66 82 846 80 39 35.0 80 08 13.06 (Neem) 284.7 1606.0 1906 34 168 5588 2888 1045 au76 (Neem) 3564 2575.6 3900 1900 36 ewn2 os 10s 5014.7Forces Within the Body "=r" 417. axis Figure3.20 Location of segmental and toal-body weight vectorsrelaive to the yraxis forthe gymnast in figure 3.19. ‘This fina caleatation uses equation 3.6 to determine the x- and y-coordinates for F,. The net torque due to segmental weights (F,) about the x- and y-axes (3018,.0N-cm and $014.7 Necm, respectively) isthe same as the net torque due to ‘otal body weight, ‘Thus F, x moment arm (F,, moment am), | ‘To find the x and y-coordinates for the tota-body CM, | ‘With these coordinates, the location of the total-body CM is indicated in figure 3.19b relative tothex-and y-axesestablished a the beginning of the example, These coordinates (6.93, 11.1) represent the point about which the mass ofthe system is evenly distributed (balanced)118 Neuromechantes of Human Movement DYNAMIC ANALYSIS A static analysis i the most elementaty approach to the kinetic analysis of human movement. In contrast, when the system is subjected (0 unbalanced forces it will be accelerated, and this requires a more complicated type of analysis, known as a dymamie analysis. The general {orm of the three independent planar equations (equations 3.4 through 3.6) used in the static approach also applies to the dynamic condition, with the exception thatthe right-hand side of the equations is now equal to the nonzero product of mass and acceleration, Hence, the scalar ‘components and the angular term may be written as De =ma, on Dem, 68) Dee oe+mad 09) whereas 6,44, and ZF = J(EF, P+ GR) in the.» plane. As in the static case, these ‘equations ate independent and represent two litear directions (x and y) and one angular direc- tion. In expanded form, equation 3.7 states that the sum (2) of the forces (F) in the x direction i equal to the product of the mass (m) oF the system and the acceleration ofthe system's CM inthe xizection (a). Equation 3.8 similarly addresses forces and accelerations in the yditee- tion. Equation 3.9 states that the sum of the torques about point ois equal to two effets, one related fo the angular kinematics of the system and the other related to the linear kinematics of the system. The term for angular kinematics includes the product of the relevant moment of inertia ,) and the angular acceleration (a) ofthe system about he axis of rotation o). The linear kinematics term includes the product of the mass of the system, the Hinear acceleration ofthe system CM (a), and the distance () between point and the system CM, Point o can be aay point about which the moments are summed, Equations 3.7 trough 3.9 ‘ce modified if point isthe CM or is a fixed point. If point o is the CM, then d = 0 and equa- {ion 3.9 is recived to Ee, = Ip If point ois a fixed point, then a = 0 and the resultant ofthe applied forces is equal 0 J, I the system comprises a single rigid body, such as one body segment, and the moments are sumaned about the CM, then the resultant effect of the forces acting on the system with regant to & normal-tangential (a) reference frame ean be calculated as follows (Meriam & Kraige, 1987) DA =mra! G10) Le =mra eu y =i G.12) Kinetic Diagram ‘Because the right-hand side of equations 3.7 through 3.9 is nonzero, the free body diagram of the system can be equated toa kinetic diagram, That is, by Newton's law of acceleration (F= ma), roe (free body diagram) equals mass times acceleration (kinetic diggram). In this context, the free body diagram represents the left-hand side of the equation and the kinetic diagram the right-hand side, tn tis sense, the free body diagram defines the system and how it intoracts (Forces shown ‘with atrows) with its surroundings. The kinetic diagram shows the effects ofthese interactions ‘on the system—that is, how the interactions alter the motion of the system, EXAMPLE 3.11 eee Finding the Resultant Muscle Force ‘A volleyball player serves the ball using the overhand technigue, This involves toss the ball up inthe air above the head and then striking the ball with a hand so that it travels overForces Within the Body +" * 119 the net and into the opponents” pow wist, court. Suppose we want to cal- ‘ulate the resultant muscle force about the CM at one point in time ‘during the serve when the bal is in contaet withthe hand. As with static analysis, the fist steps tog rays an appropriate diagram, For a dynanie analysis, this means both a free body diagram and a ee kinetic diagram, For this analysis ae wwe can define the system as the foreaem and hand ofthe volleyball player so that the muscles cross- ing ber elbow joint (F,) appear as a an external force (figure 3.218), le ‘The forces that must be included ‘na on the free body diagram include the weight of the system (F,), the contact force between the ball and ae the hand (F,), and the museulo- skeletal forces (muscle force [Fy] and joint reaction force [F]). The y kinetic diagram shows the effets ofthese forces on the systems; his A ¥ includes veetors forthe thres terms n equations 3.7 through 3.9 (ma, ‘may and 1,0). — aeaeaeaue “The next step in the procedure. Figure3.21 A dynamic ansiysis to determine the resultant muscle torque is to identify the equation we will sbovt the elbow joint during a volleyball serve: (a) the weight and CM tke, Because we are attempting loaton ofthe fear and hind segments (b) he free body and Kinetic deter ine eect ee aiagrans foc he forearm plus hand ‘orque about the CM, we should choose equation 3.9 so that we can calculate angular effects. Before we can use this equation, however, we need (o know more details about both the geometry ofthe system and the movement. This inludes the location ofthe system CM and the moment of inertia about the system CM, Because we know thatthe volleyball player weighs 608 N, we can estimate the weight of her forearm as 8.4 N and the weight of her hand as 3.4N from the anthropometrie data in table 2.5 Also, because we kuow the length of her forearm (26.m) and the Iength of her hand (7.5 em), we can use table 2.5 to estimate that the forearm CM is located 12 em from the elbow joint and that tbe hand CM is 5.6 em from the wrist (figure 3.214), To calculate the location of the system (forearm + hand) CM, we sun the torques abou the elbow’ joint and perform a static analysis, as we did in figure 3.19. The system weight is 11.8 N, and the distance tothe system CM from the elbow joint (@ can be determined as Lew ~8.4X12)+ (8x) -B.4X(26+5.6)=0 8.4x12)+G.4%31.6) 18 4 d=176em Next, we need to determine the moment of inertia of the system about a somersault axis through its CM, From table 2.6, we can estimate the moment of inertia about the sornersablt axis for the forearm as 0.0039 kgem? and for the hand as 0.0004 kgern?, To determine the ‘moment of inertia for the system, we use the parallel axis theorem (equation 2.8) to transferof Human Movement the known value foreach segment (forearm and hand) to the system CM. Because the system CM is located at 17.6 em from the elbow, the transfer distance from the forearm CM to the system CM is 5.6 em (17.6 ~ 12), and the transfer distance for the hand is 14 em (31.6 1766). Given that we estimated the mass ofthe forearm as 0.86 kg (8.4/9.81) and the mass of the hand as 0.35 kg (3.4/9.81), the moment of inertia of the system about a somersault axis passing through its CM (/,) can be calculated as (0.0039 + (0.86 x 0,056") + [0.0004 + (0.35 x 0.14°)] = (0.0039 + 0.0027) + (0.0004 + 0.0069) = 0.0066 + 0.0073, 0.0139 kgem? We also need to know some kinematic details ofthe performance, which can be obtained \witha motion analysis system. Suppose the video record indicate thatthe system (forearm + ‘hand was rotated 0.26 rad to the left of vertical and a numerical analysis ofthe position-time data (€.2 able 1.2) yielded an angular acceleration for the system (a) of 489 rads, From the video record we can also determine that the moment arm for F(a) to the axis of rota- tion (@) was 8.2 om, for F, (6 it was 14.0 em, and for F,(c) it was 3.5 cm, Finally, other measurements indicated that, atthe moment of interest, the contact force between the ball and the and (F,) was 290 N end that the joint reaction force (&) was 1821 N. Given allthis information, we can use figure 3.215 to write the equation of motion fora dynamic analysis (equation 3.9), expand the equation (second line, and solve for F, Zr=he CF xa)+(FXD)-E x0) =f (F, Xa) 1=1,0-(E, x) +E XO) Le RXd)H EXO) __ (00139489) ~ (290° 0.14) + (1821 x0.035) F, 0.082 _98-40.6+63.7 = 9.082 F,= 365 Although this example may seem relatively simple, itis often impossible to determine the magnitude ofthe resultant muscle force this way because we are requited to know the direction ofthe resultant muscle foree and the magnitude and direction ofthe resultant joint force, The more common approach isto sum the torques about the joint, as deseribed in the next example, ma EXAMPLE 3.12 Finding the Resultant Muscle Torque Inthis example, a weightlifter raises barbell his chest Suppose that we were imerestedin determining the torque developed by te back and the hip extensor muscles when the barbell is about knee height. The first step iso raw the free body and kinetic diagrams. Because we ‘want to determine musculoskeletal force atthe lumbosacral joint, one end ofthe system must Include this joint. An appropriate system, es identified previously, would include the upper body from the lumbosacral (LS) joint tothe head (figure 3.22), We ean identity five forces {hat acton ths system and thet we should include on the free body diagram: the resultantForces Within the Body s+ 121 Free body diagram Kinetic diagram Figure 322 A dyaainie analyse ee body dagen the cleaa if. tic diagram) of a weightlifter performing muscle torque (¢,) about the lumbosacral joint, the joint reaction force (F), the load due to the barbell (F.,), the weight of the system (F,,.), and a force due to the intra-abdominal pressure (F). The kinetic diagram should include the three terms on the right-hand side of ‘equations 3.7 through 3.9. The typical approach is to draw these in the positive direction on | the kinetic diagram and to derive the equation based on these directions, ‘The next steps are to write the equation of motion, expand it, and solve for ty As in the previous example, however, we need information about the performance before we can. complete the calculation, specifically the following: 4, Estimates of the magnitudes of the three forces that produce moments about LS. ‘The magnitude of F,, which can be determined with a weight scale, is measiwed as 1003. The magnitude off, which can be estimated from anthropometric tables eg, tables 2.1 and 2,5), is set at $25 N. The magnitude of F, which eum be estimated ‘from values published in the literature or can be measured with an intra-abdominal catheter and an estimate of diaphragm area, is ussigned a value of 1250 N. 2, The mass ofthe system and its distribution. The mass of the system (upper body of the lifter) is estimated as 54 kg, ‘The Location ofthe system CMI can be determined by the procedares outlined in example 3.10 and is found tobe 47 em from LS. The moment of inertia ofthe system aboutits CM (,), which canbe determined from: known segmental values (eg, table 2,6) and the parslel axis theorem, is estimated as 7.43 kg-in. 3. Kinematics of the movement (figure L17), as recorded froma video analysis, These ‘measurements include the motnent arms for the forces and the accelerations of the system, The moment arms are a follows: Fy, (a=38 em), Py, (b= 24 em), F, (c=9 em), ma, (d= 40 cm), and ma, (¢ = 24 em). "The angular acceleration (a) of the system was 8.7 rad/s, the horizontal acceleration (a,) of the systemn CM was 0.2 mis, and the vertical acceleration (a,) was 0.1 m/s, ‘With this information, we cau calculate the magnitude of the resultant muscle torque (#4) about the lumbosacral (LS) joint by using equation 3.9, Dis hort mad and replacing d with the distances and e in figure 3.22:eee 122 s25_Neuromechantes of Human Movement (P-gp % 0) + Fay XB) The weightlifting event discussed in this example takes an experienced (Fx) Tye a mad — mae Tea Pray XO) + Puy © 6) (FX 0) = Lect maya + mae = (743 x 8.7) + (54 0.2 x 0.40) + (54x 0.1 0.24) 4,7 381+ 126-113-6541 = 332Nem filo dow 0 sweconpise Ine 0 feo he svt 100 frames per seomesvrlinvesDinmesvico searTuconicey debe te course of 4,, itis necessary to perform & the calculation shown for each frame = dan he sat vasatetinanas ° fms restate ted torque-time curve for the movement. ~ Aneta orth kos joan shown in figure 3.23; the data represent the ~100- J} mean muscle torque about the knee joint for a group of 15 experienced weight- lifters as they lifted a barbell (1141 N, 0. 2 0% © whieh was 1.5 mes body weight) 10 chest height. The graph indicates that the resultant muscle torque about the knee joint reached maximal values of about 100 and 50 N-m in the extensor {joint during the clean Lift in weightliting Date oh, 1988, ‘Time (% duration) rn = (1.008 % 0:38) + (525 * 0.24) ~ (1250 x 0.09) SPR Extensor 80 100 igure 323 Resullant musele torque about the knee and flexor directions, respectively, and that the direction fluctuated between extensor and. flexor during the movemeat. This torque-time graph corresponds to the angle-angle diagram shown in figure 1.17 __. EXAMPLE 3.130 When Is a Movement Fast? {An issue that often arises in the study of human movement is whether a dynamic analysis is necessary or whether the movement is slow enough that it can be assumed fo be quasi~ static—in ther words, that we can analyze it using static techniques. Rogers ant Pi (1990) ‘examined this issue in a simple movement that involved a human subject moving from dp ty brngerete ‘well we can predict the measured ground reaction forve. The free body diagram involves the front view of « person with a ground reaction force acting on each foot and the weight Of the system (igure 3.24). Next we must write an equation and then expand it using the information on the free body diagram. To find out whether a static analysis is sufficient to estimate the ground reaction force acting on the flexing leg, we ean sum the torques about point o and estimate the magnitude of Fy. Xe= ©, %d,)= Fd.) =0 Rxd, By We Because fis constant, Fy, can be predicted us the rato of changes in and d. To obtain the data necessary to fest this prediction, Rogers and Pai (1990) had subjects stand on two force platforms, one foot on each, in order to measure the vertical component of the ground reaction force and its point of application (center of pressure) on each foot. In addition, they used a motion analysis system and a segmental analysis to determine the location of the total-body CM; d, represents the distance between the vertical projection of F, and the of application of The results ae shown in figure 3.25. Focus on the aphs that show the change in F, with time: The solid line represents the actually measured Fy the dashed line indicates the estimated Fy, based on the quasistatic analysis; and the shaded area represents the difference between the two. In figure 3.25, the graphs on the left are for ‘rapid stp initiation (leg flexion), whereas those on the right are fo asiow stp initiation ‘The results indicate that quasistatic analysis is appropriate for ths task when i is performed slowly but not when it is performed at normal or fast speeds. Similarly, slow lifts ean be analyzed with a quesstatic analysis (Toussaint etal, 1992), but a quasistatic analysis is not appropriate for determining when a person will ake a step after an unexpected disturbance (Pai ct al, 1998), 123124 ++ Newromechanis of Human Movement Ropia Slow 012 a 5 0.07 4 03 T T T 1 T T T 1 oe 4 os > & Time (s) Time (9) Figure 3:25 Changes in, Fy 806 F,, with time during the sep-intition task when itis performed rapidly (lef) and slowly (righ. Regie, prio, um HL. Regs en P1990 “Dysart apport compile Hain Inomnesnan Epotertl Has Ror 140 Copyright 990 by Sige eae Forward and Inverse Dynamics ‘A dynamic analysis ean, in general, proceed in either of two directions. Given information on the forces and torques, we can determine the assovisted kinewaties, or given the kinematics, we cea estimate the underlying forces and torques. These two approaches are refered toas forward dynamics and inverse dynamics, respectively (Owen, 2003). The inverse dynamics approach involves obtaining the derivative of position-time data to yield velocity and acceleration-time data (Romer Cordero et al., 2006; Silva & Ambrosio, 2004)—for example, measuring position ‘and calculating joint forces. The principal disadvantage of this method is that errors embedded in the position time data are greatly magnified by the time the data have been processed (0 yield acceleration (Cahouet etal, 2002; Hatze, 2002; Valera-Cuevas etal, 2003), In contrast, the forward dynamics approach involves the integration (in the calculus sense) of forees and torques (or accelerations) to produce the related kinematic information—for example, measut- 1g acceleration and calculating velocity and position (Thelen ct al., 2005), The main difficulty associated with this technique is the need to accurately specify initial conditions, An alternative technigue involves the use of features from both the inverse and forward approaches. In this ‘method, measurements of position, linear acceleration, and angular velocity are combined to provide reliable estimates of link Kinematics and joint loads (Ladio & Wu, 1991; Seth & Pandy, 2007; Wu & Ladin, 1993), Caleulation of the net torque exerted about the hip by the weightlifter in example 3.12 used the inverse dynamics approzch; in that example we proceeded from the kinematics ofthe jovement, along with some force information, wo determine an unknown torque. Tt has beenForces Within the Body uggested that the nervous system uses Hip inverse dynamics when it plans move~ ‘ments (Hollesbach & Flash, 1982)-In this scheme, the nervous system determines the desired kinematics for a movement and then uses inverse dynamics to caleu- Tate the muscle torques needed to prodiace those kinematics. The complexity of these : calculations, however, makes it unlikely that the nervous system organizes move ‘ments in this manner (Hasan, 1991), Bobbert and colleagues (1991) used S\ wotatatote inverse dynamics with reasonable accu: a A > rucy (0 estimate the magnitude of the vertical component ofthe ground reaction force during the support phase of ranning, oT They used four video cameras to obtain the Kinematic information needed to determine the vertical acceleration ofthe (CM of each boxy segment and combined vm this with body segment mass data (Clauser tal, 1969) to calculate the vertical inertia. force (mass x acceleration) For each seg- ‘ment. The inertia forces for each segment on were summed to calculate F,,, which was then compared with the measured oo A, Fy With this technique, the magnitude ¢ a 4 of the initial peak in the time graph ‘was estimated with less than 10% error and its time of occurrence within 5 ms, knee Figure 326 Kinematics of the leg during a kick. (a) Geometry of the leg (b) The Foot (9, shank (6), and thigh 9 each experience an angular velocity (@) and scceleration (2) asthe extemity moves (0 To achieve such accuracy in the estima~ coniger the ball at dhe metaarals, The Foot rotates about the ankle ‘ion of forces, however, itis necessary { (a), the shank about the knee (K), and the thigh about the hip (H) acquire extremely accurate kinematic dats join. (c) The kinematic factors that influence the lines velocity of (Bobbert ot al., 1991; Hatze, 2002; Seth the metatarsals. ("The kinematic variables tht influence the nest & Pandy, 2007). acceleration ofthe metatarsals. Interaction Torques Because human movement typically involves the motion of more than one body segment, the cumulative motion of all the involved body segments determines the kinematies experienced by an anatomical landmark. For example, consider an individual about to punt a football for distance, This task clearly involves the coordinated motion of the thigh, shank, and foot seg- ‘ments: The motion of the contact point on the foot (m) depends on the relative motion of the foot, shank, and thigh sogments (figure 3.26a). The displacement of point m (sy) is given by Sua = Sunt Sea Si Se G.13) ‘here the expression sq refers to the displacement of the metatarsals relative to the ankle joint and the subscripts A, K, and H represent the ankle, knee, and hip, respectively. According to this equation, the displacement of the metatarsals depends on four displacement terms: the displacement relative to the ankle joint, the displacement of the ankle joint relative to the knee joint, the displacement ofthe knee joint relative to the hip joint, and the absolute displacement ‘of the hip joint. Similarly, if each segment also has an angular velocity (@) and acceleration (@), then the ‘magnitude of the linear velocity (v) and the acceleration (a) of the metatarsals depend on theI 126 = _Nessomachanies of Human Movement relative kinematics of each segment in combination with the absolute Kinematics of the hip joint, The angular velocity and acceleration of each segment are shown in figure 3.26h. An ‘equation parallel to the one for sjgcan be developed for vy tus aant Yaa Ya He Because lines and angular velocity are related by the equation ¥= 70, EOF OH TOL a Gla) where y corresponds tothe distance from the ankle to the metatarsal,» indicates the length of the shank, and y, represents the length of the thigh (gure 3.26a). The direction of each term is tangent tothe path traced by the relevant anatomical landmark (igure 3.26c): 70} is tangent 10 the path ofthe metatarsals 0, is tangent to the path of the ankle (the endpoint of the shank); and 1@is tangent to the path of the knee (the endpoint ofthe thigh). ‘The acceleration of the metatarsals (a,) also depends on the acceleration of the involved segments (figure 3.260) and, based on the relation between linear and angular acceleration, ccan be wsitien as, B= an + ye Peasy oy, = rae + Gyan) + Yea" Y +60, + YG) + ad? Fay (3.15) where ra? represents the change in direction of v for a segment and rat indicates the change in magnitude of y, An important feature of this relation is that the acceleration of each seg- ‘ment in this system ‘is influenced by the acceleration of all the other segments. For example, rearrangement of equation 3,15 indicates thatthe acceleration ofthe shank during the football punt is dependent on the angular aeceleration of the foot and thigh and the linear acceleration, ‘of the hip and ay: Mea 00,7 =a, — fear? Hoa) —foqe2P +a? — 4, “This equation can be used to determine the linea acceleration of any point along the shank, where ‘represents the distance from the knee to the point of interest (.g.. CM and ankle join “This kinematic coupling between segments occurs because of the dynamic inceractions between segments. On the basis of what we know about the relation between force and accel- ‘eration (F = ma), these interactions between the accelerations of the body segments indicate that there must be interactive forces between body sogments during human movement. The study of interaction torques examines these motion-dependent interactions between segments (Dounskaia, 2005; Hore eta, 2005; JP. Hunter et al, 2004). ‘Asan exainple ofthese effects, consider the interactions between the thigh and shank during, ‘a kiccin which the motion ofthe nwo segments is confined toa single plane, Figure 3.272 shows, the two-segment system and its orientation, which can be defined by four coordinates the.x-and +y-coordinates of the hip (b) joint and the angles of the thigh (@) and shank (@). Bach segment hhas.a weight vector (F,, and F,,)and there are resultant joint forces (Fy anc F,) and resultant ‘muscle torques (7, td Ty) acting about the kre and hip joint, respectively. To determine the interactive effects, we need to express the resultant joint forces in terms of kinematic variables (position, velocity, and acceleration) and derive an expression for the resultant muscle torques, ‘We begin by writing the dysramic equation of motion forthe shank. YP =m Fy tP.=0, G16) ‘where ma is the mass ofthe shank and a, is the linear seceleration of the shank CM. Because we are dealing with a linked, two-segment system, a, can be expressed in the form of equation 3.15: 4, = hy + (0, % Fay) # (0% 0% Fig) + (4, a) + (00, 4, Ta) Gn‘\ k k, Figure 3.27 The (a) position and (b) free body diagram ofa tworsegiment system (thigh + shan), ‘And this expression (eqution 3.17) can be inserted into equation 3.16 and rearangedto solve for Fs i Big = mga + mee, X 7p) + mG, X OX Fay) + MO, X Py) m0, 0, % Fg) Fs where f= hip, s= shank, ¢= thigh, ry, = the distance from the knee to the hip, and rq = the distance from the shank CM to the knee. ‘To derive the expression for the resultant muscle torque about the knee (7), We write the ‘moment-of-force equation for the shank about its CM, G18) G.19) In the final step, equation 3.19 is rearranged to solve for 7,45 equation 3.18 is substituted for the joint reaction force (F;,) in equation 3.19, and the expression is changed from vector 10 scalar variables (Dounskaia, 2005; Putnam, 1991), Tau = Lee + (1+ rd, 608 (0, + (rlan, sin § «92 Where $= knee angle (@,~ 0) and 9, nd represent is angular velocity and acceleration; J = length of tho thigh; r, = distance from the knee joint to the shank CMI and J, =the moment of inertia of the shank about its proximal end Similar procedures can be used to identify the interactive effects forthe thigh. Again, we begin by writing the moment-of-foree equation for the thigh relative to its CM. my ran Ta + Me X Fy) ~ (tay XP 3.20)128 Newromechanies of Human Movement ‘As for the shank, we derive expressions for Fy, and F), in terms of kinematic variables (e.g, ‘equation 3.17) and substitute these into equation 3.20, The expressions for Fy and F, will con- tain effects due tothe linear acceleration ofthe segment endpoint (hip), the change in direction (ra) and magnitude (ra) ofthe linear velocity of the thigh and shank, and segment weight, Fan = ho + Ul, + ml? + 2rf,008 A] + (+ bmn, 608 0}, “rida, sia @ 0 2%, Em, sin 6 0, a ‘where /,= the moment of inertia of the thigh ubout its proximal end, Figure 3.28a shows the time course of the resultant muscle torque about the knee joint and the intecactive torque exerted by the thigh on the shank during the kick, This graph shows that the effect of thigh motion on the shank is as large as that due to the muscles that cross the knee joint, The interactive torque exerted by the thigh om the shank is negative for about the first 60 ms of the kick; the negative direction means thatthe thigh accelerated the shank in & backward-totation direction, For most of the kick, the thigh motion accelerated the shank in a forward ditection. By a similar analysis itis possible to identify the effect of shank motion on the thigh. As described by Putnam (1991), the effect of shank motion on the thigh is not simply a mixrorimage ‘of the effect of thigh motion on the shank. The shank isthe distal segment in this two-segment system, whereas the thigh is the proximal segment with the shank on one end and the hip joint atthe other. As with the thigh-on-shank interaction, we are interested in the magnitude of the shank-on-thigh interactive torque. Figure 3.28 shows the net torque acting on the thigh due to ‘the motion of the shank. Once again, the magnitude of the interactive torque is large compared AAR KARR = z I z 3 -180 T T T 200 T T ° 60 100 150 o cy 100 a Time (ms) . “Time (ms) Figure 328 Interactive effects during a Kick: (a) the resultant musele torque about the knee joint (soi fine) the ingeractive torque exerted by the thigh oa the shank dashed line) and the net effect (dotted line) of al torques acting ‘on the shank; (4) the resultant masce torque about te hip joint (Coli line), the interactive (orque exerted by the ‘Shank onthe thigh dashes line), and the net effect (tte line) of all the tongues acting on the thigh ‘dg by peso fe CA Pen, 18, ection tes spn ang Neking oto” a Hewes YUE ed by Mat ondK Kleysh (Cheng 1: Hasan Kets) 1, 02Foreas Within the Body 329 with the resultant muscle torque about the hip joint, Even though the resultant musele torque stout the hip was in the direction of flexion forthe entire movement, which is consistent with the EMG activity (Dirge etal, 1999), the net torque indicated tha the thigh accelerated in the direction of extension toward the end ofthe kick. The net effect has a smaller magaitude thon the absolute torgue associated withthe muscle activity and the interaction. "To wehieve this net effect, therefore, the primary function of the muscles sbont the hip joint during a ick isto counteract the interactive effets between the shank and thigh. "These effects are substantial for whole-limb, pid movements suc ing, bot are also significant even in finger movements (Darling & Cole, 1990; Hira at, 2003). Consequently, the contol of movement by the nervous system must aecomumodate interactive torques (Debicki & Gribble, 2005; Koshland et al, 2000; Sainburget st, 1999; Smith & Zemnicke, 1987). Skilled performe's, however, can learn to exploit the interactive torques to enhance & particular action, such as throwing (Hirashima etal, 2007b; Hore et al, 2005; Kadota etal, 2004). The study of these effects isnot wivial, as te calculation of interactive torques during three-dimensional movements requires a method that can account for differences in the joint axos and the principal axes of inecta (Hirashima etal, 2007a). JOINT FORCES, TORQUES, AND POWER (On the basis of these descriptions of the characteristics of the masculoskeletal forces and the techniques that can be used to determine the magnitude and direction of each force, we can compare the relative contributions of different muscle groups tothe performance of a movernent. Itis possible, for example, to eetermine the net joint reaction force and the net muscle torque acting at various joints in a subject at a particular point in the performance of a movernent (example 3.14). By extension, we can perform these calculations for the duration of a movement and compare the performance between groups of individuals and after various interventions (example 3.15), Tis even possible to estimate the distribution of the musculoskeletal forces among the structures that compose a joint if we determine the relative activity of the involved ‘muscles (examples 3.16 and 3.17). EXAMPLE 3.14 Segmental Analysis of Joint Forces and Torques Because human movement isthe result of the muscle-controlled rotation of body segments about one another, we ae frequently interested in determining the quantity of muscle netiv- ity that contributes tothe rotation. We can accomplish this by treating the human body as a series of connected rigid links (body segments) and performing a dynamic analysis on each segment. Three sats of information are required: 1. The kinematics (position, velocity, and acceleration) of the body segments 2. Bstimates of the mass and the mass distribution (CM location and moment of inertia) ofthe segments 3. A known boundary constraint, such as the ground reaction force or Toad acting, on a segment ‘We begin the analysis with the body segment that includes the boundary constraint (the foot, inthe case of the ground reaction force) and then back-calculate through the body, one segment ata time, to determine the net forces and torques acting about each joint. With this segmental analysis, we can determine the musculoskeletal forces and torques at the ankle, ‘knee, and hip joints at one point in a weightlifting movement (Enoke, 1983). The analysis involves four steps. First, we define the system and its orientation, Second, we separate the: human body into an appropriate number of rigid segments. Third, we daw the free body diagram and the kinetic diagram for each body segment. Fourth, we derive and solve the130 Neuromechanics of Human Movernent Hip Thigh Om Londimark oxy Hip 026 077 TrighoM 0.17 086 i knee 002 9.50 ie Shankem 008 O34 ‘aio 010 O72 FootcM 0104 0.09 Metatarsals 0.00 0.03 Shank om Floor.) 0.00 0.00 Motatarsals | Foot CM No, Fay = 1041 N Figure329 Tae -y coordinates (mn) of selected landmarks in the middle ofthe weightlifting movement. equations of motion (equations 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9) for each segment. For this weightlifting example, the system includes the leg i the configuration shown in figure 3.29 Because the purpose of the analysis isto determine the musculoskeletal forces atthe ankle, knee, aud hip, the leg should be separated into the foot, shank, and thigh For the analysis. We can obtain estimates of the mass distibution for these segments from the tables ineloded in chapter 2, Furthestore, assume that a video-based motion analysis has provided estimates of the angula and linea accelerations of each segment atthe instant of interest in the movement, Because the J, values obsaned from chapter 2are relative tothe CM of each scgment and she analysis is performed about the proximal end ofeach segment, the, values must be trans fered othe proximal end of each segment withthe parallel axis theorem (equation 28). The transferred segmental moments of inertia are indicated inthe bottom row of table 3.8. ‘The next step is to draw the free body and kinetic diagrams foreach segment. We should begin with the foot (figure 3.30) because that is the segment for which we have some: boundary information (ground reaction force). From the fee body diagram (gure 3.30), we can derive the Table 3.8 Segmental Data three equations of motion and solve forthe uuknowa for Figure 3.29 terms, which are the and yeomponents of the net joint. ————_— reaction force atthe ankle and the net muscle torgue about the ankle Parameter Thigh Shank Tiger) 0.1995 0.0369 DA = ma, ass (g) 8 a “Pot Ry, = mi, (sass) oa2 -9.39 “Py =-F,, +a, 9, (ast) 236 156 =6+(1 x 036) ay (ms) “1.98 1.66 ne T+ md? (how?) 0.3611 0.1185 Foot 0.0040 “341 -0.36 -0.56 0.0065,Forces Within the Body ++ 134 DA ay Fs = ly Fy = Fay Fay —0 = 1041 (1 x 9.81) x 056) Fay= 1032N Y= haart (ma, x d= (ona, x a) Fag + (agg ® A) ~ ag % 8) + gg X= Ty01+ (a, Xd) ~ Ce, % a) Fay XB) (Fay X 0) Pag X 0) + Int + (ma, x &) (ma, Xa) = (1041 x 0,10) ~ (6 « 0.12) ~ (981 x 0.04) + (0.0065 x 3.41) + (I x -0.36 x 0.03) =(1 0.56 « 0.04) 104.1 ~0.72 -0,392~0.022-0.011 + 0.022 103 Nem Free body diagram Kinetic diagram be Figure 3.30, Free body diagram and Kinetic diagram forte foot. The free body diagear (lef) shows the forces (F)seting on the foot at the metouasals (MD, the distances from the line of action ofeach force to the ankle joint (A), and the net muscle torque (rq) about the ankle joint. The forces include the ground reaction force (Fx) F,)s the weight af the foot (P,.) und the joint reaction force (Fy Fy). The kinetic iagram shows the horizontal inertia force (maz), the vertical inertia force (ma,), and te insta torque (Cua) about te proximal end of the segment (A).132 Newromechanics of Human ovement ‘Once the musetoskeletl forces at the ankle ave Known, we proceed to the next seg- ven in the system, te shank (gare 3:31), We ean derive the thre equations of motion anu solve fr the and y components ofthe net join reaction forex a the Knee and the net muscle fore about the knee Yr=ma, Fumo, R= Fume, = 6.46 (3 x 1.56) F.= LO8N Yr, = M0, Fag Fig~Fon= ty Faye Bye = 1032-G x 981) -@ x -1.64) 100718 ‘say . Dae = feet (ma, x c+ (a, % a) Tan ~ Tan Eg % A) + (Pay % B)+ Fg, X 0) = fee (a, d) + Cn, & 8) Fu = Tat (Pu % A) ~ (Fay % )~ Eas X 0) + fq (ma, x d} + Gina, X a) 03-+ 294 x 04) — (1031 « 0.08) ~ (6.36 0.38) + (0.1185 x 9.39) 43 x 1.56% 0.16) + Gx 1.64 0.04) = 103 + 1.18-82.5-242—111 +0749 -0.197 Fa = 187 Nem ‘Once the musculoskeletal forces atthe knee are known, we proceed to the next seginent in the system, the thigh (figure 3.32). We can derive the three equations of motion and solve forthe xand y components of the net joint reaction force atthe hip and the net muscle torque about te hip: Dram, Fug Fa= ma, Fas Fux-a, = 168-6 x23) Fue -ITN ‘The value of -17 means that F,.has a magnitude of 17 N but that itis actually acting in the direction opposite to that draw on the free body diagram, 2s Fy Fay~Fes Fy Fy Fus a, 007 = (8 x 9.81) =(B x ~1:96) 944.NFree body diagram Kinetic stagram ma, a . im, Figure331 Frecbody diagram snd kinetic diagram forthe shank. “The fee body diagram Clef) shows the forces (F) acting onthe shank, the distances from the line of aetion ofeach fre tothe knee joint 37 W,and the net asc torque (5) about the ke joint The forces include de weight ofthe shank (Fan he joint ection forest tbe ankle (FF) ad the knee (Fy) The kinetic dsgram shows the i: horizontal neta free (ra the vertical neta foes (ma, andthe tongue (Fg about the proximal end ofthe segment (K). Fiy Free body diagram Kinetic dlagram may = Mma u and Anetc diagram forthe thigh. The fee ‘vay diagram (ef) shows the forces F) ba sting th thigh the distances from the lise of actin of each foree the hip int and the nt must argue) boutthe ip jot. The ores include the weight ofthe thigh (Fg) and the joint reaction foxes at th ce (Fy, and q 7 the hip (je Faq) The Kinetic diagram shows the horizontal inetia Force (10), the vertical inertia force (ma,), and the inertia torgue (a) about the proximal "0 ‘end of the segmen 133134 +e Nevromechanis of Human Movernent Y= hers (ma, xd) ~ (ra, % a) s+ (Pay 0) — (Bag XD) (Fag 0) = fy (tn, A) ~ (na, X 2) Bit = Fa — (Pay XA) + (Pay XB) = Fas X09) Lact (rma, * d) ~ (mat, X a) $18.7 = (18S x 0.08) + (1006 « 0.24) = (1.68 % 027) + 0.3611 0:32) + (8 x 2.34 x O11) —@ x -1.96 x 0.09) =18.7-107 + 241-0454 +0.116 + 206-4 141 an = 256N-m “The major point ofthis example is to demonstratehow to determine musculoskeletal forces in the human body at one instant in the course of a movernent. To perform such an analysis, wwe need to know the forees due to body mnass the forces due to the surroundings, and the ‘kinematics of the system. For this specific movement, the magnitude of the joint reaction force in the x direction was much smaller than that inthe y direction, and the magnitude of the net muscle torque was quite different across the ankle, knee, and hip, with the greatest ‘value atthe hip, Be careful not to interpret these data as representing the absolute magnitude ‘ofthe musele action about each joint; these data correspond to the net effect. To determine. the relative activity among the rouscles about a joint, i is necessary to make additional measurements, such as EMG recordings of muscle activity (Buchanan et al, 2005). Joint Torque and Power During Walking With the procedure described inthe preceding example, itis possible to caleulate the mus- ealoskeletal forces atone point in time during a movement. To obtain a complete description ofthe movement, tis necessary to repeat these calculations approximately 100 times over the course of the movement. DeVita and colleagues (1998) used such an approach when evaluating the effectiveness ofan aggressive rehabilitation protocol for patients recovering from surgical reper ofthe anterior erucise ligament (ACL). "The analysis Focused on a comparison of the torque and power st the ankle, knee, and hip joints daring walking, DeVita and colleagues (1998) compared the performance of patiats after three weeks and six months of rehabilitation with that of healthy contol subjects “The data required for such a comparison included estimates of body mass distribution, the measurement ofa boundary condition, and a description of the kinematics ofthe Teg. The ‘mass, CM location, and moment of neti fr the foot, shank, and thigh were estimated using some of the cadaver data and mathensatcal models described in chapter 2, The kinematic data were obtained with a motion analysis system that was used to determine the position of the lateral malleolus, lateral femoral condyle, greater trochanter, and shoulder. These landmarks were used to determine the relative angles between the foot and shank (ankle ji), the shank and the thigh (knee join), and the thigh andthe trunk hip joint), The posi- tion data were smoothed with a sevond-order, Buterwoxth digital iter, and then the angles atthe ankle, knee, and hp oints were determined. Angular velocity was calculated by the finite- 137 = rs. Bs ia 100. © Biceps femoris %) Hamstrings (6) Figure 336 Forces acting on the ubia. Fg, = tensile force ofthe anterior erniat ligament; Fa = tensile force ‘exerted by the gastroonemius muscle; Fy = tensile force ‘00 ‘exerted by the hamstring muscles, Fy = tensile force of the patella tendon; Fy, = tensile force of the posterior cruciate ligament; and Fy = compressive foree due to tibiofemoral eaatac. Gastrocnemius (%) y dizection of the force exerted by the surroundings: In this example, these correspond tothe ground reaction force for the squat lift and the contact foree with the iachine forthe knee extension exercise ‘As in examples 3.14 and 3.15, a motion analysis Figure 3.37 Average EMO of the (a) quadriceps system was used to measure the kinematics of each femoris, () biceps fesnoris,(c) medial hamstings, rmoverent inthe sagital plane, and the contact force anda) gastrocnemius muscles dung the knee ext ‘was messured with a force transducer placed between sion phase ofthe squat it open cicies) and the knee the subject and the surroundings (i.e. ground or extension exercise fled cites). The EMG date are machine), These data were then used 10 perform a "omalized to the values recorded during a maximal dynamic analysis and to determine the musculo- Yowntary contretion skeletal forces atthe knee joint. In this study, however, Pa om icuniata, 1h these forces included the sum o the individal mascle forces, te net ligament force, and tbe contact force between the femur and the tibia (Zheng etal, 1998). To achieve this level of detail, it was necessary to estimate the force exerted by each ofthe major muscles that eros the knee joint and to resolve the joint reaction force into a normal compressive component and a ligament force (figure 3.36). Estimates ofthe force exerted by each muscle during the iwo tasks were based on the EMG activity of the muscle (figure 3.37). The muscles were quadsiceps femoris (rectus femoris and the three vasti), medial hamstrings (semimembranosus and semitendinosus), and gastrocnemius. The force of each muscle was estimated from the following relation: Fr, ¢ Angle (ed) | tA OEMG138 Neuromechanics of Humam Movement where © = weighting coefficient, k= a factor that acco ed for the effect of a change in muscle length on the force exerted by he muscle, A= cross-sectional area, «= specific ten sion, and EMG the amount of muscle setivity normalized to the value during a maximal voluatary contraction, Once the summed muscle force was determined (sum of agonist and antagonist muscles), the difference between this value and the resultant force was set equal to the sum of the tibiofemoral cantact force and the ligament force. ‘The tibiofemoral contact force was assumed to act perpendicular to the articulating surface of the ibia.‘The ligament force, hawever, was derived from the shear ‘component of the joint reaction force and the Tine of action ofthe ligament force. To calculate the ligament force, the shear component of the reuetion force was multiplied by the cosine (of the angle forthe Tine of action for the liga- ‘ment based on functions reported by Herzog and Read (1993). For the knee extension exercise, the subject, pushed against @ pad that contacted the lower shank. The range of motion was about 1.57 rad, beginning with the knee joint flexed at aright angle. While the range of motion was aso about 1.57 rad at the knee joint for the squat lift, the subject began from an erect position with the knee joint extended (3.14 rad). Because of these ifferent starting positions, knee angle changed from lft coright for the knee extension exercise and from right to eft forthe squat Tift in figure 3.37. As a result, figure 3.37a shows that the EMG for quadriceps femoris was Iow at the beginning of each movement and inereased as the knee was extended, that is, as the load was mised. A similar EMG pattern was recorded for gastrocnemius (Figure 3.37 but not forthe ‘other two antagonist muscles (figure 3.37, band ©). There was greater cosctivation of the biceps femoris and hamstrings during the squat lift. The net extensor torque about the knee joint ‘changed with a parabolic-like shape over the range of motion for the knee extension exer- cise (Ggure 3.38a). For the squat lift, however, ‘tho extensor torque increased almost linearly throughout the lift. The tibiofemorai compres- sive force was lowest at the beginaing of exch ‘exercise but increased to similar evels (~3000 1N) by about the middle of the range of motion (figure 3.380). Because the tibiofemoral foree 260 ec © 50 eas I» o}—_——_—, a 45 2 25 3 4000 ee] § 000 z $ 1000, 3 2 ° > 45 2 25 3 2500 | 8 isco § 1000. 5 § 500 0. 15 2 25 3 e Angle (ad) Figure338 (a) Resultant knoe exensoc torque, (D)ibiofene- ral compressive force, (c) and ligament force during the knee extension phase of the squat lift (open creles) and the knee extension exercise (Billed ciccles). A positive ligament force Indicates tension inthe posterior cruciate ligament, whereas a iogative ligament force indicates tension in the antriar crue a ligtment ato so 198, ‘as based on the absolute activity ofthe agonist and antagonist muscles, it was about thee times greater than the compressive component ofthe net joint seaction force. The compres- sive force was greatest when the knee joint approached complete extension curing the knee extension exercise, but the peak values occurred in the middle ofthe range of motion during the squat li. In contrast, the ligament foree was generally greatest when the knee joint was. Jexed. The ligament force was provided by the posterior cruciate ligament for the entireForoes Withia the Body + =* 139 squat lft and for most of the knee extension exercise (figure 3.38). The peak ligament orce was twice as great during the squat lift and remained greater than the peak value for the knee extension exorcise over most of the range of motion. Such comparisons indicate the effects of diferent exercises on the musculoskeletal forces “EXAMPLE 3.17 i Modeling of Knee Forces t One can obtain more detail about the distribation of forces within a joint by performing rmodcling studies (Lloyd et al, 2005; Shelburne ct a., 2005), For example, Pandy and Shel- ‘bume (1997) developed a sagittal plane model ofthe human knee to examine load sharing between the muscles, ligaments, and bones during isometric exercises. The key features of ‘the model were as follows (Shelburne & Pandy, 1997): + The geometry ofthe distal femur was based on cadaver data + The tibial plateau and patellar facet were represented as flat surfaces, + The ligaments and capsule of the knee joint were modeled 2s 11 elastic ele- ments. + Bleven muscles crossed the knoe joint, with each muscle represented by a Hill-type model (chapter 6) and attached to an elastic tendon, With such 1 model, it was possible to estimate the forces experienced by the differ- ‘et structures in the joint over its entire range of motion in response to varying levels of rmusele activation. Figure 3.39 shows an example of such forces experienced by the ACL. The results indicate that the ACL force increased with the level of activation ofthe quadriceps femoris but that the range of motion over which the force acted remained the same for the different levels of activation, The model also demonstrated that coactivation of the hamstring muscles decreased the ACL force and the range of motion over which the ACL was loaded, However, ° 0 os 12 16 conetivation ofthe hamstrings increased Kae angle (rad) the anterior force due to tibiofemorsl 53.59 Arsaror ciate ligament foe awocaied Wi contact and hence the anterior force jsoiated contractions of the quadticeps femoris. The knee jot is applied by the patellar tendon. ck ceil OT Shelburne and calleagues (2005) used a similar approach to estimate ‘muscle, ligament, and joint contact forces at the knee during walking. They estimated the distribution of forces in madel knees with and without an ACL, The peak ACL force occurred carly in the stance phase and was caused by the anterior pull of the patellar tendon on the Libia, which was opposed by the medial collateral ligament. The anterior tibial translation in the ACI -deficient knee could be counteracted by an inerease in barnstring activity, but not by a reduction in quadriceps activity. With a different approach, Lloyd and colleagues (2005) used EMG-riven models to identify the patterns of muscle activation that can improve knee stability in a range of movements, including those actions that can rainimize the ligament injuries. : Ligament force (N)140 Neuromechanies of fluman Movement SUMMARY ‘This chapter focuses on the mechanical interactions that occur inside the human body when we perform movements. The purpose of the chapter is to characterize these interactions, introduce the techniques used to analyze them, and provide detailed examples of how these within-body interactions can be estimated. We refer tothe interactions as musculoskeletal forces, and three sare identified: joint reaction force, muscle force, and the force due to inira-ablominal pressure. These forces occur among body segments and are associated with the rotation of one body segment relative o its neighbors. The first pavt of the chapter provides a description of the three musculoskeletal forces. The second part intraduces the formal analysis techniques employed in biomechanics. Known as static and dynamic analyses, these are used to determine the quantitative details of a movement, including the magnitude and direction of unknown ‘nnusculoskeletal forces. The final part ofthe chapter presents soveral detailed examples of how these tecliniques are used to determine the torque, work, and power at selected joints in the human body during movement, SUGGESTED READINGS Hamill J, & Knutzen, KM. (2003). Biomechanical Basis of Human Movement, Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, chapters 10 and 11 Winter, D.A. (1990). Biomechanies and Motor Control of Human Movemens. New York: Wiley, chapters Sand 8.