Chapter 7 Respiration Unless otherwise cited, anatomical images used in the print version of chapters Seven, Eight Eleven, and Twelve are original creations of the author or have been taken from the 1918 Edi. tion of Gray's Anatomy, which is now in the public domain. Readers are strongly urged to refer to the accompanying multimedia program, which presents high-resolution color drawings and photos of the anatomical structures under discussion Mi The respiratory system—or pulmonary system—is the power source and actuator of the vocal instrument. In this capacity, the lungs serve a function similar to the bellows of a pipe organ or the air bladder of bagpipes; in essence, they function as a storage depot for air. This is not, of course, the primary biological function of the respiratory system, which must perpetually oxy- genate the blood and cleanse it of excess carbon dioxide to maintain life Fundamental Concepts Respiratory Anatomy The respiratory system is housed within the axial skele- ton (figure 7-1), which is the portion of the human skele- ton that consists of the spine and thorax (ribcage). The atlas, clavicle, remainder of the skeleton, including the skull, pelvis, ao arms and legs is called the appendicular skeleton (7/1) Vis s Posture is largely a function of the relative positions and scapula 5% SS sternum balance between these skeletal regions S Spine Discussion of the respiratory framework must begin with the spine itself, which consists of twenty-four individual bones called vertebrae. Stacked together to form a gen- tle “S" curve in the anterior/posterior plane, the verte- brae gradually become larger from the top to the bottom of the spinal column. The lowest five are called the Jum- bar vertebrae, These are the largest and thickest bones in the spine and are responsible for carrying most of the Weight of the upper body. Curvature in this region acts as a shock absorber, helping to prevent injury during heavy lifting (Figure 7-2, 7/2). Thoracic vertebrae make up the next twelve segments of the spine. These bones Figure 7-1: Axial skeleton are somewhat smaller than the lumbar vertebrae and Possess flat areas called facets for the attachment and articulation of the ribs. The seven cervical vertebrae complete the top of the spine. The topmost cervical vertebra is called the atlas and is specially shaped to fit snugly into the base of the skull and carry the weight of the head. The second cervical vertebra, called the axis, features a projection from its anterior segment called the dens or odontoid process that inserts into the atlas. Together, these two vertebrae provide a pivot around which the skull can be tilted and rotated Each vertebra—except the atlas—has a small projection from its posterior called a spinous pro- cess that serves as an attachment point for muscles of the back. In the lumbar region, these projections are robust and somewhat stubby, extending nearly at a right angle to the spine. In Page 80"more effective. CChaptor 7: Respiration the thoracic region, the spinous processes are longer and extend obliquely downward from the spine. The spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebrae is particularly large and can easily be seen or felt in most people, especially while bending over. This provides a landmark for the division between the cervical and thoracic regions and can be useful in establishing correct pos- ture. Two transverse processes extend laterally from each vertebra. At the base of the spine, five sacral vertebrae are found, which are alas -—— fused together to form the sacrum. An additional five, very small verte- ’ brae, which also are fused together, extend beyond the sacrum to form 8” 24 vertebrae the coccyx or tailbone. The sacrum joins with a group of bones called the ilium, pubis and ischium to create the pelvis, a very strong struc- {ure that serves as the attachment points for the lower extremities and a girdle for the contents of the abdomen (7/3). thoracic vertebrae Knowledge of the structure, shape and attachments of the spine has significant pedagogic consequences. It must be remembered that the spine has a natural, s-shaped curve, While this curve should not be exaggerated, as seen in severe cases of lordiosis (swayback), it should also not be removed and straightened artificially. At least one promi- a nent text on singing technique instructs that correct posture can be es- tablished by leaning against a wall with the knees bent and the feel placed several inches forward. The singer then presses the small of &S his back into the wall, making it as straight as possible. Finally, he is to wT) stand up while maintaining the same vertebral posture—and sing é . lumbar ‘vertebrae (McKinney, 1994). While this technique might be somewhat beneficial for the correction of lordosis, the impact on normal bodies is contrived and unnatural, sacrum Figure 7-2: Spine When the entire skeleton is considered, another significant pedagogic implication becomes lear: the central pivot point for bending forward is located at the joint between the pelvis and "the hips, not at the waist. Many singers and teachers use breathing exercises that include bend- ing over to increase awareness of abdominal movement during respiration. if students are instructed to bend forward from the waist, the exercise compresses the abdominal area and actually inhibits free breathing. If, however, the singer bends forward from the hips while deliberately elongating the spine, space is created for the abdomen to release fully, making the exercise much cervical spine lavicle 3) SS Sean scapula Thorax (ribcage) SS The thorax or ribcage” houses the lungs and heart. It I~ consists of twelve pairs of ribs that attach to the thoracic pines Verlebrae through flexible joints that permit movement up and down (in spite of what is implied in Genesis, men and women have the same number of ribs). Lim- ited movement also is possible in the anterior/posterior “4 plane. The top four pairs of ribs attach individually to the YS breastbone or sternum through the flexible connection SS of the costal cartilage; ribs five through ten all share a common cartilaginous connection to the sternum (figure 7.3, 7/4). The bottom two ribs are free-floating, with no Figure 7-3: Thorax The thorax is flexible; a cage is not. Therefore, many pedagogues strongly prefer to avoid the term ribcage. Page 81Your Voice: An Inside View connection to the sternum and sometimes are referred to as false ribs. The sternum itself con- sists of two bony plates called the manubrium and the corpus. The joint between these plates is flexible at birth, but fuses solid by the time we reach adulthood, At the base of the corpus, a ‘small projection called the xiphoid process is found, to which some of the abdominal muscles attach The flexible connections of the ribs to the spine and sternum allow for a significant range of mo- tion, Through contraction of respiratory muscles, the entire thorax can be raised and depressed, and made larger or smaller in circumference; all of these dimensional changes result in either inhalation or exhalation Lungs ‘Why do dimensional changes of the thorax result in breathing? The answer lies in an old axiom you might remember from your school days: nature abhors @ vacuum. The lungs, which lie with- in the thorax, are organs, not muscles, and therefore do not have the ability to move of their own accord. However, they still must be enlarged for inhalation and made smaller for exhalation. This can occur only because the lungs are coupled to the interior wall of the thorax by action of the pleurae, or pleural sac. The pleurae is a serous membrane (water permeable) that causes the thorax and lungs to adhere to each other with a flexible connection that has much more in common with a wet plastic bag adhering to a window than to double-sided adhesive tape. Be- cause of the pleurae, dimensional changes in the thorax are transferred directly to the lungs; if the thorax gets bigger or smaller, the lungs do the same To better understand how a vacuum is created in the lungs, we must make a brief visit to the realm of physics. Robert Boyle, a 17"-century British scientist, discovered that when a gas, such as air, is contained in an enclosure, pressure and volume are inversely proportional (if one goes up, the other goes down). This is easily visualized through a syringe. When the plunger is depressed, volume in the syringe becomes smaller and pressure inside increases; conversely, when the plunger is withdrawn, volume increases and pressure is reduced. Because of these relationships, fluid is drawn into the syringe when the plunger is withdrawn and is ejected when itis depressed. To inhale, the volume capacity of the thorax and lungs must be increased. This, according to Boyle's Law, results in a decrease in air pressure. In fact, the air pressure in the expanded lungs becomes lower than atmospheric pressure—a vacuum has been created. Air rushes in to fil this vacuum and create equilibrium between the pressures inside and outside the lungs. Ex- halation reverses this process. The thorax and lungs are made smaller, decreasing their volume and thereby increasing air pressure. Air in the lungs now rushes out to equalize lung and at- mospheric pressures, Because of Boyle's Law, whenever the volume capacity of the thorax and lungs is increased, inhalation occurs; whenever it is decreased, exhalation occurs. It is extreme- ly important to remember this cause-and-effect relationship of expansion and contraction during breathing. Expansion of the chest and/or abdomen up- PR tarynx on inhalation causes air to rush in and fil the lungs by trachea creating a partial vacuum; expansion is never the effect bronchi, EON, of air entering the lungs (unless the person is breathing Ri with the mechanical support of a ventilator). \lobes The lungs themselves are made of porous, spongy ma- terial. The right lung is composed of three separate sec- Nee 1 tions, called Jobes; the left ung must compete for space ae Been with the heart and therefore is slightly smaller, having only two lobes (Figure 7-4, 7/5). Air comes into the Figure 7-4: Pulmonary organs lungs through the trachea (windpipe), which divides into two separate bronchial tubes. These further divide into Page 82Chapter 7: Respiration lobar bronchi, which insert into the individual lobes of each lung. Once inside the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller and smaller segments, eventually arriving at the alveoli or alveolar ‘sacs, which is where the actual exchange of blood gasses occurs (7/6). The alveoli are highly Compressible and are responsible for much of the elasticity of lung tissue. Healthy, mature lungs Contain vast numbers of individual alveoli—about 300 million per lung (Kent, 1997). If we could Temove and spread them out, they would cover the surface of a tennis court! Primary Inspiratory muscles We now know that the thorax must be made larger to induce inhalation. We also know that muscles are capable of only one mation: contraction. How is it then that something is made larger through contracting—isn't this a paradoxical contradiction? ‘The most important muscle of inhalation is the diaphragm. This is the second largest muscle (measured by mass) in the human body—in most people, only the gluteus maximus muscles are larger. Shaped like a dome or an old-fashioned, round parachute with two small humps, the diaphragm bisects the body, separating the contents of the thorax from the abdomen. In’this location, it serves as the floor to the thorax, With help from the pleurae, motion of the diaphragm is trensferred directly to the lungs. On contraction, the diaphragm lowers and becomes some- what flatter, increasing the volume capacity of the thorax and lungs, an effect similar to with- drawing the plunger of a syringe. Many people have misconceptions about the loca- tion and size of the diaphragm. Because it is lo- cated deep within the thoraciclabdominal cavity ‘and cannot be touched or felt externally, it offen is believed to be smaller in diameter and lower in placement than is correct, Often these misconcep- lions arise from the best intentions of voice teach- / ets or choir directors who teach breathing by plac- ing a hand on the belly and telling students to “breathe from their diaphragm.” Recipients of this "instruction naturally assume the outward move- ment of the abdominal wall is the actual dia- phragm. Even well-educated singers often believe the diaphragm lies lower in the torso than it actual- ly does. In reality, the diaphragm extends upward | inva gentle dome from its attachment point at the bottom of the stermum; the stomach and liver lie directly below, covered by the diaphragmatic dome like an inverted bowl. 7/7 presents a view of an entire torso; the diaphragm is seen to reside at a position about one-third the distance from the clav- idles to the pubis (Figure 7-5). 24 diaphragm ff Figure 7-8: Diaphragm The diaphragm attaches anteriorly to the sternum, laterally to the costal cartilages and ribs sev- en through twelve, and posteriorly to the upper lumbar vertebrae through the pillars of the dia- phragm. The pillars (or crura) are long and thick muscle bands that run vertically from the spine to the posterior of the diaphragm. Muscle fibers in the diaphragm originate from alll these at- tachment points and insert into the central tendon, a strong, fibrous portion of the muscle thal is shaped somewhat like a boomerang (Figure 7-8). Page 83Your Voice: An Inside View central tendon Because this muscle completely bisects the = body, openings must be provided for the pas- sage of blood and food (7/8). Fresh blood is car- ried to the lower body by the aorta, the largest artery in the body. The aorta passes through the diaphragm at the aortic hiatus, which is located in the center, posterior of the muscle, quite close to the spinal column. Diaphragmatic movement during respiration is minimal at this location. Ox- ygen-depleted blood returns from the lower body to the lungs and heart through the vena cava. This passes through the diaphragm at the fora- ‘men vena cava, which is located in the right- center portion of the central tendon (in superior aspect). The esophagus, which transports food to the stomach, passes through the diaphragm Figure 7-6: Diaphragm (inferior aspect) at the esophageal hiatus. Itis not uncommon for people to experience problems with the esopha- geal hiatus, especially through a condition known as a hiatal hernia, in which the esopha- ‘gus or upper stomach bulges through the hiatus to the wrong side of the diaphragm, sometimes painfully. Severe cases of hiatal hernia can be surgically corrected. crura (pillars) While the diaphragm is one of only two unpaired muscles in the human body, it does possess some aspects of duality. For example, itis provided with two separate blood supplies, and sig- nals from the brain are sent to it through the two phrenic nerves. For unknown reasons, a com- mon misconception has arisen among many singers and voice teachers that the phrenic nerve originates from the vagus nerve. Perhaps this is wishful thinking, as the nerves that serve the larynx originate from the vagus; were the diaphragm innervated in the same chain, a direct neu- rologic link between respiration and phonation would exist. In reality, the phrenic nerves origi- nate from the fourth cervical nerve. As previously stated, the diaphragm lowers and becomes somewhat flatler when it contracts (7/9). The range of motion is about one-and-a-half centimeters during quiet breathing to as much as six or seven centimeters (a litle less than three inches) during deep breathing. In an average-sized adult, about 350 cubic centimeters of air will be inhaled for every centimeter the diaphragm lowers (Zemlin, 1898), Therefore, during deep breathing, diaphragmatic movement alone should draw nearly two-and-a-half liters of air into the lungs (7cm multiplied by 350cc). Strictly speaking, the diaphragm is a voluntary muscle. It is not, however, a muscle over which most people have direct, conscious control. Singers learn to have a degree of control of its movement through sensations in the abdomen and thorax during breathing. When it contracts, the diaphragm lowers into the abdomen, pressing down against its contents, which are called the abdominal viscera (7/10). Unlike the spongy, elastic lungs, the viscera are mostly incom- pressible—like water in a water balloon or hot water bottle. When something presses against it, it cannot be squished into a smaller space but must be displaced. The result of this displace- ‘ment is the bulging abdomen (or back) often seen during inhalation in trained singers. We are not directly aware of the action or location of the diaphragm during this process; we are only aware of what it has done to something else. Biologically, the diaphragm is exclusively a muscle of inspiration; for the vast majority of people, it is entirely passive during exhalation. Its normal action is to contract for inhalation and relax with exhalation, quickly returning to its resting position through a process called elastic recoil (during restful tidal breathing, elastic recoil is sufficient to cause exhalation). Some singers, PagesChapter 7: Respiration however, seek to maintain diaphragmatic contract ~ antagor jon during exhalation to use as @ muscular in breath support. Fluoroscopic (video x-ray) studies by Richard Miller and others have shown that while some people can indeed control their diaphragms in this manner, many, if not most, cannot. Regardless, it is pedagogically incorrect (and physiologically impossible) to "sey that the diaphragm pushes air out of the body during singing The diaphragm, as important as it is, is not the only significant inspiratory muscle; it is strongly assisted by a group of muscles called the exter- nal intercostals (Figure 7-7, 711). They are called external muscles not because they are on. the exterior of the thorax, but because they are the outermost layer of muscles within the thorax. that control movement of the ribs. Each external intercostal originates from the rib above and in- "setts into the rib below. On contraction, the low- er rib is drawn upward and outward in a swing- "ing motion (7/42). As a result, the entire thorax is "lifted and expanded in circumference. The external intercostals are oriented in an oblique direction toward the midline of the body. You can approximate their direction of travel by placing your right hand on the right side of your chest with your fingers pointing toward your na- vel; your fingers and the muscles are at the same oblique angle. As can be seen in 7/13, the external interoostals, cover @ substantial surface area within the thor- ax. Viewing the thorax in horizontal cross sec- tion with the spine in the 12:00 position (as on the face of a clock), external intercostals extend throughout the regions between 12:00 and 4:00 | on one side and 8:00 through 12:00 on the oth- er ‘The external intercostals, and indeed almost all the remaining respiratory muscles, are strongly voluntary. Most people are quickly able to learn their direct control independent of the breathing process simply by deliberately expanding the circumference of the thorax. Primary Expiratory Muscles During everyday living, exhalation is a passive activity, especially when the body is at rest. Or- dinary people—those who are not trained as pulmonary athletes the way singers are—inhale by gently contracting the diaphragm while simul- taneously lifting the entire thorax. Because it is ‘accompanied by lifting the upper chest, clavi- des, and shoulders, this technique often is | called clavicular breathing. In this breath, the Page 86 Seema tergostol muscles Figure 7- Figure 7-8: Internal intercostal musclesYour Voice: An Inside View natural elastic recoil of the lungs and diaphragm, along with the weight of gravity pressing down Upon the thorax are sufficient to generate adequate respiratory force. As physical exertion in- creases, however, additional actions are required to induce and control the expulsion of air from the lungs. This is particularly true in breathing for singing. Six different sets of muscles can be considered primary for exhalation; not all, however, are used by every singer or for every varia~ tion in breathing technique. ‘The internal intercostal muscles are found on the inside of the thorax directly underneath the ‘external intercostals (Figure 7-8, 7/14). Muscle fibers run obliquely away from the midline of the body, etisscrossing their external neighbors and thereby acting as direct antagonists. Once ‘again, you can use your hand to approximate the orientation of the internal intercostals in the time, however, cross your right hand over to the left side of your thorax with the fin~ gers pointing down toward your hip. Your fingers will now point in the general direction of the internal intercostals. Each internal intercostal muscle originates from the lower rib and inserts into the rib above it Upon contraction, the higher rib is pulled down and inward toward the lower rib, depressing the riboage and decreasing its circumference (7/18). This, as we know, increases pulmonary pres: ‘sure and induces exhalation. Compared with the external intercostals, the internal muscles lie in 3 more anterior orientation within the thorax. If their location is again compared with the face of & clock, they occupy the space between approximately 2:00 to 5:00 in one hemisphere and 7:00 to 10:00 in the other (7/16), Internal intercostals are voluntary muscles whose control can be learned through the deliberate squeezing of the thorax. In most singing pedagogies, however, their contraction is delayed as iong as possible, only becoming significant at the ends of very long or extremely loud phrases. We delay engaging these muscles because strong initial contraction over-pressurizes the breath, which leads to a pressed, strident sound, or—paradoxically—a breathy tone (the reason either of these results is possible is discussed in Chapter 8). For many singers, muscles located in the abdomen are more important than the intercostals for the control of breath, Five significant pairs of muscles are found in this region: the external oblique, Internal oblique, rectus, and transverse abdominis (ot abdominal) muscles, all of which are located primarily in the anterior and lateral abdomen; and the quadratus lumborum, which lies in the lower back. All of these muscles contribute to expiration either by depressing the thorax, or by compressing the abdominal viscera up- ward against the underside of the diaphragm to help deflate the lungs, The four sets of anterior abdominal muscles form a complex, interlaced structure that has great strengh and flexibility. At its center lies the paired rectus abdom- inis (Figure 7-9, 7/17). These long muscles have fibers that run longitudinally (in the rectus orientation as is- cussed in the previous chapter), originating from ten- dons attached to the pubic bones and inserting into the. cartilaginous portions of the fifth through seventh ribs and the xiphoid process at the base of the sternum. Each rectus is divided into four sections, called bellies, which can be contracted simultaneously or inde pendently (belly dancers take advantage of this inde: pendent contraction to make their abdominal wall ripple Figure 7-0: Rectus and transverse up and down). When the rectus is contracted, the thorax abdominals is pulled toward the pelvis, arching the back forward Page 86(Chapter 7: Respiration Many people use exercises such as sit-ups, crunches and leg-lifts to strengthen the rectus. Car- ‘ied to the extreme, these exercises result in the “ripped” abdomen or “six-pack” sometimes as- sociated with body builders. Strenuous exercise of the rectus probably has little positive effect for singers beyond the improvement of physical appearance. Since its action is to shorten the distance from the pubis to the thorax, contraction of the rectus does little to compress the vis- ‘cera when appropriate singing posture is maintained. Overdevelopment of these muscles, how- ever, can be problematic. Efficient breathing requires tension in the abdominal muscles to r lease immediately prior to inhalation; if the abdominal wall remains firmly contracted, there is ‘nowhere for the viscera to go when the diaphragm descends. For this reason, singers who are particularly body and appearance conscious—something that is extremely helpful when it ‘comes to casting for operas—must balance contraction and release of the abdominal muscles during their physical workouts, ‘Surrounding the rectus muscles is a tendinous sheath formed by the division of the abdominal ‘aponeurosis, which extends from the sternum to the pubis (7/18). The remaining anterior ab- dominal muscles all attach to the aponeurosis at the lateral edges of the paired rectus. Muscles normally attach to bones, cartilage, tendons, or liga- ments; they do not interconnect with each other. The aponeurosis provides a way for the abdominal muscles to link together while maintaining their independence. Its function is a litle like the handkerchief used in folk dancing traditions that prohibit men and women to touch, while dancing: by holding opposite ends of the hankie, they dance together while observing the no-touch tradi- tion, The three remaining pairs of anterior abdominals encir- dle the lower torso from the spine to the rectus. Begin- fing with the outermost layer, we find the external oblique abdominis muscles (Figure 7-10, 7/19). Like the external intercostals, these muscles have oblique fibers that run downward toward the midline of the body. They originate from the exterior thorax, attaching to ribs five through twelve, and insert into the iliac crest of the pel- vis and the abdominal aponeurosis adjacent to the rec- tus muscles. Because they cover the largest surface area of any of the abdominal muscles, the external obliques are particularly important expiratory muscles, for singers, Figure 7-10: External oblique abdominals Continuing more deeply into the torso, we find the internal oblique abdominis muscles, with ft bers in the upper portion that run approximately perpendicular to those of the external obliques; in the lower part of the muscle, the fibers become nearly horizontal in orientation (Figure 7-11, 7M9). They originate from the iliac crest and the inguinal ligament—a ligament that runs from the pubic bone to the iliac crest, also called the groin ligament—and insert into the aponeurosis and the thorax at ribs nine through twelve. The deepest layer of abdominal muscle is the transverse, whose fibers run horizontally from the the rectus muscles to the spine (Figure 7-8, 7/20). Like the internal obliques, the transverse | muscles have attachments to the inguinal ligament. the iliac crest and the aponeurosis; at the top, however, they are located in the interior of the thorax where they attach to ribs six through twelve and interlace with portions of the diaphragm. Page 67Your Voice: An inside View According to Zemilin, the expiratory functions of the vari- ous abdominal muscles are not uniform: “Because of their attachments and courses, the ab- dominal muscles probably do not all contribute to expira- tory activity to the same degree. On mechanical grounds, the oblique muscles are probably the more effective in depressing the ribs, while the transverse abdominis muscles are more effective in compressing abdominal contents” (Zemin, 1998). This is good news for singers; to maintain effective breath support, possibilities must exist for antagonism between the muscles of inspiration and expiration. This, can occur between the external intercostals, which ele- vate the ribs, and the oblique abdominals—both internal and external—which depress the ribs. Additional applica- tions of muscular antagonism in breathing will be dis- cussed later in this chapter. ‘The final primary expiratory muscle is located in the pos- terior abdomen (lower back), the quadratus lumborum (Figure 7-12, 7/21), Named for its rectangular shape (quadratus) and location in the lumbar region (lumbo- Tum), these muscles originate at the crest of the iliac and insert into the lowermost rib and the transverse process- es of the lumbar vertebrae. Two respiratory functions are possible. Through their attachment to the base of the thorax, they may help stabilize that structure against the downward pull of the diaphragm. More importantly for singers, they act somewhat like a girdle around the lower back, helping to direct the viscera upward toward the di- aphragm during contraction of the abdominal muscles. The quadratus muscles also serve an important postural function, stabilizing the lower back. Figure 7-12: Quadratus lumborum Breathing Techniques Having explored the primary respiratory muscles, we now are equipped to examine the manner in which they are used during breathing for singing. Almost all voice pedagogues agree that four principal methods of breath management can be described: clavicular (upper chest), thoracic (lower chest), abdominal (belly breathing) and a balanced breath, offen now called appoggio, which is a combination of the latter two. Each of these methods can be used to provide breath support for singing and to aid in breath control What is the difference between support and control in breathing? According to James McKin- ney, author of The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults, they are independent, yet related functions. Breath support is best described as the dynamic relationship between the muscles of inspiration and expiration that are used to control pressure in the air supplied to the larynx. Sup- port, therefore, is a pulmonary function. Breath control, however, is a laryngeal function (Mckin- ney, 1994). The two vocal folds, which together form the structure known as the glottis, serve as a valve that regulates airflow through the larynx. Breath control is determined by the efficiency Page 88 -Chapter 7: Respiration of this regulation; the lower the flow rate, the higher the efficiency. We might say that breath support enables the production of beautiful sounds; breath control allows those sounds to last to the end of long phrases The first breathing method we will explore, clavicular breathing, has few advocates among voice professionals, even though this is the breathing method often seen in the general population and is extremely common among beginning singers (7/22). Inhalation is caused by a pro- nounced elevation of the upper chest, which is induced by lifting the shoulders and clavicles— hence, the name clavicular breathing. These same structures drop during exhalation. Muscular- ly, inhalation is induced by a contraction of the diaphragm, accompanied by contraction of any of the various muscles that lift the upper chest and shoulders, such as the levator scapulae, scaleni, and trapezius. (Secondary respiratory muscles will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.) Exhalation generally relies on the natural elastic recoil of the lungs and diaphragm, assisted by the weight of gravity pushing down upon the ribcage. During forced exhalation, as. found in heavy exertion or loud singing, the internal intercostal muscles also might contract, squeezing the thorax to help compress the lungs, ‘Why do professional singers and singing teachers discourage the use of this breath? If it suc~ cessfully keeps billions of people alive and well every day, shouldn't serve singing equally well? In spite of what many of us would suspect, the answer does not lie in the amount of air drawn into the lungs. Indeed, many singers actually get a larger breath through the clavicular tech- nigue than with any other breathing method.” The problem with clavicular breathing lies not in capacity, but in the ability to control air pressure during exhalation. To produce beautiful sounds, singers must be able to adjust the pressure of the air that powers the vibrating vocal folds carefully and accurately. Ideally, this regulation is accomplished through the use of muscular antagonism, as described in the previous chapter. Unfortunately, clavicular breathing offers few—if any—opportunities to establish this antagonistic control. This is exacer- bated by the fact that the high potential capacities of clavicular breathing lead to overfiling and over-pressurizing the air, especially at the beginning of long phrases or prior to climactic high Notes. As a result, the larynk itself must act as a valve to help regulate air pressure. Subglottal pressure is reduced by opening the valve wider or for a longer time; closing it more tightly in- creases pressure. These valving actions help explain why all young singers who breathe clavic- rly do not share the same vocal problems: those who squeeze the glottis to resist high sub- glottal pressure sing with a tight or pressed vocal quality; those who relieve surplus pressure by opening the glottis wider sing with breathy sound. Inthe twenty-first century, very few classically trained professional singers use clavicular breath- ing, but singers from earlier times often reported using this technique—perhaps out of despera- tion or necessity. Think for a moment of women’s clothing during much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Fashionable women almost always were securely bound in a corset. ‘As you can well imagine, and as those sopranos and mezzos who have been subjected to au- thentic period costumes can attest, the constriction caused by a corset makes any breathing technique other than clavicular very difficult. (My female colleagues tell me that it is essential to take and hold the biggest, lowest breath possible during the lacing of the corset.) In terms of regulating air pressure for optimal breath support, thoracic breathing offers signifi- cant advantages over clavicular (7/23). Thoracic breathing relies on contraction of the dia- | Readers who doubt this assertion might perform a simple experiment. Obtain a lightweight plastic bag that wil hold | alleast four liters. Exhale as much air as possible ino this bag using clavicular, thoracic, abdominal and balanced byealhing methods. The results are likely to be surprising. For more accurate results, you can visit a voice lab that that is equipped to measure respiratory capacity. For many years, students in the author's voice scionce classes have completed lab assignments to demonstrate the use of spirometry by breathing with different techniques. Over 90% ofthe time, clavicular breathing yields the largest capacity, often by a half-liter or more. Page 89‘Your Voice: An Inside View phragm and external intercostal muscles during the inhalation process. The resulting expansion is felt in the lower ribcage, generally centered at the base of the sternum, but perhaps extending down to the epigastrium (the region between the stemum and the navel, often also called the solar plexus). Exhalation is caused by the release of the diaphragm and the contraction of the internal intercostal muscles. Movement of the ribs during thoracic breathing differs greatly from that seen in the clavicular breath. Instead of the entire chest heaving up and down, intercostal contraction is used to increase the circumference of the thorax, particularly in the regions from ribs six through twelve: upper portions of the chest might move little or not at all Thoracic breathing offers excellent opportunities for the regulation of air pressure through mus- cular antagonism. The thorax is stabilized through simultaneous contraction of the external and internal intercostal muscles during exhalation, resulting in a high degree of control over pulmo- nary pressure. Here is a simple exercise to help develop this control: Extend your thumb and forefinger around the sides of your thorax at about the level of the end of the sternum. Now, take a deep breath, deliberately expanding your ribs out- ward into your hands. (If you are a real “belly breather.” you might have to limit the amount of abdominal expansion you typically use.) Strongly exhale on a sustained hiss while consciously maintaining the outward expansion of the ribs. It might take a few tries, but eventually you should begin to feel the resistance offered by the external inter- costals, which are helping to prolong the flow of air and preventing it from all whooshing out at the onset of exhalation. Many singers find this technique particularly useful when extremely long phrases must be sustained on a single breath. The third principal breathing technique is abdominal breathing (7/24). Singers who employ this ‘method rely solely on diaphragmatic contraction for inhalation. This contraction, however, is ac- companied by simultaneous relaxation of one or more pairs of abdominal muscles. As the dia- phragm descends, it must displace the incompressible abdominal viscera; relaxation of ab- dominal muscles allows this displacement to occur. The result is an obvious outward movement of the abdominal wall. If the rectus is relaxed on inhalation, movement will occur in the anterior of the abdomen in the epigastric or hypogastric region (the area between the naval and pubic bone), depending on which bellies of the muscle are released. If the obliques and transverse muscles are relaxed, expansion will be directed more to the sides. If the quadratus lumborum is relaxed, the bulge moves into the lower back. If all five muscles relax, expansion is evenly dis- tributed around the entire lower torso. Singers who employ a strong abdominal component in their breathing are seen to expand in all the different ways cited in the previous paragraph. Some general observations, however, can be made. Women often place their expansion significantly lower in the anterior abdomen than do men, often centered in the hypogastric or pelvic region well below the navel. Men, however. of- ten center their expansion in the epigastrium. Why this difference? It probably is related to ana- omical differences between the sexes, specifically: the presence (or absence) of the uterus, the shape of the pelvis, the distance from the hipbone to the lowest rib, and the width of the thorax (McCoy, 2005), Exhalation in abdominal breathing is caused by contraction of abdominal muscles pulling in against the viscera, which in turn press the diaphragm back to its resting position. This is the only situation under which the diaphragm is able to exert an expiratory force—but remember that other muscles actually are doing the work, not the diaphragm itself. Because the oblique muscles attach to the lower thorax, muscular antagonism may be possible with the external intercostals, Alternately, some singers are capable of sustaining a degree of Page 90Chapter 7: Respiration | diaphragmatic contraction during exhalation. In this case, antagonism would exist between the bdominals and the diaphragm (as previously mentioned, not all singers are able to do this). In the absence of antagonistic relationships, breath support must be regulated by the degree of “Contraction in the abdominal muscles, which are pulled more tightly to increase pressure, and Teleased to reduce it For several generations, singers have described a breath that is a combination of the best at- tributes of thoracic and abdominal breathing. This is often referred to as balanced breathing or through the Italian term appoggio (from the verb appoggiare, which means fo lean on). In ap- Poggio, inhalation occurs through contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostals, ac- companied by relaxation in the abdominal musculature. The result is an expansion that extends "around the base of the thorax and through the middle to lower abdomen. Exhalation is con- “tolled by the coordinated efforts of the abdominal muscles and the external intercostals—and “Possibly the diaphragm—which work in gentle antagonism to control pressure in the air supply. Important variations are seen in the way singers successfully implement appoggio, which might be summarized in two ways: chest up/belly in, and chest downibelly out. In the former, the thor- & remains in an expanded position for as long as possible during each exhalation, while the abdominal wall works antagonistically, gradually pulling inward to provide power for the breath, Inthe latter, abdominal distension is maintained as long as possible during exhalation, working ‘anlagonistically with a lowered thorax. In this version, the rectus probably remains relaxed while obliques and transverse muscles contract, directing the viscera against the anterior ab- dominal wall rather than up toward the diaphragm. Distinct variations in breathing are seen according to gender, beyond the previously mentioned aspects of abdominal expansion. Perusal of the pedagogic literature shows widespread agree- ment for the principle that muscular antagonism between thé isthe foundation of a well-supported breath. The vast majority of male authors describe this ac- ton as a tug-of-war between the intercostals and abdominal muscles in the epigastric region, male writers usually place the action between the intercostals and abdominal muscles in the Typogastric region (7124—view videos of both genders). Few authors say anything about gen- (et-based differences in breathing; indeed, most advocate for their own chosen method as the imal solution for al singers (McCoy, 2005). But if male and female pedagogues describe hing differently, doesn't it make sense to teach male and female students differently? rdless of the specific method used, the goal of breath support in singing is to provide a lable supply of air at the correct pressure for the desired pitch and loudness. As a general rule, her and louder tones require greater breath pressure than lower, quieter ones. This, of se, is a bit of an over-simplification of the entire process, which must include actions of the itself. We will return to the issue of pitch and amplitude control in the next chapter follow- the exploration of laryngeal anatomy. istorcally, the teaching of singing has often—if not usually—been a “hands on’ endeavor. Teachers use touch to confirm and reinforce pedagogic concepts, release unwanted tensions, feale biofeedback, or to redirect a student's thinking through physical distraction. Sometimes teacher touches the student; at other times, the student is directed to touch the teacher. uch can be extremely helpful for teaching many aspects of singing, including breathing. But Must be taken. Klein and Schjeide, authors of Singing Technique: How to Avoid Trouble 1981), direct teachers to knee! over their charges—who are lying prone on the floor—vibrating Palm of one hand against the student's abdomen while holding the jaw or larynx with the . This unique teaching strategy certainly predates the current litigious climate in the United lates concerning issues of sexual harassment. In many public and private schools, teachers Page 91 .