ESP - Electric Submersible Pumps Design, Mohamed Dewidar, 2013

Electric Submersible Pumps Mohamed Dewidar 2013
Chapter 1
Selection of Artificial Lift Types
Table of Content
Section Content Page
1 Introduction 2
2 The need for artificial lift 2
3 Review of artificial lift techniques 4
4 Selection of artificial lift criteria 5
4.1 Well and reservoir criteria
4.2 Field location
4.3 Operational problems
4.4 Economics
5 Implementation of artificial lift selection
technique 8
6 Long term reservoir performance and facility
constraints 10
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Chapter 1
Selection of Artificial Lift Types
1.1. Introduction and selection criteria

This chapter will introduce the topic of artificial lift –
a production engineering topic of increasing importance in
field development. The reasons leading to this increasing
importance in the field development process will be reviewed.
The main factors influencing the selection of the most
important artificial lift techniques will be highlighted.
A brief description will then be given of all the common
artificial lift techniques (rod pumps, electric submersible
pumps, progressive cavity pumps and hydraulic pumps)apart from
gas lift.
Hydrocarbons will normally flow to the surface under natural
flow when the discovery well is completed in a virgin
reservoir.
The fluid production resulting from reservoir development will
normally lead to a reduction in the reservoir pressure,
increase in the fraction of water being produced together with
a corresponding decrease in the produced gas fraction. All
these factors reduce, or may even stop, the flow of fluids
from the well.
The remedy is to include within the well completion some form
of artificial lift. Artificial lift adds energy to the well
fluid which, when added to the available energy provided “for
free” by the reservoir itself, allows the well to flow at a
(hopefully economic) production rate.
1.2. The need for artificial lift

Artificial lift is required when a well will no longer
flow or when the production rate is too low to be economic.
Figure (1.1) illustrates such a situation, the reservoir
pressure is so low that the static fluid level is below the
wellhead. Question: Is it possible for this well to flow
naturally under and conditions.
Answer: Yes: If the well productivity Index is sufficiently
high and the produced fluid contains enough gas that the
flowing fluid pressure gradient gives a positive wellhead
pressure. But, the well has to be "kicked off" (started
flowing) by swabbing or other techniques.
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Chapter 1
Fig (1.1) the well is unable to initiate natural flow

Figure (1.2) shows how installation of a pump a small distance
below the static fluid level allows a limited drawdown (Dp')
to be created. The well now starts to flow at rate q.
N.B. the static and flowing pressure gradients in figures 1.1
& 1.2 are similar since frictional pressure losses in the
tubing are small at this low flow rate.
Fig (1.2)
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Chapter 1
It can be readily seen that the same production rate will

occur when the pump is relocated to the bottom of the tubing,
provided the pressure drop across the pump, and hence the
drawdown, remains the same. The advantage of placing the pump
near the perforations is that the maximum potential production
can now be achieved {figure (1.3)} by imposing a large
drawdown (DP") on the formation and “pumping the well off” by
producing the well at q2 is slightly smaller than the AOF.
Fig (1.3)
1.3. Review of artificial lift techniques

The most popular forms of artificial lift are illustrated in
figure (1.4). They are:
(i) Rod Pumps
Downhole plunger is moved up and down by a rod connected to an
engine at the surface. The plunger movement displaces produced
fluid into the tubing via a pump consisting of suitably
arranged travelling and standing valves mounted in a pump
barrel.
(ii) Hydraulic Pumps
Use a high pressure power fluid to:
(a) Drive a downhole turbine pump or
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Chapter 1
(b) Flow through a venturi or jet, creating a low pressure area

which produces an increased drawdown and inflow from the
reservoir.
(iii) Electric Submersible Pump (ESP)
Employs a downhole centrifugal pump driven by a three
phase, electric motor supplied with electric power via a cable
run from the surface on the outside of the tubing.
(iv) Gas Lift
It involves the supply of high pressure gas to the
casing/tubing annulus and its injection into the tubing deep
in the well. The increased gas content of the produced fluid
reduces the average flowing density of the fluids in the
tubing, hence increasing the formation drawdown and the well
inflow rate.
(v) Progressing Cavity Pump (PCP)
It employs a helical, metal rotor rotating inside an
elastomeric, double helical stator. The rotating action is
supplied by downhole electric motor or by rotating rods.
Fig (1.4) the most popular types of artificial lift
1.4. Selection of artificial lift criteria
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Chapter 1
There are many factors that influence selection of

artificial lift. Some of the factors to be considered are:
1.4.1. Well and Reservoir Characteristics
Production casing size.
Maximum size of production tubing and required (gross)
production rates.
Annular and tubing safety systems.
Producing formation depth and deviation (including doglegs,
both planned and unplanned).
Nature of the produced fluids (gas fraction and
sand/wax/asphaltene production).
Well inflow characteristics. A “straight line” inflow
performance relationship associated with a dead oil is more
favorable than the curved “Vogel” relationship found when
well inflow takes place below the fluid’s bubble point.
Figure (1.5) shows that reducing the flowing bottomhole
pressure from 2500 to 500 psi increases the well production
rate by 125% for the dead oil. This is more than double the
60% increase expected for the same reduction in bottomhole
pressure if a “Vogel” type inflow relationship is followed
with a well producing below the bubble point.
Fig (1.5) Influence of fluid in flow performance on production

increase achieved when well drawdown is increased
1.4.2. Field Location
Offshore platform design dictates the maximum physical size
and weight of artificial lift equipment that can be
installed.
The on-shore environment can also strongly influence the
artificial lift selection made. For example:
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Chapter 1
 A remote location with minimal availability of support

infrastructure can lead to different artificial lift types
being selected for wells of similar design and producing
characteristics.
Climatic extremes e.g. arctic operations will also limit the
practical choices.
The distance from the wellhead to the processing facilities
will determine the minimum wellhead flowing pressure
(required for a give production rate). This may, for example,
make the choice of an ESP more attractive than Gas Lift. This
is because the extra pressure drop in the flowline, due to
the injected gas, makes Gas Lift an unsuitable option for
producing satellite hydrocarbon accumulations isolated from
the main field.
The power source (natural gas, mains electricity, diesel,
etc) available for the prime mover will impact the detailed
equipment design and may affect reliability e.g. the voltage
spikes often associated with local electrical power
generation have been frequently shown to reduce the lifetime
of the electrical motors for ESP’s.
1.4.3. Operational Problems
Some forms of artificial lift e.g. gas lift are intrinsically
more tolerant to solids production (sand and/or formation
fines) than other forms e.g. centrifugal pumps.
The formation of massive organic and inorganic deposits -
paraffins, asphaltenes, inorganic scales and hydrates - are
often preventable by treatment with suitable inhibitors.
However, additional equipment and a more complicated downhole
completion are required unless, for example, the inhibitor
can be carried in the power fluid for a hydraulic pump or can
be dispersed in the lift gas.
The choice of materials used to manufacture the equipment
installed within the well will depend on the:
 Bottom Hole Temperatures.
 Corrosive Conditions e.g. partial pressure of any hydrogen
sulphide and carbon dioxide, composition of the formation
water etc.
 Extent of Solids Production (erosion).
 Producing Velocities (erosion/corrosion).
1.4.4. Economics
A lot of attention is often paid to the initial capital
investment required to install artificial lift. However, the
operating costs are normally much more important than the
capital cost when a full life cycle economic analysis is
carried out.
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Chapter 1
Good operating cost data for the different artificial lift

methods in different locations is difficult to find.
Reliability (discussed earlier) is one key issue while the
second is energy efficiency (and hence energy costs). This
latter is more tractable since it can be calculated from
first principles. There is a wide variation - see Figure 9.
Only rod pumps, ESP’s and PCP’s show values >50% while gas
lift, particularly of the intermittent variety, is
inefficient in energy terms. Changing energy costs can alter
the ranking order of the various artificial lift methods.
Maintenance costs will vary between operating locations
depending on the state of the local, service company
infrastructure. It can be costly in remote locations.
The number of wells in the field with that particular form of
artificial lift will influence the operating costs.
Similarly, the desirability and/or need for automation (how
many operators are to be employed) and the decision as to
whether or not to install centralized facilities will also
influence the operating costs.
1.5. Implementation of Artificial lift Selection

Techniques
As discussed the artificial lift design engineer is faced with
matching facility constraints, artificial lift capabilities
and the well productivity so that an efficient lift
installation results. Frequently, the type of lift has already
been determined and the engineer has the problem of applying
that system to the particular well. A more fundamental
question is how to determine the optimum type of artificial
lift to apply in a given field.
There are certain environmental and geographical
considerations that may be overriding.
For example, sucker rod pumping is by far the most widely used
artificial lift method in North America. However, sucker rod
pumping may be eliminated as a suitable form of artificial
lift if production is required from the middle of a densely
populated city or on an offshore platform with it’s limited
deck area. There are also practical limitations - deep wells
producing several thousands of barrels per day cannot be
lifted by rod pumps. Thus, geographic and environmental
considerations may make the decision. However, there are many
considerations that need to be taken into account when such
conditions are not controlling.
Some types of artificial lift are able to reduce the sand face
producing pressure to a lower value than others. The
characteristics of the reservoir fluids must also be
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Chapter 1
considered. Wax & formation solids present greater

difficulties to some forms of artificial lift than others. The
producing gas-liquid ratio is key parameter to be considered
by the artificial lift designer. Gas represents a significant
problem to all of the pumping methods; while gas lift, on the
other hand, utilizes the energy contained in the produced gas
and supplements this with injected gas as a source of energy.
The “Advantages and Disadvantages of the Major Artificial Lift
Methods” are listed and compared below:
Advantages
Rod Pumps
 Simple, basic design.
 Unit easily changed.
 Simple to operate.
 Can achieve low BHFP.
 Can lift high temperature, viscous oils.
 Pump off control.
Electric Submersible Pump
 Extremely high volume lift using up to1,000 kw motors.
 Unobtrusive surface location.
 Downhole telemetry available.
 Tolerant high well elevation / doglegs Corrosion / scale
treatments possible.
Venturi Hydraulic Pump
 High volumes.
 Can use water as power fluid.
 Remote power source.
 Tolerant high well deviation / doglegs.
Gas Lift
 Solids tolerant.
 Large volumes in high PI wells.
 Simple maintenance.
 Unobtrusive surface location / remote power source.
 Tolerant high well deviation / doglegs.
 Tolerant high GOR reservoir fluids.
 Wirleine maintenance.
Progressing Cavity Pump
 Solids and viscous crude tolerant.
 Energy efficient.
 Unobtrusive surface location with downhole motor.
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Chapter 1
Disadvantages
Rod Pumps
 Friction in crooked / holes.
 Pump wear with solids production (sand, wax etc(.
 Free gas reduces pump efficiency Obtrusive in urban areas.
 Downhole corrosion inhibition difficult.
 Heavy equipment for offshore use.
Electric Submersible Pump
 Not suitable for shallow low volume wells.
 Full workover required to change pump.
 Cable susceptible to damage during installation with tubing.
 Cable deteriorates at high temperatures.
 Gas and solids intolerant.
 Increased production casing size often required.
Venturi Hydraulic Pump
 High surface pressures.
 Sensitive to change in surface flowline pressure.
 Free gas reduces pump efficiency.
 Power oil systems hazardous.
 High minimum FBHP.
 Abandonment pressure may not be reached.
Gas Lift
 Lift gas may not be available.
 Not suitable for viscous crude oil or emulsions.
 Susceptible to gas freezing / hydrates at low temperatures.
 High minimum FBHP.
 Abandonment pressure may not be reached.
 Casing must withstand lift gas pressure.
Progressing Cavity Pump
 Elastomars swell in some crude oils.
 Pump off control difficult.
 Problems with rotating rods (windup and after spin) increase
with depth.
1.6. Long Term Reservoir Performance and Facility

Constraints
Another factor that needs to be considered is long term
reservoir performance. Some years ago Neely indicated that two
approaches, both of which have disadvantages, are frequently
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Chapter 1
used to solve the problem of artificial lift selection and

sizing.
 A prediction of long term reservoir performance is made and
artificial lift equipment installed that can handle the
well’s production and producing conditions over its entire
life. This frequently leads to the installation of oversized
equipment in the anticipation of ultimately producing large
quantities of water.
As a result, the equipment may have operated at poor
efficiency due to underloading over a significant portion of
its total life.
 The other extreme is to design for what the well is producing
today and not worry about tomorrow. This can lead to many
changes in the type of lift equipment installed during the
well’s producing life. Low cost operations may result in the
short term, but large sums of money will have to be spent
later on to change the artificial lift equipment and/or the
completion.
Likewise, in a new field development, the fluid handling
requirement from some artificial lift types can significantly
increase the size and cost of the facilities required.
Only the produced fluid is handled through the facilities with
rod pumps and ESPs.
However, gas lift requires injection gas compression and
distribution facilities and the additional, produced gas
increases the size of the production facilities required.
Similarly, the use of Hydraulic pumps can result in the
additional power fluid volumes being many times that of the
produced oil volume. These results in high fluid handling
costs as well as difficulties in accounting for the oil
produced (when oil is used as a power fluid).
The selection of the artificial lift for a particular well
must meet the physical constraints of the well. Once a
particular type of lift is selected for use, consideration
should be given to the size of the well bore required to
obtain the desired production rate. It can happen that the
desired production cannot be obtained because the casing
program was designed to minimize well cost, resulting in a
size limitation on the artificial lift equipment that can be
installed. Even if production rates can be achieved, smaller
casing sizes can lead to higher, long term production costs
due to well servicing problems, gas separation problems etc.
Figure (1.6) is offered as a screening selection tool in which
areas where particular artificial lift methods have been
frequently applied are compared as a function of depth and
well rate. It must be realized that there are many proven
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Chapter 1
applications where a particular form of artificial lift has

been installed in a well at greater depths or produced at
higher rates than is indicated in this figure.
Fig (1.6) typical application areas of artificial lift techniques
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Chapter 2
Centrifugal Pumps
Table of Content
1 Definition 3
2 Theory 4
2.1 Centrifugal force
2.2 Peripheral velocity and head
2.3 Specific gravity
3 General concept 10
4 Energy 10
5 Energy equations for an ideal flow 12
6 Horsepower 12
7 The basic equations for centrifugal pumps 14
8 Characteristics of ideal pump and degree of
reaction 18
9 Impeller with finite number of vanes 21
10 Hydraulic losses in pump and plotting
characteristic curve 24
11 Pump efficiency 26
12 Similarity formulas 28
13 Specific speed and its relation to impeller
geometry 31
13.1 Definition
13.2 Specific speed basics
13.3 Specific speed derivation
14 Net positive suction head & cavitation 38
15 NPSH specific speed 41
16 System curve 42
17 Electric Submersible Pumps 44
17.1 Pump stages
17.2 Types of impellers
17.3 Impeller constructions
18 Recommended operating range 50
18.1 Impeller thrust
18.2 Impeller thrust washers
18.3 Shaft thrust
19 Pump configurations 61
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Chapter 2
20 Fluid viscosity effect on centrifugal pumps 64

21 Affinity laws 79
22 Friction loss in pipes 81
23 ESP design examples 83
2
Chapter 2
Centrifugal Pumps
2.1. Definition
By definition, a centrifugal pump is a machine that
imparts energy to a fluid. This energy helps a liquid to
flow, rise to a higher level, or both.
The centrifugal pump is an extremely simple machine. It is
a member of a family known as rotary machines and consists
of two basic parts:
1. The rotary element or impeller fig (2.1) and
2. The stationary element or diffuser fig (2.2).
Fig (2.1) Impeller
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Chapter 2
Fig (2.2) Diffuser

The centrifugal pump‟s function is as simple as its design.
It is filled with liquid and the impeller is rotated.
Rotation imparts energy to the liquid causing it to exit
the impeller‟s vanes at a greater velocity than when it
entered. This outward flow reduces the pressure at the
impeller eye, allowing more liquid to enter. The liquid that
exits the impeller is collected in the diffuser where its
velocity is converted to pressure before it leaves the
pump‟s discharge.
2.2. Theory
2.2.1. Centrifugal Force
A classic example of the action of centrifugal force
is shown in fig (2.3) below. Here, we see a ball of water
swinging in a circle. The swinging ball generates a
centrifugal force that holds the water in the ball. Now,
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Chapter 2
if a hole is bored in the ball, water will be thrown out.

The distance the stream carries (tangent to the circle) and the
volume that flows out (per unit time) depends upon the
velocity (in ft/sec) of the rotating ball. The faster the
ball rotates the greater the centrifugal force and
therefore the greater the volume of water discharged and the
distance it carries.
Fig (2.3)
The description above could be considered that of a simple
centrifugal pump. It demonstrates that the flow and head
(pressure) developed by a centrifugal pump depends upon the
rotational speed and, more precisely, the peripheral
velocity of its impeller (ball).
In the above figure, the string is in tension and this
means it pulls in both directions. The force pulling the
ball towards the middle is the centripetal force and the
force pulling to outward is the centrifugal force.
Consider the velocity vector before and after point P has
revolved a small angle dθ, fig (2.4).
The magnitude of v1 and v2 are equal so let‟s denote it simply
as v. The direction changes over a small period of time dt
by dθ radians.
ds is almost the length of an arc of radius r. If the angle
is small, the length of an arc is radius x angle, so it
follows that,
5
Chapter 2
V1
s
r V2
dθ
Fig (2.4)
Example
Calculate the centrifugal force acting on a small mass of 0.5 kg rotating at
1500 rev/minute on a radius of 300 mm.
Solution
ω= 2πN/60 = 2 x π x 1500/60 = 157 rad/s
Centrifugal acc. = ω2R = (157)2 x 0.3 = 7395 m/s2.
Centrifugal force = Mass x acc. = 0.5 x 7395 = 3697 N
2.2.2. Peripheral Velocity & Head

Gravity is one of the more important forces that a
centrifugal pump must overcome. You will find that the
relationship between final velocity, due to gravity, and
initial velocity, due to impeller speed, is a very useful
one.
If a stone is dropped from the top of a building it's
velocity will increase at a rate of 32.2 feet per second
for each second that it falls. This increase in velocity
is known as acceleration due to gravity. Therefore if we
ignore the effect of air resistance on the falling stone, we
can predict the velocity at which it will strike the
ground based upon its initial height and the effect of
acceleration due to gravity.
6
Chapter 2
The equation that describes the relationship of velocity,

height, and gravity as it applies to a falling body is:
v2 = 2gh
Where:
v = The velocity of the body in ft/sec
g = The acceleration due to gravity @ 32.2 ft/sec/sec (or
ft/sec2)
h = The distance through which the body falls
For example if a stone is dropped from a building 100 feet high:
v2 = 2 x 32.2 ft/sec2 x 100 ft
v2 = 6440 ft2/sec2
v = 80.3 ft/sec
The stone, therefore, will strike the ground at a velocity of 80.3 feet per
second.
This same equation allows us to determine the initial
velocity required to throw the stone to a height of 100
feet. This is the case because the final velocity of a
falling body happens to be equal to the initial velocity
required to launch it to height from which it fell. In the
example above, the initial velocity required to throw the
stone to a height of 100 feet is 80.3 feet per second, the
same as its final velocity.
The same equation applies when pumping water with a
centrifugal pump. The velocity of the water as it leaves
the impeller determines the head developed. In other words
the water is “thrown” to a certain height. To reach this
height it must start with the same velocity it would attain
if it fell from that height.
If we rearrange the falling body equation we get:
h = v2/2g
Now we can determine the height to which a body (or water)
will rise given a particular initial velocity. For example,
at 10 Ft per Sec:
h = 102 ft2/sec2 / (2 x 32.2) ft/sec2
h = 100 ft2/sec2 / 64.4 ft/sec2 = 1.55 ft
If you were to try this with several different initial
velocities, you would find out that there is an interesting
relationship between the height achieved by a body and its
initial velocity. This relationship is one of the
Fundamental laws of centrifugal pumps and we will review
7
Chapter 2
it in detail a little later. As a finale to this section,

let's apply what we have learned to a practical application.
Example:
For an 1800 RPM pump, find the impeller diameter necessary to develop a
head of 200 feet.
First we must find the initial velocity required to develop a head of 100 feet:
v2 = 2 gh
v2 = 2 x 32.2 ft/sec2 x 200 ft
v2 = 12880 ft2/sec2
v = 113 ft/sec
We also need to know the number of rotations the impeller undergoes
each second:
1800 RPM / 60 sec = 30 RPS
Now we can compute the number of feet a point on the impellers rim
travels in a single rotation:
113 ft/sec / 30 rotations/sec = 3.77 ft/rotation
Since feet traveled per rotation are the same as the circumference of the
impeller we can compute the diameter as follows:
Diameter = Circumference / π
Diameter = 3.77 ft / 3.1416
Diameter = 1.2 ft or 14.4 inch
Therefore an impeller of approximately 14.4" turning at 1800 RPM will
produce a head of 200 Feet.
2.2.3. Specific Gravity

Why head is usually expressed in feet?
The Specific Gravity of a substance is the ratio of the
weight of a given volume of the substance to that of an
equal volume of water at standard temperature and pressure
(STP).
Assuming the viscosity of a liquid is similar to that of
water the following statements will always be true
regardless of the specific gravity:
1. A Centrifugal pump will always develop the same head in
feet regardless of a liquid‟s specific gravity.
2. Pressure will increase or decrease in direct proportion
8
Chapter 2
to a liquid‟s specific gravity.

3. Brake HP required will vary directly with a liquid‟s
specific gravity.
The Fig (2.5) below illustrates the relationship between
pressure (in psi) and head (in ft) for three liquids of
differing specific gravity.
Fig (2.5)
We can see that the level in each of the three tanks is 100
feet. The resulting pressure at the bottom of each varies
substantially as a result of the varying specific gravity.
If, on the other hand we keep pressure constant as measured
at the bottom of each tank, the fluid levels will vary
similarly.
A centrifugal pump can also develop 100' of head when
pumping water, brine, and kerosene. The resulting
pressures, however, will vary just as those seen in the
above Figure. If that same pump requires 10 HP when pumping
water, it will require 12 HP when pumping brine and only 8
HP when pumping kerosene.
The preceding discussion of Specific Gravity illustrates
why centrifugal pump head (or pressure) is expressed in
feet. Since pump specialists work with many liquids of
varying specific gravity, head in feet is the most
convenient system of designating head.
When selecting a pump, always remember that factory tests
and curves are based on water at STP. If you are working
with other liquids always correct the HP required for the
specific gravity of the liquid being pumped.
9
Chapter 2
2.3. General Concept

As previously mentioned the pump is a machine which
imparts head to a fluid.
From the physical aspect, the work of a pump consists in
transforming the mechanical energy of a motor (drive) into
fluid energy. i.e., imparting power to a flow of fluid
passing through it. The energy imparted to the fluid in the
pump enables the former to overcome hydraulic resistances
and rise to a geometric elevation.
The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal
force is kinetic energy. The amount of energy given to the
liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane
tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the
bigger the impeller is, then the higher will be the velocity
of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy
imparted to the liquid.
The pump diffuser catches the liquid and slows it down. In
the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its
velocity is converted to pressure according to Bernoulli‟s
principle.
Let's outline the steps a liquid encounters as it moves from
suction to discharge.
1. Rotation of the impeller and the shape of the vane
entrances forces liquid to move from the eye of the
impeller into its vanes.
2. During rotation the curved shape of the vanes causes
liquid to continue to flow towards the vane exits.
3. This flow causes a partial vacuum at the eye which allows
atmospheric or some other, outside pressure to force more
liquid into the eye thus regenerating the entire process.
4. As liquid flows through the vanes, it gains velocity and
reaches its maximum velocity just as it exits the vanes.
5. Upon exiting the vanes, liquid enters the diffuser where
most of its kinetic energy of motion is transformed into
pressure energy.
2.4. Energy
Liquid can possess three forms of hydraulic energy:
 Potential energy due to elevation.
 Kinetic energy due to velocity, and,
 Pressure energy due to weight or force.
In physics we say that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed it can only change its state or form. Therefore
10
Chapter 2
these three forms of energy must be able to live in harmony

and their quantities, at a given point in time, will follow
a simple law known as The Conservation of Energy. Now, for
our purposes, we can pretty much eliminate potential energy
because there is little or no elevation change from a pump's
suction to its discharge. But as we saw above, a liquid's
velocity undergoes a large change as it moves through the
impeller and diffuser. Since velocity is, in fact, energy it
must be replaced by some other form as it decreases. That
other form of energy is pressure and it arises of it own
accord as the diffuser volume increases and velocity
decreases.
The fig (2.6) below shows a pipe with water flowing from
left to right at Q gpm. As water reaches the center of the
pipe it encounters a section that has a reduced diameter but
a short distance away the pipe returns to its original
diameter. Notice the three pressure gauges the one on the
left points to 12 o'clock while the one in the center is at
10 o'clock.
Fig (2.6)
The gauge on the right displays just a little less than the
one on the far left (due to friction loss). In other words
pressure drops as water enters the constricted area of the
pipe but it returns to nearly its original pressure as it
exits the constricted area.
What is happening here? Well, if flow is to remain constant
(Q gpm) the velocity of the water must increase as it
travels through the constricted area of the pipe. We see
this in nature when a slow moving river enters and exits a
narrow gorge. And, it confirms our statement about energy as
one form (velocity) increases, another form (pressure) must
decrease and vice versa. Bernoulli's theorem states that
during steady flow the energy at any point in a conduit is
the sum of the velocity energy, pressure energy, and the
potential energy due to elevation. It also says the sum will
11
Chapter 2
remain constant if there are no losses. In our example

above, the small loss in pressure seen in the right hand
portion of the pipe is due to increased friction in the
narrow section. Depending upon the circumstances, pressure
loss due to friction may be a result of the generation and
dissipation of heat or it could be due to a small increase
in velocity due to a change in laminar flow. As friction
increases laminar flow becomes less symmetrical which,
essentially, reduces the diameter of the conduit.
2.5. Energy equation for an ideal flow

The pumping head is the sum of increase in pressure
head (static head) and the increase in specific kinetic
energy (dynamic head).
The second term (dynamic head) is usually smaller than the

first term (static head) and if the intake and discharge
pipes have the same diameter (d1=d2, whence v1=v2) and α1=
α2, it is zero and
The rate of discharge of a pump is also called its delivery

or capacity, denoted Q.
2.6. Horsepower
The power of a pump is defined as the energy imparted
by the pump to the fluid flow per second.
Horsepower is the horse which could lift 150 pounds a height
of 220 feet in 1 minute.
12
Chapter 2
Q = m3/sec
H = m
ρ = kg/m3
Q = m3/sec
H = m
 = Specific Gravity
Q = GPM
H = Ft
13
Chapter 2
 = Specific Gravity
Like any other driven machine, a pump consumes more power
than its given off. The ratio of the actual power developed
by the pump (water horsepower) to the power supplies by the
pump (shaft horsepower) given the efficiency of the pump:
HP = Water HP
BHP = Brake HP (Shaft HP)
Hence, the shaft horsepower
and, taking into account Eq. (2.1).
This is the equation used in choosing pump drives.

Total or overall, pump efficiency takes into account three
types of energy losses:
 Hydraulic losses due to friction and turbulence.
 Volume losses due to leakage through internal passages.
 Mechanical losses due to mechanical friction in bearings,
packing, etc.
2.7. The basic equations for centrifugal pumps

A centrifugal pump operates in the following manner;
the principal working unit is a vaned rotor, called
“impeller” which is made to revolve at high speed. It
accelerates the incoming fluid, increasing both pressure and
absolute velocity of the latter, driving it to the diffuser.
By interaction between the vanes and fluid, the mechanical
energy of the drive is transformed into the energy of flow.
In the diffuser the kinetic energy of the fluid is partly
converted to pressure energy.
The impeller of a centrifugal pump, fig (2.7), consists of
two disks like walls, called “shrouds”, one of which is
mounted on the shaft. The other shroud, coupled the former
by the vanes, has a hole in the centre, called “eye”. The
vanes are curved, cylindrical or have complex surfaces. The
fluid enters the impeller along the axis of rotation through
the eye, flows radially outward between the vanes, and is
discharged around the entire circumference into the
diffuser.
14
Chapter 2
Fig (2.7)
Fig (2.8) Flow pattern through centrifugal pump impeller
The motion of the fluid through the passages between the

vanes can be regarded as consisting of two motions fig
(2.8):
 Motion of transport (rotation of the impeller).
 Motion relative to the impeller.
15
Chapter 2
Hence, the absolute velocity C of the fluid can be found as

the vector sum of the peripheral velocity U and the
relative velocity W.
Taking a fluid particle sliding along a vane, one can
construct a velocity parallelogram for the entrance of the
particle to and discharge form, the vane, assuming the
relative velocity W to be tangent to the vane and the
peripheral velocity U tangent to the corresponding circle.
A similar velocity parallelogram can be constructed for any
point on the vane. The subscript 1 refers to the entrance
section, and subscript 2 to exit section of the vane.
The angle between the vectors of the peripheral and absolute
velocities is α, and the angle between the tangent to the
vane and the tangent to the circumference is β, with the
corresponding subscripts.
In general case the angle α changes with the pump
performance, i.e., the speed of rotation n of the impeller
(the velocity U) and the discharge Q (the velocity W).
Angle β determines the inclination of a vane at every point
and consequently, does not depend on pump performance.
In order to develop the basic equation of centrifugal pump
theory, we shall accept the following two assumptions:
1. The impeller consists of an infinite number of uniform
vanes of zero thickness (Z = ∞,δ =0) This means that we
assume such flow in the passages between the vanes in
which the geometry of all stream tubes in the relative
motion is identical and corresponds exactly to the vane
geometry, and the velocities depend only on the radius
and are the same on a circle of a given radius. This
possible in the case when each differential stream tube
is guided by its vane.
2. The pump efficiency is unity (ƞ=1), i.e., there is no
energy losses in the pump and shaft horsepower is
converted completely into water horsepower.
This is possible in the case of an ideal fluid, no
leakage in the pump and no mechanical friction in packing
and bearings.
Thus, to facilitate our theoretical investigation of a
centrifugal pump we have substantially idealized its
performance. We shall call such a centrifugal pump, in which
Z = ∞ and ƞ = 1, an ideal pump. After considering the
theory of the idealized pump we shall, naturally, proceed to
deal with real pumps.
Let us develop two equations:
16
Chapter 2
1. The power equation, it means that the power supplied to

the impeller shaft is equal to the energy imparted every
second to the fluid in the pump,
T  Q H t
                     (2.5)
2. The equation of momentum, it means that the torque acting
on the pump shaft is equal to increase in the angular
momentum of the fluid in the impeller per second.
Denoting by r1 the radius of the cylindrical surface on
which the entrance edge of the vanes are located, and by
r2 the peripheral radius of the impeller, we have,
From Esq. (2.5) and (2.6) the head developed by an idealized

pump is,
This is the basic equation not only for centrifugal pumps

but also for all rotodynamic machines, such as fans,
compressors, and turbines.
Attention should be paid to the fact that the head developed
by an idealized centrifugal pump in terms of column of
pumped liquid does not depend on type of liquid (i.e. on its
specific weight).
As a rule, a liquid entering the impeller has no whirl
component. In the vane passages it moves in radial
direction. This means that the vector C1 is pointed along
the radius and the angle α1 = 90O .
Consequently, the second term in Eq. (2.7) vanishes and the
equation takes the form,
Where U2 = ωr2 = peripheral velocity at vane exit;

C2u = projection of absolute velocity on direction of
peripheral velocity, i.e. the tangential component of
absolute velocity C2.
17
Chapter 2
Equation (2.8) shows that for centrifugal pump to deliver

high head the peripheral velocity must be greater and,
secondary, the vector C2u must be large enough i.e.
sufficient whirl should be imparted to the fluid. The former
is achieved by increasing the speed of rotation and impeller
diameter, the later is attained by providing a sufficient
number of vanes of suitable size and shape.
2.8. Characteristics of ideal pump and degree of

reaction
Equation (2.8) is inconvenient for calculation as does
not contain the rate of discharge Q. Therefore let us
rewrite it to express the head Ht∞ as a function of
discharge Q and impeller radius.
From the velocity triangle for the impeller exit, fig (2.9),
C2m = projection of absolute exit velocity on radius i.e.

the radial component of vector C2.
The rate of discharge through the impeller can be expressed
in terms of radial component C2m and impeller radius as
follows:
(Fig 2.9) Velocity triangle at impeller exit
Where b2 = width of vane slot at exit, hence,
Substitution of this expression into equation (2.9) yields
Substituting the obtained expression (2.11) for the

tangential velocity component U2u in Eq. (2.8) we obtain
another form of the basic ideal pump equation:
18
Chapter 2
This equation can be used to plot the theoretical

characteristics of an idealized centrifugal pump, i.e.
curve of the head generated by the pump as a function of
the discharge for constant speed of rotation. It is from
equation (1.12) that the characteristic curve of such a
pump is a straight line the inclination of which depends on
the value of the vane angle β2. The following are three
possible cases:
1. Angle  2 <90O, in this case cot  2 is positive and the head
H t decrease with the charge increasing.
2. Angle  2 =90O, cot  2 =0, and head H t does not depends on
the discharge and equal to U22/g
3. Angle  2 >90O, cot  2 is negative and the head H t
increases with discharge.
These three theoretical pump characteristics are shown in
Fig (2.10).
Fig (2.10) Ideal centrifugal pump characteristics

The corresponding vane shapes and velocity parallelograms
for the same value of U2 and C2m are presented in Fig (11.a,
b, and c).
Fig (2.11) Vane design and velocity parallelograms
19
Chapter 2
It thus follows that the optimum head is produced by a

forward curved vane, when β2>90O and the head is highest. In
practical, however, the efficiency of such pump is low, and
the performance of backward curved vanes at β2<90O is found
to be preferable.
Backward curved vanes are in fact more commonly used, the
vane angle usually being about 30O. Radial vanes (β2=90O)
are also employed, but the result is lower efficiency.
In order to understand why pump efficiency falls with the
angle β2 increasing we must examine the component of the
head Ht∞ and the way in which the relation between them
changes with β2.
The head Ht∞, or what the same thing, the total increase in
the specific energy of a fluid in an impeller, comprises
the increase in specific energy of pressure and specific
kinetic energy, i.e.
Or introducing another notation,
Expressing the velocities v1 and v2 in terms of their radial

and tangential components, we have,
Assuming the intake and exit areas of the impeller to be

approximately equal, we can consider that C1m = C2m.
Furthermore, as pointed out before, there is usually no
pre-rotation of the fluid at the impeller intake, and C1u =
0. Consequently, instead of the foregoing we have,
Taking this expression into account, we can now find from

Eq. (2.13) the so-called degree of reaction of the pump,
which is the ratio of the head imparted to the fluid by the
pressure increase to the total head:
Using Eq. (2.8), the latter expression can be written as

follows,
Whence finally, after substituting for C2u from Eq. (2.9),
20
Chapter 2
It will be observed from this expression that the greater

C2u/U2 and the smaller angle  2 , the greater the portion of
the head H t that produced by pressure increase, i.e. the
higher the degree of reaction of the pump. With angle  2
increasing the portion of the head H t representing the
increase in the kinetic energy becomes grater. The kinetic
energy, in turn, is associated with higher exit velocity of
the fluid from the impeller, which results in considerable
energy losses and lower pump efficiency. That is why it is
not expedient to use vanes with large values of  2 , i.e.
forward-bent vanes.
It follows from Eq. (2.15) that for radial vanes (  2 =90O)
the degree of reaction is ½ and at  2 <90O it is more than ½
but less than unity.
2.9. Impeller with finite number of vanes

So far we have been investigating the performance of an
idealized centrifugal pump with an infinite number of vanes
and unity efficiency.
In going over to real pumps we shall begin with eliminating
the first assumption, retaining the second for the time
being.
Real pumps usually have from six to twelve vanes. The
relative flow through the vane passages is not so laminar
as assumed before and the velocity distribution is not
uniform. On the leading surface of the vane, denoted by
“plus” sign in fig (1.11a), the pressure is higher and the
velocity is lower, and the velocity distribution in the
passage is approximately as shown.
The velocity distribution can be regarded as the resultant
of two flows: one with uniform velocity distribution, as
was the case when z   (fig 2.11b), and the rotational flow
inside the passage in the opposite direction of the
rotation of the impeller (Fig 2.11c). In pure form the
rotational flow is present when the discharge through the
impeller is zero (Q=0).
In view of the non-uniformity of the distribution of the
relative and absolute velocities in the vane passages when
the number of vanes is finite, the mean velocity for a
circle of given radius is introduced. Our interest is the
mean value of the tangential component of the absolute exit
velocity C2u which determines the head developed by the
pump. This component is smaller for a finite number of
21
Chapter 2
vanes than for an infinite number because the less the

number of vanes the less the whirl imparted to the fluid by
the impeller. In the absence of vanes (z=0) the whirl is
zero, i.e. C2u = 0, and the fluid (in the ideal case) issues
from the impeller in a radial direction.
A reduction of the velocity C2u in passing over to a finite
number of vanes is also accounted for by the prerotation
mentioned before. This relative motion gives rise to an
additional absolute velocity ΔC2u at the outer periphery of
the impeller, Fig 2.12c, which is directed opposite to C2u
and, hence, is subtracted from the latter.
Fig (2.12) Flow pattern through vane passage

Owing to this velocity triangle at the impeller exit
changes, In Fig (2.13), the solid lines give the velocity
vectors for finite number. The construction was made for
identical values of U2 and C2m, i.e. for identical
rotational speeds and rates of discharge. The primed values
are for the case of a finite number of vanes.
A reduction of the tangential component C2u in transition to
a finite number of vanes results in a drop in the pumping
head. The head that would have been generated by a pump if
there were no head losses inside the pump is called
theoretical or ideal head denoted by H tz . From Eq. (2.8), we
have
We shall call the ratio of H tz to H t the vane number

coefficient (μ):
So, the head in equation is,
22
Chapter 2
Fig (2.13) Change of velocity triangle in going over to

finite number of vanes
The problem now is to determine the numerical value of µ.
Obviously, the coefficient depends first and foremost on
the number of vanes z, through it is also affected by the
length of the vanes, which depends on the ratio (r1/r2) and
on the angle of inclination of the vanes  2 .
Theoretically, investigations reveal that µ does not depend
on the operation condition of a pump, i.e. on Q, H pump or n.
It is wholly determined by impeller geometry and is
constant for a given impeller.
Without going into the theory of the effect of the number
of the vanes on the head, here is the conclusion of this
theory as represented by a formula for µ:
Where
  (0.55 to 0.65)+0.6 sin  2
Here, for example, is the value of µ for  2 =30O and r1/r2 =
0.5
z 4 6 8 10 12 16 24
µ 0.624 0.714 0.768 0.806 0.834 0.870 0.908
Thus at z-->∞, µ-->1
As the ratio between H tz and H t is constant for a given
pump, the theoretical characteristic curve for a finite
number of vanes, like the characteristic curve of an
idealized pump with a uniform speed of rotation
O
(n=constant) is a straight line. At  2  90 , it parallel to
23
Chapter 2
characteristic curve of an idealized pump, and at  2  90O it

intersects the later on the axis of abscissas as H tz =0 and
H t =0 at the same discharge
2 r 2 b2 u 2
Q
cot  2
2.10. Hydraulic losses in pump and plotting

characteristic curve
As stated earlier, H tz is the head that would have
been developed by a pump if there were no head losses
inside it. The actual head H pump is less than the
theoretical head by the total losses inside the pump:
Where  h pump = total head losses in the pump (at intake, in

impeller and diffuser).
The ratio of the actual head to the theoretical head for a
finite number of vanes is called hydraulic efficiency,
denoted by  h thus,
Hydraulic efficiency is always higher than total efficiency

as it takes into account only head losses inside the pump.
It follows from Esq. (2.18) and (2.21) that,
H pump   h H tz   h  H t
Where H t is given by Esq. (2.7) and (2.12)

The hydraulic losses inside the pump  h pump are conveniently
treated as the sum of the following two components.
1. Ordinary hydraulic losses i.e. losses due to friction
and partly to eddy formation inside the pump. As
turbulent flow is the common regime in a centrifugal
pump, this type of head losses increases approximately
as the square of the discharge and can be expresses by
the equation:
Where k1 is constant depending on hydraulic efficiency and

the dimensions of the pump.
2. Shock losses at impeller and diffuser entrance. if the
relative velocity W1 of the fluid at the entrance to a
vane passage is tangent to the vane, the fluid is
24
Chapter 2
entering the impeller smoothly, without shock or eddy

formation. Shock losses in this case are nil. But this
possible only at some definite rated or normal discharge
QO and corresponding radial entrance velocity (C1m)0,
(Fig 2.14).
Fig (2.14) velocity parallelogram at impeller entrance

If the actual discharge Q is more or less than the rated
discharge QO and the radial entrance velocity C1m is more or
less than (C1m)0, the relative velocity W makes an angle θ
with the tangent to the vane and the fluid past the vane at
some positive or negative angle of approach. The effect is
that of the fluid impinging on the vane, with eddies forming
on the opposite side. Thus, energy is degraded in the impact
and eddy formation. The velocity parallelograms for the same
peripheral velocities corresponding to these non-rated
operating conditions are shown by broken lines in Fig
(2.14).
One of the parallelograms corresponds to the inequality Q >
Q0 the other, to Q < Q0.
Shock losses can be assumed to vary as the square of the
difference between the actual discharge and the discharge
when they are zero, i.e.,
Shock losses at the diffuser entrance are of the same

nature as it the impeller intake, the minimum being at
about the same rate of discharge Q0 and included in the
quantity h2.
The total loss of head inside the pump is the sum of the
two losses considered, i.e.,
25
Chapter 2
The characteristic curves of a pump at uniform rotation

speed (n = constant) are plotted as following:
First draw for H as a function of Q at n = constant the
theoretical characteristic curves for z = ∞ and for a finite
number of vanes Z.
These are straight lines, Fig (2.15). Below the Q axis,
plot curves for the two components h1 and h2 of the head
losses in the pump. Summing the coordinates of the two
curves gives the curve Ʃhpump as a function of the discharge.
Now, in accordance with Eq.(2.20) subtract Ʃhpump from Htz
which gives the curve Hpump = f(Q), i.e. the actual
characteristic of the pump for a constant speed.
The curve Hpump = f(Q) in Fig (2.15) typical of a centrifugal
pump. The maximum value of head Hpump is commonly obtained
neither at zero discharge nor at Q = Q0 but at some
intermediate value of Q.
Plotting the characteristic curves by the method described
is not very accurate in view of the difficulty of
determining the coefficients k1 and k2 in Esq. (2.22) and
(2.23). Therefore the characteristics are commonly plotted
by direct experiment, i.e., in testing a pump.
Fig (2.15)
2.11. Pump Efficiency

The energy losses in a pump taken into account in
rating the overall efficiency  are:
1. Hydraulic losses, examined in the previous section and
determined by hydraulic efficiency [Eq.(2.21)]:
H pump H tz   h pump
h  
H tz H tz
26
Chapter 2
2. Volumetric losses, due to leakage through clearance

spaces between impeller and diffuser. The impeller drives
the fluid from the suction pipe to discharge pipe, but
because of the pressure drop it produces some of the
fluid leaks back (Fig.2.16)
Fig (2.16) Leakage in pump impeller

The actual discharge of a pump at outlet is Q, and then
the discharge through the impeller is equal to,
Where q = internal leakage

Volumetric energy losses are evaluated by so called
volumetric efficiency
3. Mechanical losses, which include energy degradation due

to friction in packing and bearings as well as surface
friction of the fluid on the impeller. Denoting loss of
power due to friction by HPm and total shaft horsepower
by HP, the mechanical efficiency of a pump is:
The numerator of this expression represents the so called

hydraulic horsepower and can be expressed by the formula:
Now let us write the expression of the overall efficiency

of a pump as a ratio of the water horsepower to the shaft
horsepower:
27
Chapter 2
And multiply the numerator of this expression by HPh and the

denominator by the same quantity, using Eq. (2.28):
After re-arranging:
I.e the overall efficiency of a pump is equal to product of

its hydraulic, volumetric, and mechanical efficiencies.
2.12. Similarity Formulas

Let us investigate similar operating conditions of
homologous centrifugal pump. Hydrodynamic similarity is
provided by geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity.
As applied to centrifugal pumps, kinematic similarity means
similarity of the velocity triangles constructed for any
corresponding points of the impeller. Dynamic similarity is
insured by equality of the Reynolds' numbers of the flows
through the pumps in question.
When operating conditions of centrifugal pumps are similar
a proportionality between heads generated and lost, and
between actual delivery and leakage, is observed. It can
therefore be assumed that homologous pumps have the same
hydraulic and volumetric efficiencies. The mechanical
efficiencies of homologous pumps will generally vary, but
the total efficiency can nonetheless be assumed equal
without much error.
Let us consider similar operating conditions of two
homologous centrifugal pumps. The values referring to the
first pump are denoted by the additional subscript I and to
the second, by the subscript II, fig (2.17).
Fig (2.17) Similarity of centrifugal pump
28
Chapter 2
Taking into account that the peripheral velocities of the

impellers are proportional to the number of rpm times the
respective impeller diameter D, the condition for kinematic
similarity at the impeller exit can be written as follows:
(ω α n; U = ωr; so, U α nD)

From Eq. (2.10),
And from geometric similarity

D I  b 2I
D II b 2II
We can write from Eq. (2.30)
This means that the rate of discharge of homologous pumps

under similar operating condition conditions is proportional
to the rpm and cube of diameter.
From Eq. (2.8), the theoretical heads for an infinite number
of vanes are proportional to the product of the peripheral
and tangential velocities, while the vane-number coefficient
 is the same for homologous impeller. Consequently,
Taking into account (2.30),
The actual head generated by the pump is,

H pump   h H tz  H
But, as (ηh)I=(ηh)II instead of Eq. (2.32) we can write,
I.e., the actual heads developed by the homologous pumps

under similar operating conditions are proportional to the
29
Chapter 2
square of the product of the rpm times the impeller

diameter.
From the expression of the water horsepower of the pump, Eq.
(2.2), and develop equations (2.31) and (2.32‟), we can
write the relationship between the power generated by
homologous pumps under similar operation conditions:
If we wish to consider similar operating conditions of the

same pump at different rotational speed n1 and n2, the Eqs
(2.31), (2.32‟), and (2.33) become simpler, as D and  are
the same all through and take the form,
Subscripts 1 and 2 are denoting the different rpm values.

Esq. (2.34) and (2.35) are used to compute pump
characteristics for different relative speeds. If the
relationship between H and Q at n1 = constant is given, a
similar curve for n2 = constant be obtained by computing the
abscissas of the points of the former curve (the rate of
discharge) proportionally to the rpm ratio, and the
ordinates (the head), proportionally to square of that ratio
(Fig 2.18)
Fig (2.18) Pump characteristics for different relative

speeds
30
Chapter 2
Thus it is possible to calculate and plot the

characteristics of a pump for any desired rotative speed and
to draw a series of characteristic curves for the pump at
different values of n, fig (2.18).
The points A1, A2, A3, A4, on these curves joined by
coordinate relationship given in (2.34) and (2.35) represent
similar operating conditions. The other rows of points (B1,
B2, B3, B4), (C1, C2, C3, C4)...Etc, give a second, third,
etc, rows of similar operating conditions.
It is easy to develop the equations of the curves joining
the points of similar operating conditions. According to
Esq. (2.34) and (2.35) for any row of points we can write,
H 1  H 2  H 3 =Const
2 2 2 1
Q1 Q2 Q3
Hence, for a row of similar operation conditions we have,

H = Const1 Q2
For another row,
H = Const2 Q2
Consequently, the points representing similar operating
conditions in an H-Q coordinate system are located on
parabola of second power through the point of origin shown
in Fig (2.18).
2.13. Specific Speed and its relation to impeller

geometry
There is a multitude of pump designs that are
available for any given task. Pump designers have needed a
way to compare the efficiency of their designs across a
large range of pump model and types. Pump users also would
like to know what efficiency can be expected from a
particular pump design. For that purpose pump have been
tested and compared using a number or criteria called the
specific speed (NS) which helps to do these comparisons. The
efficiency of pumps with the same specific speed can be
compared providing the user or the designer a starting point
for comparison or as a benchmark for improving the design
and increase the efficiency.
2.13.1. Definition
Specific speed is defined as the speed of an
imaginary pump geometrically similar in every respect to the
actual pump and capable of delivering unit quantity against
a unit head (gpm and ft in US (English) units or m3/s and m
31
Chapter 2
in SI units). Mathematically, the specific speed for a pump

is given by,
Specific speed has dimensions of L3/4/T3/2. The specific speed

of all pumps, similar in shape, is the same regardless of
size.
Specific speed of a pump can be expressed in the non-
dimensional form as,
Where,
Ns* = the specific speed in non-dimensional form
n = impeller speed (rpm)
Q = the discharge rate m3/s or gpm
H = the head in m or ft
g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft /s2)
Pumps are traditionally divided into 3 types, radial flow,

mixed flow and axial flow. There is a continuous change from
the radial flow impeller, which develops pressure
principally from the action of centrifugal force, to the
axial flow impeller, which develops most of its head by the
propelling or lifting action of the vanes on the liquid.
2.13.2. Specific Speed basics

The specific speed is largely related to the
impeller discharge angle, relative to the inlet. Pumps in
which the discharge of the impeller is directly radial to
the suction; that is, where the flow transitions “rapidly”
from one plane to the other, have a low specific speed and
are called “radial flow impellers.” The N will be in the
neighborhood of from 500 to 1700 (in US units). These pumps
will usually exhibit a “low flow to head” ratio. At the
“other end of the scale,” the fluid will be discharged from
the impeller along the same axis as it enters. These
impellers (or propellers) have high specific speeds,
generally above 9000 (in US units), and are referred to as
axial flow impellers (or propellers) and have a “high flow
to head ratio.”
Between these two extremes fall:
32
Chapter 2
 Mixed Flow impellers, with an NS range of from around

4000 to 9000 (in US units) begin to transition away from
the suction axis, but discharge between the axial and
radial angles, and generally exhibit a high flow to
moderate head ratio.
 Francis Vaned Impellers, between mixed and radial flow,
with NS values from around 1700 to 4000. Francis vaned
impellers are frequently discussed in the industry, and
are simply impellers which have vanes curvature such that
the transition from the inlet axis to radial axis is
completed more gradually (sometimes is considered as high
speed radial flow).
The specific speed determines the general shape or class of
the impeller. As the specific speed increases, the ratio of
the impeller outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet or eye
diameter, D1, decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true
axial flow impeller.
Radial flow impellers develop head principally through
centrifugal force. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop
head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force.
A higher specific speed indicates a pump design with head
generation more by axial forces and less by centrifugal
forces. An axial flow or propeller pump with high specific
speed generates it's head exclusively through axial forces.
Radial impellers are generally low flow high head designs

whereas axial flow impellers are high flow low head designs.
2.13.3. Specific Speed (Ns)derivation

The similarity formula obtained in the previous
section can be used to develop a useful practical factor for
calculating and designing centrifugal pumps which is
commonly known as specific speed.
From Eq. (2.31)
Substituting into Eq. (2.32) yields
Rearranging and raising to the power of ¾ we obtain
33
Chapter 2
This expression is valid no only two homologous pumps I and

II but for any number of homologous pumps operating under
similar conditions.
Suppose that among these homologous pumps we have a standard
pump which delivers a capacity of one GPM at a head of one
foot, so equation 2.37 becomes,
Where:
Ns is the specific speed
n is rpm
Q is the pump delivery
H is the pump head
The physical meaning of the quantity Ns is the rpm of a
standard pump homologous with a given pump and generating
under similar operating conditions, a head Hs = 1 ft (in US
units)or 1 m (in SI units)at a rate of discharge of Qs = 1
gpm (in US units) or 1 m3/sec (in SI units).
The hydraulic and volumetric efficiencies of the two pump
are the naturally same.
Centrifugal pumps may be classified according to the
specific speed (in SI units) as follows:
1. Radial flow (low speed) Ns ~<= 20 D2/D1 = 2.2-3.5
2. Radial flow (normal speed) Ns ~> 20-40 D2/D1 = 2.2-1.8
3. Radial flow (high speed) Ns ~> 40-70 D2/D1 = 1.8-1.3
4. Mixed flow Ns ~> 70-160 D2/D1 = 1.3-1.1
5. Axial flow, or propeller Ns ~> 160 D2/D1 = 1
The impeller shapes corresponding to these five types are
presented schematically in fig (2.19)
Fig (2.19)
34
Chapter 2
The specific speed in U.S units is,
Where:
n in rpm
Q in gpm
H in ft
Centrifugal pumps may be classified according to the
specific speed (in US units) as follows:
1. Radial flow impeller (low speed): Ns ~<= 500-1700
2. Francis flow impeller (Radial high speed):
Ns ~> 1700-4000
3. Mixed flow impeller: Ns ~> 4000-8000
4. Axial flow impeller, or propeller: Ns ~> 8000
Specific speed identifies the approximate acceptable ratio
of the impeller eye diameter (D1) to the impeller maximum
diameter (D2) in designing a good impeller.
Ns: 500 to 4000; D1/D2 < 0.5 Radial flow pump
Ns: 4000 to 8000; D1/D2 > 0.5 Mixed flow pump
Ns: 8000 to 12000; D1/D2 = 1 Axial flow pump
These figures for Ns and D1/D2 ratio are not restrictive,
rather, there is a big amount of overlap in the figures as
pump designers push the envelope of operating range of the
different types of pumps.
Then, the impeller shapes corresponding to these five types
are presented schematically in fig (2.19a)
Fig (2.19a)
35
Chapter 2
The impeller shapes corresponding to the types are presented

schematically in fig (2.19b) for both SI and Us Units
Fig (2.19b)
Example:
It is required to have a pump has a capacity of 1500 US
gal/min (0.0944 m3/s) at 100 ft (30.5 m) of head and is
rotating at 1760 rev/min, what type of impeller has to be
used?
Solution
In US (English) units (gpm, and ft)
Ns = 1760 x (1500)0.5 / 1000.75 = 2156 radial flow, fig
(2.20)
In SI (Metric) units (m3/s and m),
Ns = 1760 x (0.0944)0.5 / 30.50.75 = 42 radial flow, (fig
(2.19)
Note
Dividing the US units by 51.64 will yield the SI equivalent
specific speed.
Ns (SI units) = 5156/51.64 = 41.7 =~ 42
Many pump types have been tested and their efficiency
measured and plotted in Fig (2.20).
Notice that larger pumps are inherently more efficient.
Efficiency drops rapidly at specific speeds of 1000 or less.
Example:
A pump has a capacity of 500 US gal/min at 97 ft of head and
is rotating at 1750 rev/min, calculate:
a. Specific speed. b. Define type of impeller
c. Expected efficiency
Solution
36
Chapter 2
a. Ns = 1750 * 5000.5 / 970.75 = 1266

b. From fig (2.19) it is radial flow impeller pump
c. From fig (2.20 and 2.20') the expected efficiency is ~75-
78%
Fig (2.20)
Fig (2.20')
The specific speed determines the general shape or class of
the impeller as depicted in Fig. (2.21). As the specific
speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter,
D2, to the inlet or eye diameter, D1, decreases. This ratio
becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller.
37
Chapter 2
High Ns Low Ns
Fig (2.21)
Under certain conditions the specific speed Ns characterizes
the ability of a pump to develop head and ensure a certain
delivery.
The higher specific speed the less head (for a given Q and
n) and the greater the capacity (for a given H and n).
Specific speed depends on impeller design. Pumps with low
specific speed have impellers with small relative width
b2/D2 but a high value of D1/D2 i.e. long vanes, which is
necessary to obtain a higher head. Flow through such an
impeller is in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
With Ns increasing the ratio D2/D1 (as well as D2/D0)
decreases, i.e. the vanes are shorter and the relative width
of the impeller b2/D2 is greater. Furthermore, the flow
through the impeller departs from the plane of rotation and
becomes increasingly three dimensional.
In the limit, at maximum value of Ns, the flow is along the
axis of rotation and the impeller is of the axial flow type.
2.14. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and

Cavitations
The Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH as the total
suction head in feet absolute, determined at the suction
nozzle and corrected to datum, less the vapor pressure of
the liquid in feet absolute. Simply stated, it is an
analysis of energy conditions on the suction side of a pump
to determine if the liquid will vaporize at the lowest
pressure point in the pump.
The pressure which a liquid exerts on its surroundings is
dependent upon its temperature. This pressure, called vapor
pressure, is a unique characteristic of every fluid and
increases with increasing temperature. When the vapor
38
Chapter 2
pressure within the fluid reaches the pressure of the

surrounding medium, the fluid begins to vaporize or boil.
The temperature at which this vaporization occurs will
decrease the pressure of the surrounding medium decreases.
A liquid increases greatly in volume when it vaporizes. One
cubic foot of water at room temperature becomes 1700 cu. ft.
of vapor at the same temperature.
It is obvious from the above that if we are to pump a fluid
effectively, we must keep it in liquid form. NPSH is simply
a measure of the amount of suction head present to prevent
this excess vaporization at the lowest pressure point in the
pump.
NPSH required is a function of the pump design. As the
liquid passes from the pump suction to the eye of the
impeller, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases.
There are also pressure losses due to shock and turbulence
as the liquid strikes the impeller.
The centrifugal force of the impeller vanes further
increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of the
liquid. The NPSH required is the positive head in feet
absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these
pressure drops in the pump and maintain enough of the liquid
above its vapor pressure to limit the head loss, due to the
blockage of the cavitation vapor bubble, to 3 percent. The
3% head drop criteria for NPSH required is used worldwide
and is based on the ease of determining the exact head drop
off point. Most standard low suction energy pumps can
operate with little or no margin above the NPSH required,
without seriously affecting the service life of the pump.
The NPSH required varies with speed and capacity within any
particular pump. Pump manufacturer‟s curves normally provide
this information.
NPSH Available is a function of the system in which the pump
operates. It is the excess pressure of the liquid in feet
absolute over its vapor pressure as it arrives at the pump
suction. Fig (2.22) shows four typical suction systems with
the NPSH Available formulas applicable to each.
It is important to correct for the specific gravity of the
liquid and to convert all terms to units of “feet absolute”
in using the formulas.
39
Chapter 2
Fig (2.22)
PB = Barometric pressure, in feet absolute.
VP = Vapor pressure of the liquid at maximum pumping
temperature, in feet absolute.
p = Pressure on surface of liquid in closed suction tank,
in feet absolute.
H = Static suction lift in feet (positive or negative).
Hf = Friction loss in feet in suction pipe at required
capacity
Cavitation is a term used to describe the phenomenon, which
occurs in a pump when there is insufficient NPSH Available.
The pressure of the liquid is reduced to a value equal to or
below its vapor pressure and small vapor bubbles or pockets
begin to form. As these vapor bubbles move along the
impeller vanes to a higher pressure area, they rapidly
collapse.
The collapse or “implosion” is so rapid that it may be heard
as a rumbling noise, as if you were pumping gravel. In high
suction energy pumps, the collapses are generally high
enough to cause minute pockets of fatigue failure on the
impeller vane surfaces. This action may be progressive, and
under severe (very high suction energy) conditions can cause
serious pitting damage to the impeller.
The accompanying noise is the easiest way to recognize
cavitation.
Besides possible impeller damage, excessive cavitation
results in reduced capacity due to the vapor present in the
pump. Also, the head may be reduced and/or be unstable and
40
Chapter 2
the power consumption may be erratic. Vibration and

mechanical damage such as bearing failure can also occur as
a result of operating in excessive cavitation, with high and
very high suction energy pumps.
The way to prevent the undesirable effects of cavitation in
standard low suction energy pumps is to insure that the NPSH
Available in the system is greater than the NPSH required
(NPSHR)by the pump. High suction energy pumps require an
additional NPSH margin, above the NPSH Required. Hydraulic
Institute Standard (ANSI/HI 9.6.1) suggests NPSH margin
ratios of from 1.2 to 2.5 times the NPSH required, for high
and very high suction energy pumps, when operating in the
allowable operating range.
2.15. NPSH Specific Speed

In designing a pumping system, it is essential to
provide adequate NPSH available for proper pump operation.
Insufficient NPSH available may seriously restrict pump
selection, or even force an expensive system redesign. On
the other hand, providing excessive NPSH available may
needlessly increase system cost.
Suction specific speed may provide help in this situation.
Suction specific speed (Nss) is defined as:
Where:
n = Pump speed RPM
gpm = Pump flow at best efficiency point at impeller inlet
NPSHR = Pump NPSH required at best efficiency point.
Experience has shown that 9000 is a reasonable value of
suction specific speed.
Pumps with a minimum suction specific speed of 9000 are
readily available, and are not normally subject to severe
operating restrictions.
Example:
Pump flows 2,000 gpm; head 600 ft at 3550 rpm. What NPSH
will be required?
9000= 3550 x (2000)0.5 / NPSHR3/4
3/4
NPSHR = 17.7
NPSHR = 46 ft
A related problem is in selecting a new pump, especially at
higher flow, for an existing system. Suction specific speed
41
Chapter 2
will highlight applications where NPSHA may restrict pump

selection.
Example:
Existing system: Flow 2000 GPM; head 600 ft.: NPSHA 30 ft.
What is the maximum speed at which a pump can be run without
exceeding NPSH available?
9000= n x (2000)0.5 / 303/4
n = 2580 rpm
Running a pump at this speed would require a gear and at
this speed, the pump might not develop the required head. At
a minimum, existing NPSHA is constraining pump selection.
2.16. System curve

For a specified impeller diameter and speed, a
centrifugal pump has a fixed and predictable performance
curve. The point where the pump operates on its curve is
dependent upon the characteristics of the system in which it
is operating, commonly called the System Head Curve...or,
the relationship between flow and hydraulic losses* in a
system. This representation is in a graphic form and, since
friction losses vary as a square of the flow rate, the
system curve is parabolic in shape.
By plotting the system head curve and pump curve together,
it can be determined:
1. Where the pump will operate on its curve.
2. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the
pump performance curve changes.
 No static head – All friction
As the levels in the suction and discharge are the same, Fig
(2.23), there is no static head and, therefore, the system
curve starts at zero flow and zero head and its shape is
determined solely from pipeline losses. The point of
operation is at the intersection of the system head curve
and the pump curve. The flow rate may be reduced by
throttling valve.
42
Chapter 2
Fig (2.23) No Static Head - All Friction

 Positive static head
The parabolic shape of the system curve is again determined
by the friction losses through the system. But in this case
there is a positive static head involved. This static head
does not affect the shape of the system curve or its
“steepness”, but it does dictate the head of the system
curve at zero flow rate.
The operating point is at the intersection of the system
curve and pump curve. Again, the flow rate can be reduced by
throttling the discharge valve, Fig (2.24).
Fig (2.24) Positive Suction Head
43
Chapter 2
2.17. Electric submersible pumps

2.17.1. Pump Stages
Electric submersible pumps (ESP) are multi-staged
centrifugal pumps. Each stage consists of a rotating
impeller and stationary diffuser.
The pressure energy change is accomplished as the liquid
being pumped around the impeller, and as impeller rotates,
the rotating motion of the impeller imparts a rotating
motion to the liquid. Actually, there are two components to
the motion imparted to the liquid by the impeller. One
motion is in a radial direction outward from the center of
the impeller. The motion is caused by centrifugal force. The
other motion moves in direction tangential to outside
diameter of the impeller. The resultant of these two
components is the actual direction of flow (as mentioned
earlier in this chapter).
So, the impeller‟s function is to transfer energy by

rotation to the liquid passing through it, thus raising the
kinetic energy of the fluid.
The diffuser‟s function is to change the high velocity
energy into relatively low velocity energy, while inversing
the pressure energy.
The diffuser section then converts the fluid kinetic energy
to potential energy, increasing the fluids potential energy
as it passes through the stage.
Fig (2.25) Impeller
Upthrust washer
Downthrust washer
Eye washer
Fig (2.26) Pump Stage
44
Chapter 2
Fig (2.27) Fluid path through the vanes
2.17.2. Types of Impellers

As previously mentioned, there are mainly three
types of impellers, the ones using in ESP are, the radial
flow impeller and the mixed flow impeller.
The difference between these two types of designs is
described by the pump impeller vane angles and the size and
shape of the internal flow passages.
 Radial flow design
A radial flow impeller has, as previously mentioned,
specific speed of 500-4000 (US units) vane angels at close
to 45 degree, and therefore, is usually found in pumps
designed for lower flow rates and high head.
Fig (2.28) Radial flow impeller

 Mixed flow design
A mixed flow impeller has, as previously mentioned, specific
speed of 4000-8000 (US units) vane angels at close to 45
degree, and therefore, is usually found in pumps designed
for higher flow rates.
45
Chapter 2
Fig (2.29) Mixed flow impeller

For more details see item 2.13 of Specific Speed and its
relation to impeller geometry
2.17.3. Impeller constructions
ESP pumps come mainly in two basic varieties:
2.17.3.1. Floater Construction.

Each impeller is free to move up and down the
shaft, so it is said to "float" on the shaft.
Impeller is in full
down position
There is a small amount of

free play in the coupling such
that the pump shaft can fall
down to where the impellers
ride directly on the lower
diffusers or on the downthrust
washers if available.
Fig (2.30) Radial flow impeller

Why use a floater pump?
Let's look at a floating impeller in detail.
Since a floating impeller is free to move up and down the
shaft, the only thing to stop it is either the upper or
lower diffuser. "Thrust washers" are provided at all mating
surfaces between the impeller and diffuser to absorb any
thrust generated.
46
Chapter 2
Thrust
Washers
Fig (2.31) Washers in impeller

The green area shows, fig (2.32), the "up thrust" washer
between the impeller and upper diffuser.
Upthrust is
absorbed
here
Force
Fig (2.32) up thrust force
The green area shows the "down thrust" washers between the
impeller and lower diffuser, Fig (2.33).
Force
Downthrust
is absorbed
here
Fig (2.33) down thrust force

We lose efficiency in the down thrust position because of
the fluid's ability to re-circulate from the high pressure
to low pressure eye area. In addition to loss in efficiency,
this can promote erosion in the diffuser in abrasive fluids
fig (2.34).
47
Chapter 2
Fig (2.34) Fluid leakage

"Floater" Pump is normally used because:
 Each stage handles its down thrust; a very large number of
stages can be put in a pump without having to worry about
protector bearing capacity.
 Very good with mild abrasives since they prevent material
from getting into the radial bearing area.
 Easier field assembly - no shimming required.
Impeller
Thrust
Pump
Is there
any Thrust
Protector
seen here?
Motor
Fig (2.35) Floater Pump
48
Chapter 2
2.17.3.2. Compression Construction.

In a compression pump, all the impellers are
rigidly fixed to the shaft so that if an impeller wants to
move up or down, it will take the shaft with it.
The impeller is normally sitting down on its lower diffuser
during assembly due to gravity. Because of this, the pump
shaft is "raised" with shims in the coupling so that the
impeller is not allowed to touch the diffuser after final
assembly. This allows all thrust developed in the pump
shaft to be transferred to the protector shaft directly.
Every impeller is fixed to the shaft rigidly so that it
cannot move without the shaft moving. All the impellers are
"compressed" together to make one rigid body.
Fig (2.36) Pump shimming Ser.675 or larger
Fig (2.37) Pump shimming Ser.562 or smaller
49
Chapter 2
Note:
Consult Field Service Manual to determine the appropriate
shimming recommended for every type of pump and stage.
Why Use "Compression" Pumps?
 Some stages generate too much thrust to be handled by a
thrust washer in the stage.
 Some fluids (e.g., liquid propane) do not have enough
lubricity to properly lubricate a thrust washer.
 If abrasives or corrosives are present, it may be
beneficial to handle the thrust in an area lubricated by
motor oil rather than well fluid.
 Occasionally in very gassy wells, the flow volume changes
so drastically within the pump that parts of a floater
pump could be in very severe thrust while others are not
so a compression pump could be one alternative.
 Since all the thrust is handled in the protector, as long
as the protector has a great enough capacity, the pump
operating range can be extended over a much wider area
without any increased wear or reduced life.
All Thrust
Carried
here
Protector
Thrust
Bearing
Motor
Thrust
Bearing
Fig (2.38) Compression impellers
2.18. Recommended Operating Range (ROR)

What exactly is the ROR and why is it important?
ROR is the discharge range which the pump must be worked
within it.
50
Chapter 2
Most people look at pump operating range as defining

"thrust" limits where the stage goes into down thrust on the
left side of the range and it goes into up thrust on the
right side of the range. If the stage is within the range,
it is thought to be balanced with no net thrust in either
direction.
Graphically it would look like this:
This is almost always wrong.
51
Chapter 2
Before we worry too much about how much thrust we have, we

need to know what impeller thrust is?
2.18.1. Impeller Thrust

Under normal operating conditions, fluid re-
circulates on top and underneath the impeller.
Fig (2.39) Operation @ BEP

Accordingly, the fluid creates pressure on the upper and
lower impeller shrouds.
Fig (2.40) Pressure acts on the upper and lower shrouds.
52
Chapter 2
Since the cross sectional area on the upper shroud is

larger, the net force of the pressure is down.
Fig (2.41) Pressure acts on the upper > lower shrouds.

This causes the impeller to be moved down. This is a
positive downward force termed „Downthrust‟
Fig (2.42) impeller moved down

At some point where the volume of fluid going up into the
pump, i.e. increase the momentum due to increase the fluid
velocity (momentum = mv kg.m/s), will lift the impeller up,
overcoming the Downthrust pressure. This causes the
impeller to be moved up. The downward force is now reversed
(negative); it is termed ‘Upthrust’
53
Chapter 2
Fig (2.43) impeller moved up due to upthrust

This creates a larger cross sectional area on the bottom
shroud which increases the pressure underneath, this causes
the impeller to be held up increases the ‘Upthrust’.
In normal operation, the pump is designed to operate in

slight to moderate Downthrust.
Fig (2.44) the pump, under normal operating condition

Based on the previous explanation, it is concluded that,
there are three forces acting on the impeller. The sum of
these three forces is the total thrust, they are:
 Gravity acting on the buoyed mass of the impeller, its
direction is always downward.
 The net force resulting from the differential pressure in
the stage its direction is either downward or zero (zero
occurs at wide open flow - no pressure)
 The force from the momentum of the fluid coming into the
stage its direction is either upward or zero (zero occurs
at shut-in or no flow condition)
Gravity: An Impeller has a mass which is acted on by
gravity which pulls it downward toward the Earth.
54
Chapter 2
F
F = mg
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity
Fig (2.45)
Pressure: The pressure times the area equals force. There
are both a downward force and an upward force.
The downward force is always larger except when the pump
generates no pressure (wide open flow).
High Pressure
An impeller adds pressure to the fluid
so that the pressure on the top side is
greater than the pressure on the
bottom
side.
Low Pressure
Fig (2.46)
Momentum: The fluid entering the bottom of the impeller is
forced to change direction. This change in momentum exerts
an upward force on the impeller except when there is no flow
(shut-in).
Direction of Fluid Flow

Fig (2.47)
55
Chapter 2
Pressure: The downward arrows represent the larger force

due to difference in surface areas.
The net difference between the two

forces is the down thrust due to
+ = pressure.
Fig (2.48)
In general, larger diameter impellers will have a higher
down thrust than smaller impellers for the same flow rate.
Why?
Because they have a larger surface area on which the
pressure difference can operate. They also have more mass.
Is it possible to affect the down thrust caused by pressure
in any way?
What if we could reduce the pressure on top of the impeller?

If we could lower the pressure on the top of the impeller,
this would reduce the thrust.
By using a "balance ring" between the impeller and diffuser
and drilling "balance holes" in the upper impeller skirt,
we can re-circulate lower pressure fluid over the majority
of the upper surface.
Low Pressure Fluid
Fig (2.49)
56
Chapter 2
Conclusion: Under normal operating conditions, fluid

recirculation on the top and bottom side of the impeller
cause forces to be applied on the upper and lower impeller
shrouds. When the recirculation forces are greater on the
upper shroud, the impeller is moved down which is termed
downthrust. When the recirculation forces are greater on the
lower shroud, the impeller is moved up which is termed
upthrust. The magnitude recirculation forces depends upon
the flow rate going thru the impeller vs. its head -
capacity, i.e., its operating range. Downthrust increases as
the flow through the stage decreases (or on the left-hand
side of the pump curve). Upthrust increases as the flow
through the stage increases (or on the right-hand side of
the pump curve).
Fig (2.50) Recommended Operating Range

In ROR, most ES pumps are designed to operate in mild to
moderate downthrust.
2.18.2. Impeller Thrust Washers

Washers are fitted to the impeller to prevent wear;
there are three types of washers, upthrust, Downthrust, and
eye washers.
Fig (2.51)
57
Chapter 2
2.18.3. Shaft thrust

We said that the impellers each handle their own
thrust so why do we have to worry about shaft thrust?
The total thrust is made up of two components:
1. The impeller thrust, already discussed in the previous
section, and
2. The shaft thrust.
Shaft Thrust: Compression Pump
In the compression pump, we could not separate the shaft
thrust from the impeller thrust since they were coupled
together.
Shaft Thrust: Floater Pump
In a floater, since the impeller can move on the shaft it
makes sense that the shaft can also move within the
impeller.
Forces acting on shaft:
 Pressure acting on top of the shaft
 Pump shaft mass
58
Chapter 2
So will the pump discharge pressure times the shaft cross

sectional area give us the shaft thrust?
Force = pressure * area
Note: The force, due to the weight of the shaft, is not
usually significant so we will ignore it for now.
Force = Pressure * Area, or
Thrust = Discharge Pressure x Shaft Cross Section Area
Shaft Thrust: Floater Pump
Pump Shaft
Protector Thrust Protector Shaft

Runner
Motor Shaft
A protector serves to equalize the pressure between the

well fluid and the inside of the motor. Therefore the
motor pressure should be roughly equal to the pump intake
pressure.
This is not exactly true since the motor pressure will be
slightly higher due to the weight of a few feet of motor
oil but this increase will be insignificant compared to the
large pressure differential created by the pump.
It can be shown that all pressures cancel out except for

the pressure on the top of the shaft. It can also be shown
that, regardless of the various diameters, couplings, etc.
that the net shaft force can be calculated from the
following:
59
Chapter 2
Force = (Pd-Pi) *As

From this equation, it can be seen that the larger the
shaft diameter, the greater the force for a given pressure
difference.
For two pumps doing the same work, the one with the larger
shaft diameter will generate more shaft thrust.
Reviewing our example of the GN2100 which produced 1850
feet of head, this 1850 feet is a true pump differential so
we can plug it directly into the equation. Or can we?
Let: Specific Gravity = 1.0, and convert to psi:
1850 x1.0
Pressure =  800 psi [Pd-Pi]
2.31
Force = (Pd-Pi) *As = 800 psi * As
Where do we get the area?
**From the catalog.
For a GN2100, the shaft area is 0.6013 sq. in.
Force = 800 psi *0.6013 = 481 lbs
Remember
 We neglected the weight of the shaft, and this is usually
safe to do unless you are very close to fully loading a
protector bearing.
 Larger diameter pumps have larger diameter shafts so, for
the same amount of work, they have higher shaft thrust.
 On the other hand, larger diameter pumps can and will
generally use larger diameter protectors, and larger
protectors can handle much higher thrust loads.
 But we must consider either the shaft thrust of a floater
or the total thrust of a compression pump when selecting
a protector, as we will see later.
 Operating outside the range requires a larger pump and
motor to be purchased as well as more electricity to
operate it.
 One very real concern with establishing operating ranges
is the API RPS2 on pump testing:
 +/- 5% head and flow
 Less than +8% on HP within the operating range
 +/- 10% on efficiency at BEP.
60
Chapter 2
2.19. Pump configurations

ESP pumps come in several different configurations.
Most pumps (especially the smaller diameter ones) come as
"center tandems" (or CT type).
Other types are "upper tandems" (UT), "lower tandems" (LT)
and "single" (S) pumps, fig (2.52).
The actual pump stages are no different regardless of what
"type" it is. The difference in the pumps depends on what
it looks like on the ends.
A "single" pump has an

An "upper tandem" pump
intake and discharge
has a discharge head
head intrinsic to the
but no intake section.
pump itself. No other
It can be placed on
pumps can be attached to
it. top of
another pump or an
intake section.
A "center tandem" pump

has no intake or is A "lower tandem" pump
charge inherent and must has an integral intake
but no discharge head.
have these provided in
some fashion either with It can go below another
another pump or an pump or else be
intake section and/or completed with a bolt-on
bolt-on head. discharge head.
Fig (2.52)
61
Chapter 2
 Single Pump
A "single" pump has an intake and discharge
head intrinsic to the pump itself. No other pumps can be
attached to it, fig (2.53).
Discharge Head
Pump
Intake
Fig (2.53)
 Upper tandem
The upper tandem has either another pump below it or else
an intake section to complete the assembly, fig (2.54).
Fig (2.54)
 Lower Tandem
The lower tandem has either another pump above it or else
a bolt-on discharge to complete the assembly.
Lower tandems are especially common in the larger
diameter, higher flow rate pumps.
62
Chapter 2
This helps to reduce entrance losses associated with

higher flow rates and also, in some cases, allows a gas
separator to be built directly into the intake where a
standard add-on separator could not handle the fluid
throughout, fig (2.55).
Fig (2.55)
 Center Tandem
Center tandem pumps offer the most flexibility. If the
required number of stages for the well cannot fit into a
single section, more sections can be added until the
stage requirement is met.
Since a CT pump can be either a single (with a bolt-on
discharge and intake added) or a part of a larger pump,
inventory requirements are greatly reduced, fig (2.56).
Fig (2.56)
63
Chapter 2
2.20. Fluid Viscosity Effect on Centrifugal Pumps

2.20.1. Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is that property which
tends to resist a shearing force. It can be thought of as
the internal friction resulting when one layer of fluid is
made to move in relation to another layer.
Consider the model shown in fig (2.57), which was used by
Newton in first defining viscosity. It shows two parallel
planes of fluid of area A separated by a distance dx and
moving in the same direction at different velocities V1 and
V2.
Fig (2.57)
The velocity distribution will be linear over the distance
dx, and experiments show that the velocity gradient, dv/dx ,
is directly proportional to the force per unit area, F/A .
F = μ x dv/dx
Where:
μ is constant for a given liquid and is called its
viscosity.
The velocity gradient, dv/dx , describes the shearing
experienced
by the intermediate layers as they move with respect to each
other.
Therefore, it can be called the "rate of shear", S. Also,
the force per unit area, F/A , can be simplified and called
the "shear force" or "shear stress," . With these
simplified terms, viscosity can be defined as follows:
 = μ x S
Viscosity = μ = /S = shear stress / rate of shear
Newton made the assumption that all materials have, at a
given temperature, a viscosity that is independent of the
rate of shear. In other words, a force twice as large would
be required to move a liquid twice as fast. Fluids which
behave this way are called Newtonian fluids. There are, of
course, fluids which do not behave this way, in other words
64
Chapter 2
their viscosity is dependent on the rate of shear. These are

known as Non-Newtonian fluids.
There are two related measures of fluid viscosity:
1. Dynamic (or absolute) viscosity.
The absolute viscosity of a liquid is defined as the
resistance to flow and shear under the forces of internal
friction as described above. This internal friction is
caused by the resistance of the liquid‟s molecules moving
relative to each other. The larger the molecules, the higher
the internal resistance and consequently, the higher the
viscosity. The commonly units of absolute viscosity is
described below.
In the SI (international system)system the dynamic viscosity
units are N.s/m2 (Newton.Second/meter2), Pa.s (Pascal.sec)
or kg/m.s where,
• 1 Pa.s = 1 N.s/m2 = 1 kg/m.s (N = kg.m/s2)
The dynamic viscosity is also often expressed in the
metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system as,
g/cm.s, dyne.s/cm2 or poise (p)
where,
1 poise (p) = dyne.s/cm2 = g/cm.s
Pa.s = kg/m.s = 1000g/100cm.s = 10 g/cm.s = 10 poise
Or, N = kg.m/s2 = 1000 g.100 cm/s2 =105 g.cm/s2 = 105 dyne
where dyne = g.cm/s2
Pa.s = N.s/m2 = 105 dyne.s/104 cm2 = 10 dyne.s/cm2 = 10
poise
Pa.s = 10 Poise, then poise = 0.1 Pa.s
For practical use the Poise is to large and it is usual
divided by 100 into the smaller unit called the
centiPoise (cp) where, 1 p = 100 cp
2. Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a liquid‟s resistance
to flow and shear under the forces of gravity.
It is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density.
Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute
viscosity of a fluid with its mass density
ν = μ / ρ
Where:
ν = kinematic viscosity
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity
65
Chapter 2
ρ = density
In the SI system the theoretical unit is m2/s or commonly
used Stoke (St) where 1 St = 10-4 m2/s or 1 m2/s = 10,000
Stoke
Since the Stoke is an unpractical large unit, it is usual
divided by 100 to give the unit called Centistokes (cs)
where
1 St = 100 cs, or 1 cs = 10-6 m2/s, m2/s = 1,000,000 cs
Seconds Saybolt Universal (SSU) is used also to measure the
kinematic viscosity. The efflux time is Seconds Saybolt
Universal (SSU) required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum
product to flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt
Universal viscometer, under carefully controlled
temperature.
1cs = 0.220 x SSU – 180/SSU
3.20.2. Types of liquid
There are two basic types of liquid that can be
differentiated on basis of their viscosities behavior they
are:
1. Newtonian
These are fluids where viscosity is constant and
independent of shear rate, and where the shear rate is
linearly proportional to shear stress. Examples are water
and oil
2. Non- Newtonian
These are liquids where the shear rate-shear stress
relationship is nonlinear. They can be divided into four
categories.
 Bingham Plastic fluids are those in which there is no
flow until a threshold shear stress is reached. Beyond
this point, viscosity decreases with increasing shear
rate. Most slurries have this property.
 Dilatant fluids are those of which viscosity increases
with increasing shear rate. Example are candy mixture,
clay slurries and quicksand.
 Pseudo-plastic fluids are similarly to Bingham plastic
fluids except there is no definite yield stress. Many
emulsions fall into this category.
 Thixotropic fluids are those which viscosity decreases
to minimum level as their shear rate increases. Their
viscosity at any particular shear rate may vary,
depending on the previous condition of the fluid.
66
Chapter 2
Examples are asphalt, point, molasses, and drilling

mud.
3.20.3. Effect of viscosity on centrifugal pumps (using

charts)
When sizing a pump for a new application or
evaluating the performance of an existing pump, it is often
necessary to account for the effect of the pumping fluid's
viscosity. We are all aware that the head-capacity curve
presented in the pump vendor catalogs are prepared using
water as pumped fluid. These curves are adequate for use
when actual fluid that we are interested in pumping has a
viscosity that less than or equal to that of water. However,
in case of crude oils this is not the case.
Heavy crude oils can have viscosities high enough to
increase the friction drag on pump's impeller significantly.
The additional horsepower required to overcome this drag
reduces the pump efficiency. There are several analytical
and empirical approaches available to estimate the magnitude
of this effect.
Before beginning, it is vital to emphasize the importance of
having an accurate viscosity number on which to base our
estimates.
The viscosity of most liquids is strongly influence by
temperature. This relationship is most often shown by
plotting two points on semi-log grid and connecting them
with straight line. The relationship is of the form:
Where:
μ = the absolute viscosity of the fluid
A and B = constants
T = Absolute temperature of the fluid
Plotting this relationship requires knowledge of two data
points and using them effectively requires some adjustment
as to the normal operating temperature that might be
expected during other off design condition such as start up.
The effect of pressure on viscosity of most fluids is small.
For example an increase of pressure of 33 bars (~480 psi)
for mineral oil is equivalent to temperature drop of 1O C.
The performance of centrifugal pumps is affected when
handling viscous liquids. A marked increase in brake
horsepower, a reduction in head, and some reduction in
capacity occur with moderate and high viscosities.
67
Chapter 2
Fig (2.58) and Fig (2.59) provide a means of determining the

performance of a conventional centrifugal pump handling a
viscous liquid when its performance on water is known. It
can also be used as an aid in selecting a pump for a given
application.
► Limitations on Use of Viscous Liquid Performance
Correction Chart
Reference is made to Fig (2.58), this chart is to be used
only within the scales shown (100-10000 gpm). Do not
extrapolate.
Fig (2.59) scale is 10-100 gpm
Use only for pumps of conventional hydraulic design, in the
normal operating range, with open or closed impellers. Do
not use for mixed flow or axial flow pumps or for pumps of
special hydraulic design for either viscous or non-uniform
liquids.
Use only on Newtonian (uniform) liquids. Gels, slurries,
paper stock and other non-uniform liquids may produce widely
varying results, depending on the particular characteristics
of the liquids.
► Symbols and Definitions Used in Determination of Pump
Performance When Handling Viscous Liquids.
These symbols and definitions are:
Qvis = Capacity when pumping Viscous liquid, gpm
Hvis = Head when pumping Viscous liquid, feet
Evis = Efficiency when pumping Viscous liquid, per cent
BHPvis = Brake Horsepower required by the pump for the
viscous liquid.
QW = Capacity when pumping water., gpm
HW = Head when pumping water, feet
= Specific Gravity
CQ = Capacity correction factor
CH = Head correction factor
CE = Efficiency correction factor
1.0 Qw = Water Capacity at BEP (Best Efficiency Point).
1.2 Qw = Water Capacity at 1.2 * 1.0 QW.
0.8 Qw = Water Capacity at 0.8 * 1.0 QW
0.6 Qw = Water Capacity at 0.6 * 1.0 QW
68
Chapter 2
Fig (2.58) Viscosity Corrections for Capacities => 100 GPM
69
Chapter 2
Fig (2.59) Viscosity Corrections for Capacities =< 100 GPM

The following equations are used for determining the viscous
performance when the water performance of the pump is known:
Qvis = CQ X Qw
70
Chapter 2
Hvis = CH x Hw
Evis = CE x Ew
CQ, CH and CE are determined from Fig (2.58) or fig (2.59)

which is based on the water performance.
► Instructions for Preliminary Selection of a Pump for a
Given Head-Capacity-Viscosity Condition
Given the desired capacity and head of the viscous liquid to
be pumped and the viscosity and specific gravity at the
pumping temperature, above figures (2.58 or 2.59) can be
used to find approximate equivalent capacity and head when
pumping water.
The following equations are used for approximating the water
performance when the desired viscous capacity and head are
given and the values of CQ and CH must be estimated from fig
(2.58) or fig (2.59) using Qvis and Hvis, as:
QW(approx.) = Qvis/CQ
HW(approx.) = Hvis/CH
Enter the chart Fig (2.58) or fig (2.59) at the bottom with
the desired viscous capacity, (Qvis) and proceed upward to
the desired viscous head (Hvis) in feet of liquid. For
multistage pumps, use head per stage. Proceed horizontally
(either left or right) to the fluid viscosity, and then go
upward to the correction curves. Divide the viscous capacity
(Qvis) by the capacity correction factor (CQ) to get the
approximate equivalent water capacity (Qw approximately).
Divide the viscous head (Hvis) by the head correction factor
(CH) from the curve marked "1.0 x Qw" to get the approximate
equivalent water head (Hw approximately). Using this new
equivalent water head capacity point, select a pump in the
usual manner.
The viscous efficiency and the viscous brake horsepower may
then be calculated.
However, the procedure has sufficient accuracy for most pump
selection purposes. Where the corrections are appreciable,
it is desirable to check the selection by the method
described below.
Example
Select a pump to deliver 750 gpm at 100 feet total head of a
liquid having a viscosity of 1000 SSU (220 ct) and a
specific gravity of 0.90 at the pumping temperature.
71
Chapter 2
Enter the chart Fig (2.xx)with 750 gpm, go up to 100 feet

head, over to 1000 SSU, and then up to the correction
factors:
CQ = 0.95
CH = 0.92 (for 1.0 Qw)
CE = 0.635
Qw = 750/0.95 = 790 gpm
Hw = 100/0.92 = 109 feet head
Select a pump for a water capacity of 790 gpm at 109 feet
head. The selection should be at or close to the maximum
efficiency point for water performance. If the pump selected
has efficiency on water of 81 per cent at 790 gpm, then the
efficiency for the viscous liquid will be as follows:
Evis = 0.635 x 81% = 51.5 per cent
The brake horsepower for pumping the viscous liquid will be:
BHPvis = 750 x 100 x 0.90/3960 x 0.515 = 33.1 hp
For performance curves of the pump selected, correct the
water performance as shown below.
► Instructions for Determining Pump Performance on a Viscous
Liquid When Performance on Water is Known
Given the complete performance characteristics of a pump
handling water, determine the performance when pumping a
liquid of a specified viscosity.
From the efficiency curve, locate the water capacity (1.0 x
Qw) at which maximum efficiency is obtained.
From this capacity, determine the capacities (0.6 x Qw),
(0.8 x Qw) and (1.2 x Qw).
Enter the chart at the bottom with the capacity at best
efficiency (1.0 x Qw), go upward to the head developed (in
one stage) (Hw) at this capacity, then horizontally (either
left or right) to the desired viscosity, and then proceed
upward to the various correction curves.
Read the values of (CE) and (CQ), and of (CH) for all four
capacities.
Multiply each head by its corresponding head correction
factor to obtain the corrected heads. Multiply each
efficiency value by (CE) to obtain the corrected efficiency
values which apply at the corresponding corrected
capacities.
Plot corrected head and corrected efficiency against
corrected capacity. Draw smooth curves through these points.
72
Chapter 2
The head at shut-off can be taken as approximately the same

as that for water.
Calculate the viscous brake horsepower (BHPvis) from the
formula given above.
Plot these points and draw a smooth curve through them which
should be similar to and approximately parallel to the brake
horsepower (BHP) curve for water.
Example
Select a pump to deliver 750 gpm at 100 feet total head of
water. Calculate the parameters if the fluid viscosity is
1000 SSU (220 ct) and a specific gravity of 0.90 at the
pumping temperature.
Enter the chart Fig (2.xx)with 750 gpm, go up to 100 feet
head, over to 1000 SSU, and then up to the correction
factors:
CQ = 0.95
CH = 0.92 (for 1.0 Qw)
CE = 0.635
Qvis = 750 x 0.95 = 712.5 gpm
Hvis = 100 x 0.92 = 92 feet head
Evis = 0.635 x 81% = 51.5 per cent
The brake horsepower for pumping the viscous liquid will be:
BHPvis = 712.5 x 92 x 0.90/3960 x 0.515 = 28.9 hp
CALCULATIONS
Qw (Qw0.6Q, Qw0.8Q, Qw1.0Q, Qw1.2Q) 450 600 750 900
HW 114 108 100 86
Ew 72.50% 80% 81% 79.5%
BHPw 16.1 18.4 20.8 22.1
Sp.Gr 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
SSU 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
VISCOSITY
Cs 220 220 220 220
CQ 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
CH 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.89
CE 0.635 0.635 0.635 0.635
Qvis 427 570 712.5 855
Hvis 109.5 101.5 92 76.5
Evis 46% 50.8% 52.5% 50.5%
BHPw 23.1 25.9 28.9 29.4
These calculations can be plotted on a performance curve as

follows:
73
Chapter 2
Fig (2.60) Performance curve

3.20.4. Effect of viscosity on centrifugal pumps (using
calculations)
It was convenient to define a term known as pseudo-capacity:
Where:
= viscosity of the fluid in cs

H = Head in ft at BEP
Q = Capacity in gpm at BEP
Pseudo-capacity is used with the following polynomial
coefficients to determine viscosity correction terms that
are very closed to those given in fig (2.xx) and fig (2.xx).
These polynomials have been checked throughout the entire
range of the figures and appear to give answers within 1% of
those found using figures.
The polynomial used is of form:
Where:
Cx is the correction factor that must be applied to the term
in question
Dxn are polynomial coefficients listed in the following
table
P is the pseudo-capacity term defined above
74
Chapter 2
Correction Polynomial Coefficients

Factor
Dx1 Dx2 Dx3 Dx4 Dx5 Dx6
Ch 1.0522 -3.5120E-02 -9.0394E-04 2.2218E-04 -1.1986E-05 1.9895E-07
CQ 0.9873 9.0190E-03 -1.6233E-03 7.7233E-05 -2.0528E-06 2.1009E-08
CH0.6 1.0103 -4.6061E-03 2.4091E-04 -1.6912E-05 3.2459E-07 -1.6611E-09
CH0.8 1.0167 -8.3641E-03 5.1288E-04 -2.9941E-05 6.1644E-07 -4.0487E-09
CH1.0 1.0045 -2.6640E-03 -6.8292E-04 4.9706E-05 -1.6522E-06 1.9172E-08
CH1.2 1.0175 -7.8654E-03 -5.6018E-04 5.4967E-05 -1.9035E-06 2.1615E-08
For example, we had looking for a pump that could deliver

100 ft of head at capacity 750 gpm, 1000 SSU (220 cs)
viscosity we would proceed as following:
Qvis = CQ X Qw
Hvis = CH x Hw
Evis = CE x Ew
Or
Qw = CQ / Qvis
Hw = CH / Hvis
Evis = CE x Ew
P = 1.95*(220)0.5*[0.04739*(100)0.25746*(750)0.5]-0.5 = 14.03386
CQ = 0.9873+0.009019*14.03386-0.0016233*14.03386^2
+0.000077233*14.03386^3-0.0000020528*14.03386^4+
0.000000021009*14.03386^5 = 0.939443 (= 0.95 from the
chart)
H1.0Q = 1.0045-0.002664*14.03386-0.00068292*14.03386^2+
0.000049706*14.03386^3-0.0000016522*14.03386^4+
0.000000019172*14.03386^5 = 0.9163 (0.92 from the
chart)
Cɳ = 1.0522-0.03512*14.03386-0.00090394*14.03386^2
+0.00022218*14.03386^3-0.000011986*14.03386^4
+0.00000019895*14.03386^5 = 0.638772 (0.635 from the
chart)
Qw = 750 / 0.939443 = 798 gpm (790 gpm based on chart)
75
Chapter 2
Hw = 100 / 0.9163 = 109 ft (109 ft based on chart)

E = 81 x 0.638772 = 51.7 % (51.5% based on chart)
BHPvis = 750 x 100 x 0.9/3960 x 0.517 = 33 hp (33.1 hp based

on chart)
Correction Factor Comparison

C CQ CH0.6 CH0.8 CH1.0 CH1.2
From Chart 0.635 0.95 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.89
From Polynomial 0.639 0.939 0.958 0.939 0.916 0.887
2.18.5. Simplified way to calculate the effect of viscosity

on centrifugal pumps when performance on water is
known
Many years ago a generalized procedure was developed
by the Hydraulic Institute (HI) for correcting centrifugal
pump performance when handling viscous fluids. Their
procedure was universally accepted by pump manufactures and
industry users. HI has recently issued a revised procedure
for predicting pump performance based on new research and
field test data. The revised procedure also corrects the
shortcomings in the earlier method and has added
mathematical formulas for use with computers.
It is widely accepted that viscous fluids affect the
performance of centrifugal pumps. Since the performance of
most centrifugal pumps is determined from water, a procedure
is needed to correct the performance curves when pumping
viscous fluids. Fig (2.61) illustrates a typical pump
performance curve based on water and how it is affected when
pumping viscous fluids. In many applications the difference
in water and viscous performance are significant.
The previous HI procedure was based on a graphical
representation that provided correction factors at four
operating points: 60, 80, 100 and 120 percent of the best
efficiency point (BEP). Using these correction factors at
the four operating points, the user was able to prepare a
corrected pump performance chart of flow versus total head
(Q-H) and flow versus efficiency (Q-ƞ), when handling
viscous fluids. The procedure had limitations but proved to
be accurate under a wide range of conditions.
The recently published HI procedure has many of the same
features as the older method. However, many improvements
were made to improve the accuracy and correct problems in
the earlier procedure. Some of the noteworthy changes made
in the latest version are presented below.
76
Chapter 2
Fig (2.61) Sample performance chart

1. HI previously had two separate graphs for determining
pump viscous effects, one for pump flow rates less than
100 gpm and another for flow rates over 100 gpm. The two
graphs gave conflicting results if the pump operated at
100 gpm. The new procedure has only one procedure
regardless of the flow rate.
2. HI now uses a new basis for determining the correction
factors CH, CQ, and Cƞ. The new method is based on a
performance factor, called Parameter B, and includes
terms for viscosity, speed, flow rate and total head.
B = Performance factor
K = 16.5 for SI units
= 26.5 for US units
Vvis = Kinematic viscosity in cs
HBEP.w = Water head per stage at BEP in m (ft)
QBEP.w = Water flow rate at BEP in m3/h (gpm)
N = Pump shaft speed in rpm
3. The latest HI procedure allows the user to determine
viscous performance from graphs or equations. With the
previous method only graphical methods were used to
calculate correction factors. Fig (2.62) and (2.63)
77
Chapter 2
illustrate the revised graphical method and gives the

flow rate correction factor (CQ), head correction factor
(CH) and efficiency correction factor (Cƞ), based on the
performance Parameter B given above.
Fig (2.62) correction factors for CQ and CH
Fig (2.63) correction factors for Cƞ

4. The following equations are used with the correction
factors to determine the corrected pump performance for
viscous fluids
78
Chapter 2
5. The previous method required the user to find the pump

BEP before calculating corrections factors at 60, 80, 100
and 120 percent of BEP. The revised procedure uses a
similar approach of finding the pump BEP but corrections
factors can be determined, with caution, at any flow
rate, not necessarily at 60, 80, 100 and 120 percent of
BEP.
The following are some factors derived from the latest
addition of the HI procedure for correcting pump
performance. They may be helpful when considering when to
correct pump water-performance curves for viscous fluids.
 The performance factor, Parameter B, is a good indicator
of how viscosity influences pump performance. Parameter B
takes into consideration fluid viscosity, speed, total head
and flow rate at BEP.
 Whenever the performance Parameter B is one or less the
fluid has no affect on the head curve, Q-H. Fig (2.62) shows
that the head and flow correction factors are less than
three percent when Parameter B equals three and about ten
percent when Parameter B equals seven.
 Viscous fluids have a more dramatic effect on pump power.
Fig (2.63) shows that the efficiency decreases by almost 12
percent when Parameter B equals three and over 30 percent
when Parameter B equals seven.
2.21. Affinity laws

The affinity laws are derived from a dimensionless
analysis of three important parameters that describe pump
performance: flow, total head and power (refer to item
2.12). The analysis is based on the reduced impeller being
geometrically similar and operated at dynamically similar
conditions or equal specific speed. If that is the case
then the affinity laws can be used to predict the
performance of the pump at different diameters for the same
speed or different speed for the same diameter.
The affinity laws were developed using the law of
similitude which provide 3 basic relationships.
79
Chapter 2
Flow vs. diameter and speed
Total Head vs. diameter and speed
Power vs. diameter and speed
Where:
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote the value before and after the
change.
HP is the power
n is the speed
D is the impeller diameter
H is the total head.
If the speed is fixed the affinity laws become:
If the diameter is fixed the affinity laws become:
Accordingly, the “Affinity Laws” for centrifugal pumps

describe the impact of changes in speed or impeller
diameter on pump flow, head, and HP. The useful tool in
predicting pump performance changes when speed is changed,
such as variable speed drive.
Example:
A pump is running with following parameters at 50 Hz,
Q = 500 bpd, H = 4000 ft, BHP = 16
80
Chapter 2
What will be the new parameters if the frequency changed to

be 60 Hz?
Solution:
Q2 = Q1 x (n2/n1) = 500 x 60/50 = 600 bpd
H2 = H1 x (n2/n1)2 = 4000 x (60/50)2 = 5760 ft
BHP2 = BHP1 x (n2/n1)3 = 16 x (60/50)3 = 28 hp
2.22. Friction Loss in pipes (tubing)

Tubing friction is the loss of energy which occurs in
tubing with flowing fluid. At the wall, the fluid velocity
is zero whereas it attains a maximum value at the tubing
center. Due to these velocity differences across the
tubing, see fig (2.64), the fluid molecules rub against
each other. This transforms kinetic energy to heat energy
which can be considered as lost.
Fig (2.64) Velocity profile in pipes

To maintain a flow in the tubing, an amount of energy
corresponding to the energy which is lost must constantly
be added. Energy is supplied by static pressure difference
from inlet to outlet. It is said that it is the pressure
difference which drives the fluid through the tubing.
The loss in the tubing depends on the fluid velocity, the
inside diameter of the pipe, length, viscosity of the fluid
and inner surface roughness of the pipe (tubing).
The head loss is calculated by the following equation:
Where:
∆P = pressure loss in psi
81
Chapter 2
hl = Head loss in ft
= fluid density in slug/cuft
v = fluid velocity in ft/sec
g = gravity constant (32.2)
D = pipe inside diameter in ft
f = Friction coefficient (factor)
The friction coefficient is not constant but depends on
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. This is described
by the Reynold‟s number, Re:
Where:
μ = Fluid dynamic viscosity in lbf.s/ft2
= Fluid kinematic viscosity in ft2/S

If Re < 2300 this means the flow is Laminar
If Re > 4000 this means the flow is turbulent
If 2300 < Re < 4000 this means the flow is transition
Laminar flow only occurs at relatively low velocities and
describes a calm, well-ordered flow without eddies. The
friction coefficient for laminar flow is independent of the
surface roughness and is only a function of the Reynold‟s
number. The following applies for pipes with circular
cross-section:
Turbulent flow is an unstable flow with strong mixing. Due

to eddy motion most pipe flows are in practice turbulent.
The friction coefficient for turbulent flow depends on the
Reynold‟s number and the pipe roughness.
If the flow is turbulent then the friction parameter f is
calculated based on the following equation:
Where:
= Roughness of the pipe

If the flow is transition then the friction parameter f is
calculated based on the following equation:
82
Chapter 2
f in transition equation is the friction factor calculated

in turbulent flow.
Example
Tubing size: 2-7/8” ID: 2.441”
Tubing length: 6000‟ Q: 2000 bfpd
S.G: 0.95 μ: 10 cp
ε: 0.0068
Solution
D = 2.441/12 = 0.20342 ft
Q = 2000 * 0.00004874 = 0.09748 cuft/sec
[bpd = 0.00004874 cuft/sec]
v = Q/A = 0.09748 ÷ (π/4)* (0.20342)2 = 3 ft/sec
ρ = 0.95 * 62.4 = 59.28 lb/cuft
ρ = 59.28 ÷ 32.16 = 1.811 slug/cuft
μ = 10 * 0.0000209 = 0.000209 lbf.s/ft2
[1 cp = 0.0000209 lbf.s/ft2]
Rn = DVρ ÷ μ = 0.20342 * 3 * 1.811 ÷ 0.000209 = 5,289
Rn > 4000 ==> Turbulent flow
f =[1.14+ 2*log10(D ÷ ε)]-2 =[1.14+2*log10(0.20342 ÷ 0.0068)]-
2
= 0.05975
hL = f * (L÷D) * (V 2 ÷ 2g) =
0.05975*(6000/0.20342)*(32/(2*32.16)) = 246 ft
DP = ρ * g * hL = 1.811*32.16*246/144 = 99.5 psi
2.23. ESP Design Examples

See chapter 9
83
Chapter 3
Submersible Motor
Table of Content
1 General 3
2 Motor construction 3
2.1 Stator
2.2 Rotor
2.3 Rotor bearing
2.4 Motor thrust bearing
2.5 Pothead
3 Electromagnetism 8
3.1 Magnetic field
3.2 Magnetic flux and flux density
3.3 Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid
3.4 Changing polarity
3.5 Induced voltage
3.6 Electromagnetic attraction
4 Start coil arrangement 15
5 Power supply 15
5.1 Start
5.2 Time 1
5.3 Time 2
5.4 360 degree rotation
6 Mathematical analysis of rotating magnetic
field due to 3 phase current 19
7 Slip 24
8 Rotor current frequency 24
9 Magneto-motive force and magnetic field
Strength 25
10 Force in current carrying conductor in
magnetic field 26
11 Torque on a current carrying coil in
magnetic field 27
12 Theory of operation 28
13 Motor configurations 30
14 Motor current 32
15 Motor rating 32
16 Motor protection 35
17 Application of ESP motor 37
1
Chapter 3
18 Fundamentals of electricity 39
19 Equivalent circuit of induction motor 63
19.1 Effective circuit of induction motor at
Standstill
19.2 Effective circuit of induction motor under
Operating conditions (rotor is shorted)
19.3 Power relations
20 Determination of motor parameters 70
21 NEMA standard for squirrel cage IM 75
22 Torque of squirrel cage IM 77
2
Chapter 3
Submersible Motor
3.1. General
Motor is an electric machine which converts electric
energy into mechanical energy.
Three phase induction motors are the most frequently
encountered in industry. They are simple, rugged, low priced,
and easy to maintain. They run at essentially constant speed
from zero to full load. The speed is frequency dependent;
however, variable speed electronic drives are being used more
and more to control the speed of the motors.
ESP motor Classified as 3 phases, squirrel cage, 2 pole
induction, Alternating current motor.
The position of the motor in ESP integrity is just below the
protector (seal).
3.2. Motor Construction

The induction motor is a three phase, squirrel cage, two
pole induction design, consists of:
1. Stator, which supports windings which receive energy from
the mains circuit.
2. Rotor, which carries windings in which working current is
induced.
3. Shaft, which transfers the mechanical energy to the pump.
4. Bearings
5. Housing
6. Insulated Magnet Wire
7. Thrust bearing
Fig (3.1) Most of the motor construction
3
Chapter 3
3.2.1. Stator
 The stator is the stationary electrical part of the motor.
 The stator core of a National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) motor is made up of several hundred thin
laminations.
Fig (3.2) stator laminations

 Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow
cylinder (fig 3.2). Coils of insulated wire are inserted
into slots of the stator core (fig 3.3).
Fig (3.3) stator core

 Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation.
Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it
surrounds, form an electromagnet. The stator windings are
connected directly to the power source.
 The stator winding consists of three individual windings
which overlap one another and are offset by an electrical
angle of 120° (fig 3.4). When it is connected to the power
supply, the incoming current will first magnetize the
stator. This magnetizing current generates a rotary field
which turns with synchronous speed Ns.
4
Chapter 3
Fig (3.4) stator windings

 When the alternating current passes through a coil group, a
magnetic field of fixed shape and sinusoidally varying
amplitude will result. A magnetic pole is formed at the
center of this coil group. The internal stator winding
connections determine the number of poles, the voltage
applied to individual windings and the direction of
rotation. In a three phase induction motor, rotating
magnetic field is obtained by three separate single phases
with currents that differ in phase by 120 degrees.
Three phases reach their maximum and minimum in a rapid
succession sequence. As currents change, the effect is to
rotate the magnetic fields. The magnetic field rotates
continuously at a constant speed determined by the line
frequency and number of poles.
 The laminations wound with three very big loops of wire one
for each phase. When current is flowing through a phase,
magnetic flux is induced as shown in fig (3.5).
Fig (3.5) induced magnetic flux due to current flow

 Because of this configuration, the inside of the stator
holds a strong magnetic field.
 The strength of the field will depend on the amount of
current flowing through the wire loop (i.e. the phase
winding).
5
Chapter 3
 The more copper that is in the stator, the more the winding
losses are reduced, making the motor more efficient.
 The winding is "two pole" because two magnetic poles are
created (one North and one South). Motors can be wound
differently to create more than two poles such as a four
pole motor.
 Remember that the direction of the magnetic field in the
stator depends on the direction of current flowing in the
wire.
 With AC, or Alternating Current, the direction of current
flow is changing 60 times every second for 60 Hz power (or
50 times per second for 50 Hz power).
3.2.2. Rotor
 The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic
circuit.
 The most common type of rotor is the “squirrel cage” rotor.
Fig (3.6) squirrel cage rotor

 The rotor consists of a stack of steel laminations.
 The squirrel cage rotor consists of copper or aluminum bars
accommodated in slots of rotor core (fig 3.7).
Fig (3.7) rotor core
6
Chapter 3
 At each end the bard are connected to heavy conducting end

rings which serve the purpose of short circuit bars. In the
absence of the end rings, emfs would be induced in the rotor
bars but no current would flow through them and no torque
would be produced.
 The wound rotor has a 3 phase winding placed in the slots of
the rotor core. The rotor is wound for the same number of
poles as the stator.
 The terminals of the rotor winding are brought out of three
slip rings mounted on the machine shaft.
 During running condition the slip ring are short circuited
so as to close the rotor circuit.
 The air gap or more accurately, the clearance between the
stator and rotor, should be as small as possible in order to
the primary and secondary leakage fluxes to minimum.
3.2.3. Rotor bearing

Rotor Bearings are one of the most vital parts of the
motor. The Bearing Material is Babbitt-lined steel and
machined after processing. There are fluid holes to insure oil
circulation and wide angle oil grooves on the OD to distribute
lubrication evenly over the entire length of the bearing
surface.
Fig (3.8) rotor bearing

The bearing sleeve is a bronze material for the sleeve
construction of the bearing. This part is keyed to the shaft
and the hole on the sleeve is aligned with the hole on the
shaft to insure proper cooling and lubrication.
3.2.4. Motor thrust bearing

The motor thrust bearing is installed at the top of the
rotor string. It is designed to hold the weight of the entire
rotor string.
7
Chapter 3
Fig (3.9) motor thrust bearing

Currently three types of motor thrust bearings are used.
 Babbitt
 Glacier
 KMC Bronze pads
The thrust bearing limits on the system will indicate the type
of load required for the selected bearing material.
3.2.5. Pothead
Pothead is the place where the motor lead extension
cable is connected to the motor three phase windings (fig
3.10). There are two types of pothead, they are:
1. Tape in type, where tape wrapped around individual connector
leads inside motor.
2. Plug in type, where mating block mounted in motor.
Fig (3.10) motor pothead
3.3. Electromagnetism
3.3.1. Magnetic field
When an electric current is passed through a conductor,
a magnetic field is set up around the conductor. The direction
8
Chapter 3
of the magnetic field can be found by using right hand rule or

the right hand screw. The right hand rule states “Grasp the
wire in the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the
direction of the current. The fingers will curl around the
wire in the direction of the magnetic field”
The right hand screw is explained in this way, as a wood screw
is turned clockwise it progresses into the wood. The
horizontal direction of screw is analogous to the direction of
current in a conductor. The circular motion of the screw shows
the direction of the magnetic flux around the conductor. (fig
3.11).
Fig (3.11) Magnetic field around the conductor carrying current

In fig 3.12 (a) the dot inside the circle is the standard
symbol used to show that the direction of current flow is out
of the page. Then, by right hand rule, the magnetic field is
counterclockwise. In fig 3.12 (b) the cross is the standard
symbol used to show that the current is entering the page. The
magnetic field is clockwise. The strength of the magnetic
field is proportional to the current, i.e. if the current is
doubled, the magnetic field will be doubled.
(a) Current coming out of the page (b) Current entering the page
Fig (3.12) Magnetic field surrounding the conductor
9
Chapter 3
Since a current carrying conductor has a magnetic field around

it, when two current carrying conductors are brought close
together, there will be interactive between the fields. When
the currents in the two conductors are in opposite direction,
the fields are as shown in fig 3.13 (a) and the force of
repulsion is experienced.
When the currents are in the same direction, the field are as
shown in fig 3.13 (b) and a fore of attractive is experienced.
Fig (3.13) force between parallel current carrying conductors

Consider a single turn coil carrying current. As shown in
figure 3.5 the hole of the magnetic flux generated by electric
current passed through the centre of the coil. Therefore the
coil acts like a little magnet and has a magnetic field with
identifiable N and S poles. The coil may also have more than
one turn. The flux generated by each of the individual turns
of the coil tends to link up and pass out of one end of coil
and back into the other end. Such an arrangement is known as
solenoid (figure 3.6) and has a magnetic field pattern very
similar to that of bar magnet. The right hand rule for
determining the direction of flux from solenoid states “Grasp
the solenoid in the right hand such that the fingers point in
the direction of current flow in the coil. The thumb will
point towards N pole of field”.
As discussed above, a current flow in the conductors produces
a magnetic field. The converse is also possible; that is, a
magnetic field can produce a current in a conductor. This is
known as the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction (this
will be discussed later).
10
Chapter 3
3.3.2. Magnetic flux and flux density

The total lines of force in a magnetic field are called
magnetic flux. Flux density is the flux per unit area of cross
section.
Weber (Wb) is the SI unit of magnetic flux. Tesla (T) is the
SI unit of flux density and represents Wb/m2. Flux density is
also known as magnetic induction. From its definition:

B
A
Where B is the flux density in teslas, φ is the total flux in
webers and A is the cross sectional area in m2.
3.3.3. Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid

When an electric current passed through a solenoid, the
resultant magnetic flux is very similar to that of a bar
magnet. The magnetic flux lines make complete circuit inside
and outside the coil; each line is a closed path. The side at
the flux emerges is the North Pole, the other side where the
magnetic flux reenters is the South Pole.
The strength of the magnetic field in the DC electromagnet can
be increased by increasing the number of turns and/or current
in the coil. The greater the number of turns the stronger the
magnetic field will be. See fig (3.14) and (3.15)
Fig (3.14) Magnetic field in coils of different number of

turns
11
Chapter 3
Fig (3.15)
Magnetic field in coils of different currents
The magnetic flux density in the interior of a solenoid
carrying an electric current depends on the current intensity
passing through the coil (I) and number of turns per unit
length (n), i.e. B is proportionally change with I an n .
B   *n*I
Where μ is the permeability of the core material. The equation
can be written as follows
Where N is the number of turns of a solenoid and l is its

length.
3.3.4. Changing polarity

The magnetic field of an electromagnet has the same
characteristics as a natural magnet, including a north and
South Pole. However, when the direction of current flow
through the electromagnet changes, the polarity of the
electromagnet changes. The polarity of an electromagnet
connected to an AC source will change at the same frequency as
the frequency of the AC source. This can be demonstrated in
the following illustration (fig. 3.7). At Time 1 current flow
is at zero. There is no magnetic field produced around the
electromagnet. At Time 2 current is flowing in a positive
direction. A magnetic field builds up around the
electromagnet. The electromagnet assumes a polarity with the
South Pole on the top and the North Pole on the bottom. At
Time 3 current flow is at its peak positive value. The
strength of the electromagnetic field is at its greatest
value. At Time 4 current flow decreases and the magnetic field
12
Chapter 3
begins to collapse, until Time 5 when current flow and
magnetic field are at zero. Current immediately begins to
increase in the opposite direction. At Time 6 current is
increasing in a negative direction. The polarity of the
electromagnetic field has changed. The north pole is now on
top and the south pole is on the bottom. The negative half of
the cycle continues through Times 7 and 8, returning to zero
at Time 9. This process will repeat 50 times a second with a
50 Hz AC power supply (fig 3.16).
Fig (3.16)
3.3.5. Induced voltage

A conductor moving through a magnetic field will have a
voltage induced into it. This electrical principle is used in
the operation of AC induction motors. In the following
illustration an electromagnet is connected to an AC power
source. Another electromagnet is placed above it. The second
electromagnet is in a separate circuit. There is no physical
connection between the two circuits. Voltage and current are
zero in both circuits at Time 1. At Time 2 voltage and current
are increasing in the bottom circuit. A magnetic field builds
up in the bottom electromagnet. Lines of flux from the
magnetic field building up in the bottom electromagnet cut
across the top electromagnet. A voltage is induced in the top
electromagnet and current flows through it. At Time 3 current
flow has reached its peak. Maximum current is flowing in both
circuits. The magnetic field around the coil continues to
13
Chapter 3
build up and collapse as the alternating current continues to

increase and decrease. As the magnetic field moves through
space, moving out from the coil as it builds up and back
towards the coil as it collapses, lines of flux cut across the
top coil. As current flows in the top electromagnet it creates
its own magnetic field (fig 3.17).
Fig (3.17) magnetic field increases as the current increases
3.3.6. Electromagnetic attraction

The polarity of the magnetic field induced in the top
electromagnet is opposite the polarity of the magnetic field
in the bottom electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract, the
top electromagnet will follow the bottom electromagnet when it
is moved (fig. 3.18)
Fig (3.18)
14
Chapter 3
3.4. Start coil arrangement

The following schematic (fig 3.19) illustrates the
relationship of the coils. In this example six coils are used,
two coils for each of the three phases. The coils operate in
pairs. The coils are wrapped around the soft iron core
material of the stator. These coils are referred to as motor
windings. Each motor winding becomes a separate electromagnet.
The coils are wound in such a way that when current flows in
them; one coil is a north pole and its pair is a south pole.
For example, if A1 were a north pole then A2 would be a south
pole. When current reverses direction the polarity of the
poles would also reverse.
Fig (3.19)
3.5. Power supply

The stator is connected to a 3-phase AC power supply. In
the following illustration phase A is connected to phase A of
the power supply. Phase B and C would also be connected to
phases B and C of the power supply respectively.
Fig (3.20)
Phase windings (A, B, and C) are placed 120° apart. In this

example, a second set of three-phase windings is installed.
15
Chapter 3
The number of poles is determined by how many times a phase

winding appears. In this example, each phase winding appears
two times. This is a two-pole stator. If each phase winding
appeared four times it would be a four-pole stator.
Fig (3.21) 2 poles stator winding

When AC voltage is applied to the stator, current flows
through the windings. The magnetic field developed in a phase
winding depends on the direction of current flow through that
winding. The following chart is used here for explanation
only. It will be used in the next few illustrations to
demonstrate how a rotating magnetic field is developed. It
assumes that a positive current flow in the A1, B1 and C1
windings result in a north pole.
Current Flow
Direction
Winding
Positive Negative
A1 North South
A2 South North
B1 North South
B2 South North
C1 North South
C2 South North
3.5.1. Start
It is easier to visualize a magnetic field if a start

time is picked when no current is flowing through one phase.
In the following illustration, for example, a start time has
been selected during which phase A has no current flow, phase
B has current flow in a negative direction and phase C has
current flow in a positive direction. Based on the above
chart, B1 and C2 are south poles and B2 and C1 are north
poles. Magnetic lines of flux leave the B2 North Pole and
enter the nearest South Pole, C2. Magnetic lines of flux also
16
Chapter 3
leave the C1 North Pole and enter the nearest South Pole, B1.
A magnetic field results, as indicated by the arrow, fig
(3.22).
Fig (3.22) start
3.5.2. Time 1
If the field is evaluated at 60° intervals from the
starting point, at Time 1, it can be seen that the field will
rotate 60°. At Time 1 phase C has no current flow, phase A has
current flow in a positive direction and phase B has current
flow in a negative direction. Following the same logic as used
for the starting point, windings A1 and B2 are north poles and
windings A2 and B1 are south poles, fig (3.23).
Fig (3.23) time 1
17
Chapter 3
3.5.3. Time 2
At Time 2 the magnetic field has rotated 60°. Phase B
has no current flow. Although current is decreasing in phase A
it is still flowing in a positive direction. Phase C is now
flowing in a negative direction. At start it was flowing in a
positive direction. Current flow has changed directions in the
phase C windings and the magnetic poles have reversed
polarity.
Fig (3.24) time 2
3.5.4. 360 degree rotation

At the end of six such time intervals the magnetic
field will have rotated one full revolution or 360°. This
process will repeat 60 times a second on a 60 Hz power supply.
18
Chapter 3
Fig (3.25) time 1
3.6. Mathematical analysis of rotating magnetic field

due to 3 phase current
When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply,
a rotating magnetic field is produced. This field is such that
its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but
go on shifting their positions around the stator.
For this reason, it is called a rotating magnetic field. It
will be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is
constant and is equal to 1.5 fm where fm is the maximum flux
due to any phase.
To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3
phase winding as shown in fig 3.26(i). The three phases A, B
and C are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in
these phases are indicated as IA, IB and IC Referring to Fig
3.26 (ii), the fluxes produced by these currents are given by:
Here φm is the maximum flux due to any phase. We shall now

prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of
constant magnitude equal to 1.5 φm.
19
Chapter 3
(i) (ii)
Fig (3.26)
At start fig 3.26 (ii), and fig 3.27 (i) the current in phase
A is zero and currents in phases B and C are equal and
opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top
conductors and inward in the bottom conductors. This
establishes a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of
the resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 φm as
proved under:
At start, ωt = 0°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;
(i) (ii)
Fig (3.27)
20
Chapter 3
The phasor sum of - φB and φC is the resultant flux φR (fig.

3.28). It is clear that:
Fig (3.28)
At time 1, fig (15 (ii)), ωt = 60°. Therefore, the three

fluxes are given by;
The phasor sum of - φB and φA is the resultant flux φR [See

Fig. (3.18). It is clear that:
Fig (3.29)
21
Chapter 3
At time 2, fig (26 (ii), ωt = 120°. Therefore, the three

fluxes are given by;
The phasor sum of – φC and φA is the resultant flux φR, (Fig.

3.30). It is clear that:
It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply

produces a rotating field of constant value (= 1.5 φm, where φm
is the maximum flux due to any phase).
Fig (3.30)
We shall now use another useful method to find the magnitude

and speed of the resultant flux due to three-phase currents.
The three-phase sinusoidal currents produce fluxes φ1, φ2 and
φ3 which vary sinusoidally. The resultant flux at any instant
will be the vector sum of all the three at that instant.
The fluxes are represented by three variable magnitude
vectors, fig (3.31).
In fig (3.31), the individual flux directions are fixed but
their magnitudes vary sinusoidally as does the current that
produces them. To find the magnitude of the resultant flux,
resolve each flux into horizontal and vertical components and
then find their vector sum.
22
Chapter 3
Fig (3.31)
The resultant flux is given by;
Thus the resultant flux has constant magnitude (= 1.5 φm) and
does not change with time. The angular displacement of φR
relative to the OX axis is,
So,
Thus the resultant magnetic field rotates at constant angular

velocity ω(= 2πf) rad/sec. For a P-pole machine, the rotation
speed (ωs) is
23
Chapter 3
Thus the resultant flux due to three-phase currents is of

constant value (= 1.5 φm where φm is the maximum flux in any
phase) and this flux rotates around the stator winding at a
synchronous speed of 120f/P rpm.
For example, for a 2-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase induction motor, N,
= 120x50/2 = 3000 rpm. It means that flux rotates around the
stator at a speed of 3000 rpm.
3.7. Slip
We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the
direction of rotating field. In practice, the rotor can never
reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no
relative speed between the stator field and rotor conductors,
no induced rotor currents and, therefore, no torque to drive
the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately cause
the rotor to slow down. Hence, the rotor speed (N) is always
less than the suitor field speed (Ns). This difference in speed
depends upon load on the motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating
stator field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It
is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed
i.e.,
 The quantity Ns-N is sometimes called slip speed.

 When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or
100 %.
 In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to
full-load is hardly 0.1% to 3% so that it is essentially a
constant-speed motor.
3.8. Rotor current frequency

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the
relative speed between a vending and a magnetic field is given
by the general formula;
Where:
n = Relative speed between magnetic field and the winding
P = Number of poles
24
Chapter 3
For a rotor speed N, the relative speed between the rotating

flux and the rotor is Ns-N. Consequently, the rotor current
frequency fr is given by;
i.e., Rotor current frequency = slip x Supply frequency.

 When the rotor is at standstill or stationary (i.e., s = 1),
the frequency of rotor current is the same as that of supply
frequency (fr = sf = 1, fr = f).
 As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the
rotating flux and the rotor decreases. Consequently, the slip
S and hence rotor current frequency decreases.
3.9. Magneto-motive force and magnetic field strength

An emf causes a current to flow in an electric circuit.
Similarly a magneto motive force (mmf), symbol F, produces a
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. The mmf of a coil is the
product of current in the coil and the number of turns of the
coil and has the unit of ampere turns (AT).
The magnetic flux which can be set up in a magnetic circuit
depends on the mmf and the length of the magnetic circuit. If
the length is large, the mmf has to act over a long distance
and the resulting magnetic flux is small. The magnetic field
strength H is defined as the mmf per unit length of magnetic
circuit, i.e.
Where I is the current in amperes, and N is the number of

turns and l is the length of the magnetic circuit in meter.
Example:
The total flux of an electro magnet is 4x10-4 Wb.
a. If the cross sectional area of the core is 1 cm2, find the
flux density in the core.
b. The electromagnet has 50 turns and a current of 1 A flow
through the coil. If the length of the magnetic circuit is
20 cm, find the mmf and the magnetic field strength.
 4  104 Wb
Flux density: B  4 T
A 1  104 m2
25
Chapter 3
mmf: F  NI  50 1  50 AT
NI 50 AT
Field strength: H   250 AT/m
l 20  102 m
3.10. Force in current carrying conductor in magnetic
field
Figure 3.32 (a) shows a current carrying conductor (the
current entering the page) laying in magnetic field flux
density B. The current in the conductor sets up a flux in a
clockwise direction around the conductor. When the external
field is in the vertically downward direction, the field of
the conductor assists the external field on the right hand
side of the conductor. The effect of this is to produce a
force that pushes the conductor to the lift. If the direction
of the current is reversed as shown in figure 3.6 (b) the flux
around the conductor is in counterclockwise direction and the
resulting force pushes the conductor to the right. In both
cases maximum force is generated if the conductor is at right
angle to the direction of the magnetic flux. The force is
always in a direction perpendicular to both the conductor and
the field.
The magnitude of the force F is given by:
Where B is the flux density in telsas, I is the current in

amperes, and l is the length of the conductor in meters.
A force of one Newton is exerted on a 1 meter long conductor
carrying a current of 1 ampere and situated at right angle to
a magnetic field having a flux density of 1 tesla.
Force Force
+
Flux set up
by current
in on Flux set up
conductor by current
in on
conductor
(a) Conductor current entering the page (b) Conductor current coming out of the page
Fig (3.32) Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic
field
26
Chapter 3
If the conductor is not perpendicular to magnetic field but

inclined at angle Ө to the magnetic field, the force is given
by:
3.11. Torque on a current carrying coil in magnetic field

Figure 3.33 shows a current carrying coil placed in
magnetic field. From the discussion in section 3.5 it follows
that a downward force is exerted on the left hand conductor
and an upward force is exerted on the right hand conductor.
The force on each conductor is given by the equation 3.3. The
total force is given by:
Flux
2r
N S
Fig (3.33) Force on a coil carrying current in a magnetic

field
If the coil has N turns, the force is:
Since the force is acting at a radius r meters, the torque on

the coil is:
The above simple arrangement is the basic part of electric

measuring instrument. The operation of an electric motor is
also based on this principle.
Example:
A 30 cm long conductor is carrying a current of 10 A and
situated at a right angle to a magnetic field having flux
density of 0.8 T. Calculate the force on the conductor.
F = 0.8 x 10 x 30 x 10-2 = 2.4 N
Example:
A 200 turn coil having an axial length of 3 cm and radius of 1
cm is pivoted in magnetic field having a flux density of 0.8
27
Chapter 3
T. The coil carries a current of 0.5 A. Calculate the torque

acting on the coil.
Torque = 2 x 0.8 x 0.5 x 3 x10-2 x 200 x 1 x10-2 = 4.8 x 10-2 N.m
Figure 3.34 is the same as figure 3.33 but with other
direction of the magnetic flux.
Fig (3.34) Force on a coil in a magnetic field

If the loop is in line with the magnetic field, the secondary
magnetic field will be perpendicular to the main field. This
will cause two equal and opposite forces (a torque) on the
loop causing it to rotate until the forces balance (fig 3.35).
The forces will reach a steady state and hold the magnet in
place as long as current is applied.
To cause rotation, the field must rotate. This is accomplished
with the alternating current where the field is rotated.
This is accomplished with the alternating current going
through the windings in the stator of the induction motor.
Fig (3.35) Force on a coil in a magnetic field
3.12. Theory of operation

An induction motor consists of a stator and rotor. The
stator carries a 3 phase winding in its slots and is connected
to a 3 phase supply. The rotor carries a cage winding and it
is free to rotate within the stator.
28
Chapter 3
The 3 phase currents flowing in the stator winding produce a

rotating field. The rotor winding cuts the rotating field and
an emf is induced in the rotor winding. When the rotor is at
rest, the frequency of this emf is the same as the supply
frequency. If the rotor circuit is closed, a current flows in
the rotor winding. The rotor current produces an mmf which
rotates and is directed in opposition to stator mmf. The
interaction of the stator and the rotor fields produces a
torque which causes the rotor to rotate in the direction of
the rotor field.
If the rotor shaft is not loaded, the machine has only to
rotate itself against the mechanical losses and the rotor
speed is very close to the synchronous speed. However, the
rotor speed cannot become equal to the synchronous speed
because if it does so, the emf induced in the rotor winding
would become zero and there will be no torque. Hence the rotor
speed remains slightly less than the synchronous speed.
If the motor shaft is loaded, the rotor will slow down and the
relative speed of rotor with respect to the stator rotating
field will increase. The emf induced in the rotor winding will
increase and this will produce more rotor current which will
increase the electromagnetic torque produced by the motor.
Conditions of equilibrium are attained when the rotor speed
has adjusted to a new value so that the electromagnetic torque
is sufficient to balance the mechanical or load torque applied
to the shaft. The speed of the motor when running under full
load conditions is somewhat less than the no load speed.
The speed of rotation of the field mmf is called synchronous
speed is related to the frequency and number of poles by the
expression:
 p
f     ns
2
Where:
f is the frequency in Hz,
p is the number of poles and,
ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per second.
An alternative form of above expression is,
120 f
Ns 
p
Where:
Ns is the synchronous speed in revolution per minute (rpm).
29
Chapter 3
3.13. Motor configurations

Motors come in single sections (head and base) as well as
tandem configurations.
The tandems can include the UT (upper tandem - head but no
base), the CT (center tandem - no head or base) or the LT
(lower tandem - base but no head).
An upper tandem motor can be used as a single section if it is
completed on the bottom with either a Universal Motor Base
(UMB) or Downhole Monitoring System (Sensor).
If additional horsepower is required over what can be achieved
in one piece, a CT or LT motor can be added.
Submersible electric motors can be designed in tandem
configuration to create the desired Horsepower required for
each application.
So, based on the above, there are four different motor
sections, they are:
1. Single section
Where the motor has head and base, a certain horsepower we
cannot increase, and could not attach any equipment below.
2. Upper Tandem motor (UT)
UT motor has head, no base (open circuit), and the
horsepower can be increased by adding another central tandem
(CT) or lower tandem (LT). The circuit must be closed either
by Universal Motor Base (UMB) or sensor.
3. Central Tandem (CT)

CT motor has no head, no base, and cannot use alone. UT must
be attached on top of it. Another central tandem/s or LT can
be attached on the bottom of it.
4. Lower Tandem (LT)

Where the motor has a base, no head, and cannot use alone,
it must be attached with upper tandem (as there is no head
attached).
30
Chapter 3
Single UT CT
Fig (3.36) motor configurations
Notes:
1. For any particular horsepower, the product of the volts and
amps will be essentially constant. For example, in a
particular Hp if we have a 1000 V, 50 A motor, a 2000 V
motor would be 25 amps, and a 500V motor would be 100 amps.
In other words KVA is constant.
2. When putting more than one motor together in tandem
combinations, always keep the sections the same Hp and
voltage. For example a 300 Hp 540 motor should be made of
two 150 Hp motors.
3. With two motors we double the Hp (add the two Hp's
together). We also double the voltage but the amperage
remains the same. With three motors we triple the Hp and
voltage but the amperage still does not change.
For example, a 140 Hp, 1299 V, 69.5 A UT motor coupled to a
140 Hp, 1299V, 69.5 CT motor would give us a 280 Hp, 2598 V,
69.5 A motor.
4. Always take care when adding motors together so that the
total voltage does not exceed the system limits i.e. do not
try to put 3500 volts on a 3 kV cable. Surface controllers,
transformers, wellhead feedthru mandrels, etc. will all have
voltage limits we need to be concerned with.
5. For any given Hp there will be several voltages and
amperages available, why have more than one voltage?
31
Chapter 3
The answer is not in the motor but in the power cable. Lower
voltage means higher current and this results in higher
voltage lost in the power able.
So even though the motor efficiency does not change, the
overall system efficiency will decrease with higher
amperage.
If the amperage is too high, the motor may not even be able
to start as we will see when we discuss power cable chapter.
6. Remember the higher voltage the better, but it cannot be so
high that we exceed the control panel rating.
3.14. Motor current

 Induction motor current consists of reactive (magnetizing)
and real (torque) components.
 The current component that produces torque (does useful work)
is almost in phase with voltage, and has a high power factor
close to 100%
 The magnetizing current would be purely inductive, except
that the winding has some small resistance, and it lags the
voltage by nearly 90°.
 The magnetizing current has a very low power factor, close to
zero.
 The magnetic field is nearly constant from no load to full
load and beyond, so the magnetizing portion of the total
current is approximately the same for all loads.
 The torque current increases as the load increases.
 At full load, the torque current is higher than the
magnetizing current.
 For a typical motor, the power factor of the resulting
current is between 85% and 90%.
 As the load is reduced, the torque current decreases, but the
magnetizing current remains about the same so the resulting
current has a lower power factor.
 The smaller the load, the lower the load current and the
lower the power factor. Low power factor at low loading
occurs because the magnetizing remains approximately the same
at no load as at full load.
3.15. Motor rating
 If we look in the manufacturer catalog we will find several

pages of motors which give the horsepower rating and break
down the various sizes into several voltages and amperages as
32
Chapter 3
the table below.
KMH 562 SERIES

MOTORS
HP Volt / Amp
60 HZ 50 HZ 60 HZ 50 HZ
435/53 363/53
38 32 875/26 729/26
1315/18 1096/18
430/81 358/81
57 48 870/40 725/40
1315/26 1096/26
865/53 721/53
76 63
1360/34 1133/34
840/69 700/69
95 79
1330/44 1108/44
860/81 717/81
114 95 1300/53 1083/53
2330/30 1942/30
830/98 692/98
133 111 1345/60 1121/60
2205/37 1838/37
1340/69 1117/69
152 127
2325/40 1938/40
1290/81 1075/81
171 143
2390/44 1992/44
1185/98 988/98
190 158 1430/81 1192/81
2415/48 2013/48
 Most conventional rating systems give a nameplate horsepower

to the motor based on some assumptions which typically are
bottom-hole temperature and fluid flow rate past the motor in
this industry.
 The motor will put out exactly as much horsepower as the pump
wants no more and no less!
 Most motors are designed to be "most efficient" and have an
acceptable speed and power factor at the "design point“.
 In a standard application, the surface voltage is fixed and
the amperage changes as the load on the motor changes.
We, in fact, use this information in the form of an amp chart
to see how the motor performs at downhole.
 We can very easily anticipate this relationship by simply
looking at the equation for motor horsepower:
33
Chapter 3
 Note that, if everything else is fixed, the amps will have to

increase if the horsepower does and this should be a "linear"
relationship.
 In reality this relationship is not linear since power factor
and efficiency are not truly constant and the more they vary
the greater will be the change in amperage.
 One problem with increasing the amperage too much is that
higher amperage will give us greater copper losses in the
motor winding which is not good for efficiency.
 There will be a practical limit to how far this can continue.
We can look at the laminations to understand the basics of
this concept. As we increase current on a motor, we increase
the flux density induced in the laminations.
 Fig 3.37 shows an example of what the flux lines might look
like for one phase winding based on a moderate loading of the
motor.
Fig (3.37)
 If we place more load on the same motor, we get many more
flux lines required to generate the necessary horsepower as
shows in fig 3.38.
Fig (3.38)
34
Chapter 3
 If we keep raising the amperage, we will eventually reach a

point where we have all the flux lines we can handle this is
called SATURATION.
Any more horsepower beyond this point will severely overheat
our motor.
 Another practical consideration on rating a motor is the
speed. We know that the motor will slow down with load. If
the motor speed is too low, we will lose pump performance,
so, we must set the Hp at a point where the speed is
acceptable.
 One of the most important considerations in rating the motor
is temperature. Heat is generated in the windings which must
be dissipated by the fluid flowing past the outside of the
motor.
 Another limiting factor will be temperature differential. As
the motor heats up, the components expand and they expand at
different rates since not all the materials are the same.
Even if the motor were all one material, expansion would vary
since the internal temperature changes within the motor
itself.
 The motor is designed with certain tolerances to allow this
thermal expansion. If too much expansion occurs (such as with
(overheating), tolerances might be exceeded and we could have
bearing failures or other damage.
3.16. Motor protection

 In this discussion we will address proper protection for ESP
motors operating down-hole.
 Motor controllers can provide very simple protection to very
sophisticated protection.
 Simple controllers will look at overload and under-load
conditions only.
 More advanced controllers look at all operating parameters
including: 3 phase current and voltage, leg ground, power
factor, kw, back-spin, and many others.
 In either type of controller, overload and under-load
protection is of primary importance and it is critical that
these both be set correctly in order to properly protect the
motor from damage.
 Overloads and under-loads are usually set around +15% and 20%
of running current as a rule-of-thumb.
 While it is not the intent here to give a complete guide to
setting overloads and under-loads, we will look at some
particular examples where the standard rule-of-thumb settings
35
Chapter 3
may not give adequate protection.

 Let's take a particular case: Say we have a 145 stage DN1300
producing a fluid of 1.0 gravity on a 456 series 50 Hp, 885V,
35.5 Amp motor. Should we set the O/L at 115% of 35.5A and
the U/L at 80% of 35.5A?
 Say, this pump will only require about 45 HP at BEP flow.
This will place about a 90% load on the motor which means the
motor should draw only 32 amps rather than the 35.5 of the
nameplate. This should be the basis for our calculations and
settings.
 If we set the under-load at 80% and the overload at 115%,
these settings would be 25.6 amps and 36.8 amps respectively.
Would this protect this unit?
 At shut-in, the pump will draw about 28 Hp which is a 56%
load on the motor. The motor should draw about 62% of NP amps
or 22 amps. Since our U/L is set at 25.6, the motor should
trip on U/L if the well is shut-in.
Note that a shut-in pump is NOT a "no-load condition" for the
motor. What amperage would you expect for this motor if the
pump shaft were broken at the intake (a true no-load
condition)?
 For the motor to operate unloaded, it should draw about 32%
of NP amps or, in this case, 11.4 amps. This is a good
indication of a broken shaft. However, even if the current
reads higher than this, it still could be a broken shaft so
do not rule that out on this basis alone.
 Let's take another case: Say we have a 150 stage DN1750
producing a fluid of 0.86 gravity on a 456 series 50 Hp,
885V, 35.5A motor. Should we set the O/L at 115% of 35.5A and
the U/L at 80% of 35.5A?
 This pump will only require about 47 HP at BEP flow. This
will place about a 94% load on the motor which means the
motor should draw only 34 amps rather than the 35.5 amp
nameplate rating. This should be the basis for our
calculations.
 If we set the under-load at 80% and the overload at 115%,
these settings would be 27.2 amps and 39.1 amps respectively.
Would this protect this unit?
 Note that at shut-in, the pump will draw about 37 Hp which is
a 74% load on the motor. The motor should draw about 79% of
NP amps or 28 amps. Since our U/L is set at 27.2, the motor
may not trip on U/L if the well is shut-in. In this case we
should set the U/L higher.
 The point is that these standard rules-of-thumb are not
always perfect. Every application should be considered
36
Chapter 3
independently to ensure that the settings selected are
adequate to properly protect the down-hole equipment.
3.17. Application of ESP Motors

Motors are in five different series 375, 450, 540, 562 and
738 for different casing sizes; see the following examples of
Centrilift and Reda motors.
With all these choices, which motor should we use for a given
application?
The process to select the best motor for the application will
depend on the economic compromises of the user, but in
general, after defining the customers objectives and the pump
horsepower load for the application, we can resume the
process of selection of the motor as an iterative process
which includes:
 Motor Series
 Motor Type
 Motor configuration, Voltage and Amperage
 Actual motor performance & Operating Temperature and
compare against max. temperature
37
Chapter 3
All motor Hp ratings are based on 1 ft per second minimum
flow past the motor of water.
Lower flow rates or higher oil cut can lower the effective Hp
rating.
After choosing the Motor Series and Type, we will know if it
will be necessary for a single or tandem motor to match the
HP requirement of the pump.
Now we should look at Volts and Amps.
For any given Hp there will be several voltages and amperages
available.
For any particular horsepower, the product of the volts and

amps will be essentially constant.
For example, in a particular Hp if we have a 1000V, 50A motor
a 2000V motor would be 25 amps and a 500V motor would be 100
amps. In other words KVA is constant. High voltage motors
(single motors) are no more or less efficient than low
voltage motors, so why have more than one voltage?
The answer is not in the motor but in the power cable. Lower
voltage means higher current and this results in higher
voltage lost in the power able. So even though the motor
efficiency does not change, the overall system efficiency
will decrease with higher amperage.
If the amperage is too high, the motor may not even be able
to start as we will see when we discuss power cable.
This explains why the various voltages, but why such odd
voltages? Surface motors, for example, are rated at 460V,
4160V, 2300V, etc.
These motors are made to "standard voltages". So why do the
motor voltages turn out to be such strange numbers?
38
Chapter 3
In a way we have already answered this. The problem is the

voltage drop in the cable. ESP motors have to contend with a
very long length of power cable which surface motors do not.
If we have a 460 V surface supply, we would probably only
want about 430V down-hole (for a low Hp motor) to give us the
necessary 460 V at the surface including the cable loss.
So in determining motor voltages we are really limited by
surface equipment.
Motor control panels come in certain voltage ranges such as
600V, 1000V, 1500V, 2400V, etc.
Motor voltages are selected assuming a length of cable such
that the total voltage (motor plus cable loss) will fall just
below one of the panel ratings.
Remember the higher voltage the better, but it cannot be so
high that we exceed the control panel rating.
Higher voltage motors require smaller gauge wire and very low
Hp motors simply cannot be wound at very high voltages
because the wire would be too small to work with.
As mentioned eerily motors come in single sections (head and
base) as well as tandem configurations. The tandems can
include the UT (upper tandem, head but no base), the CT
(center tandem, no head or base) or the LT (lower tandem,
base but no head). An upper tandem motor can be used as a
single section if it is completed on the bottom with either a
Universal Motor Base (UMB) or Downhole Monitoring System
(Sensor).
If additional horsepower is required over what can be
achieved in one piece, a CT or LT motor can be added.
3.18. Fundamentals of electricity

This section is not an attempt to present a course in
electricity, but is intended as a review of the terms and
basic formulas associated with ESP applications.
 Electricity
Since the electrons are normally distributed evenly
throughout a substance, a force called electromotive force
(emf) is required to detach them from the atoms and make them
flow in a definite direction. This force is also often called
“potential” or “voltage”. The unit of measuring this
electromotive force is the “volt”.
The higher the voltage, the greater the number of electrons
which will be caused to flow.
It has been found experimentally that the charge on a single
electron is 1.602e-19 coulomb. Hence, when a current of 1
39
Chapter 3
ampere (or 1 coulomb/second) flows in a conductor, the number

of electrons passing any given point must be such that:
1.602x10-19 x no. of electrons/second = 1 coulomb/second
So, no. of electrons/second = 6.24e18
I.e. when the current in a circuit is 1 ampere, electrons are
passing any given point of the circuit at the rate of 6.24e18
per second.
When a potential or voltage of sufficient strength is applied
to a substance, it causes the flow of electrons. This flow of
electrons is called an electric current. The rate of this flow
of current is measured in amperes. An ampere is the rate of
flow of electric current represented by movement of a unit
quantity of electricity (coulomb) per second.
Every substance is a conductor of electricity; but it flow
very easily through some materials, such as copper, aluminum,
iron, and called electric conductors. Wire and cables are the
common forms of conductors.
Materials such as rubber, glass, certain plastics, fibers, dry
paper, and air allow almost no electricity to pass through
them. Such materials are called non-conductors, insulators, or
dielectrics. When an insulator is continuous, as for instance
around a wire, it is commonly called insulation.
The property of any material to oppose the flow of electricity
through it is called impedance. The unit of the measurement of
this impedance or opposition to the flow of current is the
“ohm(Ω)”. Even the best conductors have some impedance; poor
conductors have much impedance; insulators (dielectrics) have
very high impedance. The unit for the measurement of very low
impedance is the “microhm (µΩ)” and is equal to one-millionth
of an ohm. The unit of very high impedance is “megaohm MΩ” and
is equal to one million ohm.
An element of impedance called resistance in a conductor
varies directly as its length and inversely as its are (see
item 5.6.9.).
Resistance may be compared to the friction encountered by a
flow of water through a pipe. A straight pipe, smooth inside,
conducts water with little loss of pressure. If the pipe is
rough inside and has many bends, the loss of pressure and the
rate of flow will be greatly reduced. Similarly, a good
conductor allows electricity to flow with small loss of
voltage; a poor conductor offers a large resistance and so
causes a corresponding large drop in voltage. The energy used
in overcoming resistance is converted into heat.
40
Chapter 3
The voltage required to make a current flow depends upon the

impedance of the circuit. A voltage of one volt will make one
ampere flow through an impedance of one ohm
E E
I or Z  or E  I * Z
Z I
Where:
I = Current in amperes
E = Voltage in volts
Z = Impedance in ohms
This formula is known as “ohm’s low”.
Many alternating current circuits contain coils that produced
magnetic effects. These magnetic effects in turn react upon
the current. They retard the current and cause it to lag
behind the voltage. It means that the voltage has reaches its
maximum and started to fall some time before the current
reaches a maximum. Some current will be flowing in the circuit
at the instant when the voltage is zero This magnetic reaction
is called “inductance” or “self inductance”.
Another kind of influence on an alternating current is caused
by the presence in the circuit of alternate plates of
conducting material separated by insulation. This commonly
referred to as “capacitor”, and its effect on the current is
to cause it to lead ahead of the voltage. This reaction is
called “capacitance”. It tends to counteract the inductance in
a circuit and is useful in overcoming the inductive lag in the
current inherent in most alternating current motors.
Therefore, in an alternating current circuit there is
resistance, inductance,, and reactance affecting the current.
The combination of any two or all three of these effects is
referred to as “impedance” of the circuit.
 Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. Electric power
is measured in “horsepower”. One horsepower equals 746 watts.
One watt is rather small unit of power, consequently, when
speaking of power required by motors, the term “kilowatt” is
used, one kilowatt being thousand watts. To obtain the power
delivered to an alternating current apparatus, you can not
merely multiply effective amperes by effective volts. If the
circuit contains inductance, the apparatus circuits always
contain it, the product of the effective current and effective
voltage will be greater than the real power. This “apparent
power” is measured in “volt-amperes” or more often in a unit
1000 times as large, “the kilovolt-ampere” usually abbreviated
to “KVA”.
In alternating current power system, the voltage and current
follow an approximate sine wave. They build up from zero to a
41
Chapter 3
maximum in one direction then diminish to zero, build up again

to a maximum but in the opposite direction and again diminish
to zero, thus completing one cycle or two alternations and 360
electrical degree.
The power factor is said to be 1.0 or unity if the voltage and
current reach their respective maximum values simultaneously.
However, as discussed previously, in most alternating current
systems the voltage reaches its maximum value in a given
direction before the current attains its maximum value, then
the current is said to lag behind the voltage. This lag may
measure in degree. The actual current drawn by apparatus of
this class may be considered as having two components, one
known as the magnetizing current, or that current which must
overcome the choking effect produced by the characteristics of
the apparatus, and which lags 90 electric degree behind the
voltage. The value of this lagging current is zero when the
voltage has reached its maximum value. This lagging or
magnetizing current is called “reactive current”.
The other component is known as “real current”, and it is in
phase with the voltage. This real current and voltage reach
maximum values simultaneously.
The actual line current is therefore the vector sum of the
reactive and real currents; furthermore, it is the current
that would be registered if an ammeter is connected in the
circuit. Since there one component lagging 90 electric degree
or at right angles to the voltage, the resultant or actual
line current of which this component is a part must,
consequently, be out of phase with the voltage and lag behind
it. The degree or amount that it lags depends upon the
magnitude of this reactive current component and is a measure
of power factor.
 Resistance
Consider a circuit having resistance R ohms connected
across the terminals of an alternator A, as in the following
figure and suppose the alternating voltage to be represented
by the sine wave as in the next figure.
42
Chapter 3
Voltage
+
Vm
Im
v i
0 Current Time
V and I curve for a resistive Circuit

If the value of the voltage at any instant is v volts, the
value of the current at that instant is given by i  v / R
amperes. When the voltage is zero, the current is also zero;
and since the current is proportional to the voltage, the wave
from the current is exactly the same as that of voltage. Also
the two quantities are in phase with each other; that they
pass through their zero value at the same instant and attain
their maximum values in a given direction at the same instant.
If Vm and Im are the maximum values of the voltage and the
current respectively, it follows that: I m  V m / R
If the instantaneous value of the applied voltage is
represented by:
v  V m sin 
Then the instantaneous value of current in resistive circuit
is,
V
i  m sin 
R
Vector representing the voltage and the current in resistive
circuit is as follows: V
I
 Inductive Reactance
Let us consider the effect of alternating current flowing
through a coil having an inductance of L henrys and negligible
resistance as the following figure.
43
Chapter 3
A v L
Coil
Circuit with inductance only
Suppose the instantaneous value of the current through

inductance L henrys to be represented by
Where:
t is the time in second.
f is number of cycles per second.
Suppose the current to increase by di ampere in dt second,
then,
Instantaneous value of induced emf is
Since f represents the number of cycles/second, the duration

of 1 cycle = 1/f second, consequently,
Hence the wave of the induced emf is, represented by the curve
in the figure below, lagging the current by a quarter of cycle
(90O).
Since the resistance of the circuit is assumed negligible, the
whole of the applied voltage is absorbed in neutralizing the
induce emf.
So, instantaneous value of the applied voltage is,
44
Chapter 3
Comparison of expression (1) and (3), shows that the applied

voltage leads the current by a quarter of cycle (90O). Also,
from (3), it follows that that maximum value Vm of the applied
voltage is,
So that,
The inductive reactance is expressed in ohms and is

represented by XL.
Hence,
 Capacitance reactive
The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge
when its plates are at different potentials is referred to
capacitance as the following figure.
The unit of capacitance is termed the farad (F). Farad is

defined as the capacitance of capacitor which required a
potential difference (p.d) of 1 volt to maintain a charge of
one coulomb on that capacitor.
Let us consider the effect of alternating current flowing
through a capacitor having a capacitance of C farad and
negligible resistance.
45
Chapter 3
Circuit with capacitance only

Suppose the instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the
capacitance to be represented by:
If the applied voltage increases by dv volt in dt second as in

the following figure:
Instantaneous value of current flow through capacitor is,
Comparison of (4)and (5) shows that current leads applied

voltage by a quarter of cycle (90O)and the current and voltage
can be represented vectorially as the following figure.
46
Chapter 3
90 0
v
From expression (5) it follows that the maximum value Im of the
current is,
So,
The capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms and is

represented by the symbol Xc.
 Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in series

An actual circuit may have resistance and inductance, or
resistance and capacitance or resistance, conductance and
capacitance in series. Hence, if we consider the general case
of R, L, and C in series, we can adapt the results to the
other two cases by merely omitting the capacitive or the
inductance from the expression for general case.
In following fig, OB vector represents L (2πfLI) leading the
current by 900; and OC vector represents C (I/2πfC) lagging the
current by 900.
Since OD = OB-OC, OB being assumed greater than OC and supply
voltage is the vectorial sum of OA and OD, namely OE.
47
Chapter 3
B [L]
D E
φ
O
A I
[C]
C
Vector diagram for above figure
From this expression it is seen that:

Resultant reactance = inductive reactance -capacitive
reactance,
Φ = phase difference between the current and the supply

voltage.
48
Chapter 3
If the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive

reactance, tan Φ is positive and the current lags the supply
voltage by an angle Φ; if less, tan Φ is negative, signifying
that the current leads the supply voltage by angle Φ.
If a circuit consists of a coil having a resistance R ohms and
inductance L henrys, such a circuit can be considered as a
resistance and inductive in series and,
And the phase angle in which the current lags the supply
voltage is given by:
Example 1
A coil having a resistance of 12 Ω and inductance of 0.1 H is
connected across a 100 V, 50 c/s supply. Calculate:
a) The reactance and impedance of the coil.
b) The current
c) The phase difference between the current and the apply
voltage.
Solution
(a) Reactance = XL = 2ПfL = 2x3.14159x50x0.1 = 31.4 Ω
Impedance = Z = √R2+XL2 = √122+31.42 = 33.6 Ω
(b) Current = V/Z = 100 / 33.6 = 2.975 A
(c) Tan Φ = XL/R = 31.4 / 12 = 2.617
Φ = 690
Example 2
A metal filament lamp, rated at 750 watt, 100 v, is to be
connected in series with a capacitance across a 230 v, 60 c/s
supply. Calculate:
a) The capacitance required
b) The phase angle between the current and the supply voltage.
Solution i
From vector diagram below,
(a) V2 = VR2+VC2
(230)2 = (100)2 + VC2
VC = 207 Volts
Rated current of lamp = 750 w / 100 v = 7.5 A
7.5 = 2 x 3.14 x 60 x C x 207

C = 96 x 10-6 farad
= 96 microfarad (μF)
49
Chapter 3
(b) If φ = phase angle between current I and supply V.

Cos φ = VR / V = 100 / 230 = 0.435
Φ = 640 12’
Example 3
A resistance of 12 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and capacitance
of 100 μF are connected in series across 100 V, 50 c/s supply.
Calculate:
a) The impedance
b) The current
c) The voltage across R. L, and C
d) The phase difference between current and supply voltage
Solution

 2  1 
2

(a) Z   R   2fL   
  2fC  
 
2
 10 6 
  144  47.1 31.862  19.4
z  122   23.14159500.15 
 23.1415950100 

(b) Current = V/Z = 100 / 19.4 = 5.15 A
(c) Voltage across R = VR = 12x5.15 = 61.8 V
Voltage across L = VL = 47.1x5.15 = 242.5 V
Voltage across C = VC = 31.85x5.15 = 164 V
(d) Phase difference between current and supply voltage =
φ = cos-1(VR/V)= cos-1(61.8/100) = 510 48’
Or φ = tan-1 (VL-VC/VR ) = tan-1(242.5-164)/61.8) = 510 48’
Or alternatively,
φ = tan-1 [2πfL-(1//2πfC)]/R = [47.1-31.85]/12 = 510 48’
See vector diagram below
50
Chapter 3
242.5 VL 47.1 L
15.25
78.5
VR R
φ
61.8 12
164 VC 31.85 C
 Power in series RL circuit

From the above analysis it seen that the voltage applied to
a series RL circuit, the voltage leads the current by angle φ.
It is equally valid to say that the current lags the voltage
by an angle φ. If a voltage Emsinωt is applied to a series RL
circuit, the current is Imsin(ωt-φ). The instantaneous power
is,
p = e x i
= Emsin ωt x Imsin(ωt-φ)
= E m I m cos   E m I m cos2t   
2 2
The second term of the right side has an average value of
zero.
p = E m I m cos   EI cos  -----------(11)

2
Where E and I are the r.m.s. (Root Mean Square) values of
voltage and current and φ is the phase angle between the
voltage and current.
The following figure is the plot of instantaneous voltage,
current and power. The instantaneous power is positive during
the time interval when both e and i are simultaneously
positive or negative. During the interval when one of the two
quantities out of e and i is positive and the other is
negative, instantaneous power is negative. The positive area
is more than the negative area and therefore the average power
is positive.
51
Chapter 3
e=EmSin ωt + ve area i=ImSin( ωt-φ) + ve area

p=EmSinωt*ImSin( ωt - φ) * c o s φ
0 φ
0 -ve
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -ve
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
p=EmSinωt*ImSin( ωt - φ) * c o s φ
0 + ve area p=E*I *cosφ + ve area
φ
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
-ve -ve
Power in RL circuit
 Active power, reactive power and power factor (single
phase)
The average power in the circuit i.e. EIcosφ is the actual
power supplied by the source to the circuit. This is known as
active power of the circuit. The active power is measured in
watts. The bigger units of active power are KW (kilowatt=103
watts) and MW (megawatt=106 watts). The product of voltage and
current i.e. E*I called apparent power and is measured in
volt-ampere (VA).
The ratio of active power to apparent power equals cosφ. This
term cosφ is called power factor of the circuit. It is the
factor by which the apparent power (EI) must be multiplied to
give the active power. The power factor for purely resistive
circuit is 1. Therefore the apparent power and active power
are equal for purely resistive circuit. A circuit may be
52
Chapter 3
characterized as having leading or lagging power factor. A

leading power factor means that the current leads the voltage.
This occurs in the capacitive circuits. An inductive circuit
is described as having lagging power factor, since the current
lags the voltage. The active power in ac circuit can also be
written as I2R.
Example
A 10 ohm resistor and 20 mH (mille Henry) inductor are
connected in series across a 230 volts, 50 c/s supply. Find
the circuit impedance, current voltage across resistor,
apparent power, active power, reactive power, and power
factor.
XL = ωL = 2πfL = 2x3.24x50x20x10-3 = 6.28 Ω
Z = √R2+XL2 = √102+(6.28)2 = 11.8 Ω
Φ = tan-1(XL/R) = 32.10
I = E/Z = 230/11.8 = 19.49 amperes
Voltage across resistor = RI = 10x19.49 = 149.9 volts
Voltage across inductor = IXL = 122.4 volts
Apparent power = EI = 230x 19.49 = 4482.7 VA
Power factor = cos(32.1) = 0.847 lagging
Active power = EIcosφ = 230x19.49x0.847 = 3796.8 watts
Reactive power = EIsinφ = 230x19.49xsin(32.1) = 2382.1 w
 Practical importance of power factor (P.F.)

If an alternator is rated at a given, say 2000 A at a
voltage of 400 v, it means that these are the highest current
and voltage values of the machine can give without the
temperature exceeding a safe value. Consequently the rating of
the alternator is given as 400x2000/1000=800 KVA. The phase
difference between the voltage and the current depends upon
the nature of the load and not upon the generator. Thus if the
power factor of the load is unity, the 800 KVA are also 800
kW; and the engine driving the generator has to be capable of
developing this power together with the losses in the
generator. But if the p.f. of the load is, say 0.5, the power
is only 400 kW; so that the engine is only developing about
one half of the power which it is capable, through the
alternator is supplying its rated output 800 KVA.
Similarly the conductors connecting the alternator to the load
have to be capable of carrying 2000 A without excessive
temperature rise. Consequently they can transmit 800 kW if the
power factor is unity, but only 400 kW at 0.5 p.f. for the
same rise of temperature.
53
Chapter 3
It is therefore evident that the higher the p.f. of the load,

the greater is the power that can be generated by a given
alternator and transmitted by a given conductor.
The matter may be put another way by saying that, for a given
power, the lower the p.f. the larger must be the size of the
alternator to generate that power and the greater must be the
cross sectional area of the conductor to transmit it; in other
words, the greater is the cost of generation and transmission
of the electric energy. This is the reason why supply
authorities do all they can to improve the p.f. for their
loads (by ex. installing capacitors).
 Three phase alternating current
Three phase alternating current is the best suites for long
distance transmission because it may be easily generated at
low to moderately high voltages and can then have the voltage
raised to very high values suitable for efficient
transmission, and then the voltage can be reduced to a value
suitable for general use by means of stationary device known
as a transformer. The higher the voltage, the smaller the wire
required to carry a given amount of power. The following
figures are the curve and diagram representing three phase
alternating current.
phase 1
phase 2 phase 3
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
54
Chapter 3
EYNR Line voltage (VL)

Between any line
conductors
phase voltage (VP)
(voltage to neutral)
ENR EBN
EYN 30
o
o
120
EBNY
o
120
ENB
ENY
Vector diagram
ERNB
Since the angle between ENR and EYN is 600,

EYNR = 2ENRcos300 = √3ENR
Line voltage = 1.73 x phase voltage
In general:
If VL = p.d. between any two line conductors
= line voltage
And VP = p.d. between a line conductor and neutral point
= phase voltage
And if IL and IP = line and phase current respectively,
then for a star connection system,
VL = 1.73 VP
IL = IP
For delta connection:
IL = 1.73 IP
 Power in three phase system with balanced load
If Ip = value of the current in each phase
Vp = value of p.d. across each phase
Power per phase = IpVp x power factor
And total power = 3IpVp x power factor
If IL and VL be the value of the line current and voltage
respectively, then for star connection system,
VP = VL/1.73 and IP = IL so,
Total power in watts = 1.73 x ILVL x power factor
For delta connection system,
55
Chapter 3
IP = IL/1.73 and VP = VL so,

Total power in watts = 1.73 x ILVL x power factor
Example
A three phase motor operating off 400 v system is developing
25 bhp at an efficiency of 0.87 and a power factor of 0.82.
Calculate (a) the line current and (b) the phase current if
the windings are delta-connected.
output power in watts
(a) Efficiency 
input power in watts
bhpx746

1.73 I L V L xP.F
25 x746
0.87 
1.73 xI L x400 x0.82
IL = 37.8 A
(b) For delta-connected windings
line current 37.8
phase current    21.8 A
1.73 1.73
 Complex Numbers
The mathematics used in Electrical Engineering to add
together resistances, currents or DC voltages uses what are
called "real numbers". But real numbers are not the only kind
of numbers we need to use especially when dealing with
frequency dependent sinusoidal sources and vectors. As well as
using normal or real numbers, Complex Numbers were introduced
to allow complex equations to be solved with numbers that are
the square roots of negative numbers, √-1.
In electrical engineering this type of number is called an
"imaginary number" and to distinguish an imaginary number from
a real number the letter "j" known commonly in electrical
engineering as the j-operator. The letter j is used in front
of a number to signify its imaginary number operation.
Examples of imaginary numbers are: j3, j12, j100 etc. Then
a complex number consists of two distinct but very much
related parts, a "Real Number" plus an " Imaginary Number ".
Complex Numbers represent points in a two dimensional complex
or s-plane that are referenced to two distinct axes. The
horizontal axis is called the "real axis" while the vertical
axis is called the "imaginary axis".
The rules and laws used in mathematics for the addition or
subtraction of imaginary numbers are the same as for real
numbers, j2 + j4 = j6 etc. The only difference is in
multiplication because two imaginary numbers multiplied
together becomes a positive real number, as two negatives make
56
Chapter 3
a positive. Real numbers can also be thought of as a complex

number but with a zero imaginary part labeled j0.
The j-operator has a value exactly equal to √-1, so successive
multiplication of "j", (j x j ) will result in j having the
following values of, -1, -j and +1. As the j-operator is
commonly used to indicate the anticlockwise rotation of a
vector, each successive multiplication or power of "j", j2,
j3 etc, will force the vector to rotate through an angle of
90o anticlockwise as shown below. Likewise, if the
multiplication of the vector results in a -j operator then the
phase shift will be -90o, i.e. a clockwise rotation.
Vector Rotation of the j-operator

So by multiplying an imaginary number by j2 will rotate the
vector by 180o anticlockwise, multiplying by j3 rotates
it 270o and by j4 rotates it 360o or back to its original
position. Multiplication by j10 or by j30 will cause the vector
to rotate anticlockwise by the appropriate amount. In each
successive rotation, the magnitude of the vector always
remains the same. There are different ways in Electrical
Engineering to represent complex numbers either graphically or
mathematically. One such way that uses the cosine and sine
rule is called the Cartesian or Rectangular Form.
► Complex Numbers using the Rectangular Form

Complex number is represented by a real part and an imaginary
part that takes the general form of:
Where:
Z is the Complex Number representing the Vector
x is the Real part or the Active component
y is the Imaginary part or the Reactive component
j is defined by √-1
In the rectangular form, a complex number can be represented
as a point on a two-dimensional plane called the complex or s-
plane. So for example, Z = 6 + j4 represents a single point
whose coordinates represent 6 on the horizontal real axis and
4 on the vertical imaginary axis as shown.
57
Chapter 3
Complex Numbers using the Complex or s-plane

But as both the real and imaginary parts of a complex number
in the rectangular form can be either a positive number or a
negative number, then both the real and imaginary axis must
also extend in both the positive and negative directions. This
then produces a complex plane with four quadrants called
an Argand Diagram as shown below.
Four Quadrant Argand Diagram
On the Argand diagram, the horizontal axis represents all

positive real numbers to the right of the vertical imaginary
58
Chapter 3
axis and all negative real numbers to the left of the vertical
imaginary axis. All positive imaginary numbers are represented
above the horizontal axis while all the negative imaginary
numbers are below the horizontal real axis. This then produces
a two dimensional complex plane with four distinct quadrants
labeled, QI, QII, QIII, and QIV. The Argand diagram can also
be used to represent a rotating phasor as a point in the
complex plane whose radius is given by the magnitude of the
phasor will draw a full circle around it for
every 2π/ω seconds.
Complex Numbers can also have "zero" real or imaginary parts

such as: Z = 6 + j0 or Z = 0 + j4. In this case the points
are plotted directly onto the real or imaginary axis. Also,
the angle of a complex number can be calculated using simple
trigonometry to calculate the angles of right-angled
triangles, or measured anti-clockwise around the Argand
diagram starting from the positive real axis.
Then angles between 0 and 90o will be in the first quadrant
( I ), angles ( θ ) between 90 and 180o in the second quadrant
( II ). The third quadrant ( III ) includes angles between 180
and 270o while the fourth and final quadrant ( IV ) which
completes the full circle includes the angles between 270 and
360o and so on. In all the four quadrants the relevant angles
can be found from tan-1(imaginary component/real component).
► Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The addition or subtraction of complex numbers can be done
either mathematically or graphically in rectangular form. For
addition, the real parts are firstly added together to form
the real part of the sum, and then the imaginary parts to form
the imaginary part of the sum and this process is as follows
using two complex numbers A and B as examples.
Example 1
Two vectors, A = 4 + j1 and B = 2 + j3 respectively. Determine
the sum and difference of the two vectors in both rectangular
(a + jb) form and graphically as an Argand Diagram.
Addition
Subtraction
59
Chapter 3
Graphical Addition and Subtraction

► Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers
The multiplication of complex numbers in the rectangular form
follows more or less the same rules as for normal algebra
along with some additional rules for the successive
2
multiplication of the j-operator where: j = -1. So for
example, multiplying together our two vectors from above
of A = 4 + j1 and B = 2 + j3 will give us the following
result.
Mathematically, the division of complex numbers in rectangular

form is a little more difficult to perform as it requires the
use of the denominators conjugate function to convert the
denominator of the equation into a real number. This is called
"rationalizing". Then the division of complex numbers is best
carried out using "Polar Form", which we will look at later.
However, as an example in rectangular form lets find the value
of vector A divided by vector B.
Multiply top and bottom by conjugate (2-j3)
► The Complex Conjugate

The Complex Conjugate, or simply Conjugate of a complex number
is found by reversing the algebraic sign of the complex
numbers imaginary number only while keeping the algebraic sign
60
Chapter 3
of the real number the same and to identify the complex

conjugate of z the symbol z is used. For example, the
conjugate of z = 6 + j4 is z = 6 - j4, likewise the conjugate
of z = 6 - j4 is z = 6 + j4. The points on the Argand diagram
for a complex conjugate have the same horizontal position on
the real axis as the original complex number, but opposite
vertical positions. Thus, complex conjugates can be thought of
as a reflection of a complex number. The following example
shows a complex number, 6 + j4 and its conjugate in the
complex plane.
Conjugate Complex Numbers

The sum of a complex number and its complex conjugate will
always be a real number as we have seen above. Then the
addition of a complex number and its conjugate gives the
result as a real number or active component only, while their
subtraction gives an imaginary number or reactive component
only. The conjugate of a complex number is an important
element used in Electrical Engineering to determine the
apparent power of an AC circuit using rectangular form.
► Complex Numbers using Polar Form
Unlike rectangular form which plots points in the complex
plane, the Polar Form of a complex number is written in terms
of its magnitude and angle. Thus, a polar form vector is
presented as: Z = A ∠±θ, where: Z is the complex number in
polar form, A is the magnitude or modulo of the vector
and θ is its angle or argument of A which can be either
positive or negative. The magnitude and angle of the point
still remains the same as for the rectangular form above, this
time in polar form the location of the point is represented in
a "triangular form" as shown below.
61
Chapter 3
Polar Form Representation of a Complex Number

As the polar representation of a point is based around the
triangular form, we can use simple geometry of the triangle
and especially trigonometry and Pythagoras's Theorem on
triangles to find both the magnitude and the angle of the
complex number. As we remember from school, trigonometry deals
with the relationship between the sides and the angles of
triangles so we can describe the relationships between the
sides as:
Using trigonometry again, the angle θ of A is given as

follows.
Then in Polar form the length of A and its angle represents

the complex number instead of a point. Also in polar form, the
conjugate of the complex number has the same magnitude or
modulus it is the sign of the angle that changes, so for
example the conjugate of 6 ∠30o would be 6 ∠–30o.
► Converting between Rectangular Form and Polar Form
In the rectangular form we can express a vector in terms of
its rectangular coordinates, with the horizontal axis being
its real axis and the vertical axis being its imaginary axis
or j-component. In polar form these real and imaginary axes
are simply represented by "A ∠θ". Then using our example
above, the relationship between rectangular form and polar
form can be defined as.
► Converting Polar Form into Rectangular Form, ( P→R )
►
62
Chapter 3
We can also convert back from rectangular form to polar form

as follows.
► Converting Rectangular Form into Polar Form, ( R→P )
► Polar Form Multiplication and Division

Rectangular form is best for adding and subtracting complex
numbers as we saw above, but polar form is often better for
multiplying and dividing. To multiply together two vectors in
polar form, we must first multiply together the two modulus or
magnitudes and then add together their angles.
Multiplication in Polar Form
Multiplying together 6 ∠30o and 8 ∠– 45o in polar form gives
us.
Division in Polar Form

Likewise, to divide together two vectors in polar form, we
must divide the two modulus and then subtract their angles as
shown.
3.19. Equivalent circuit of induction motor

To analyze the operating and performance characteristics
of an induction motor, an Equivalent Circuit can be drawn. We
will consider a 3–phase, Y connected machine, the Equivalent
Circuit for the stator is as shown below:
63
Chapter 3
V1 = Stator Terminal Voltage
I1 = Stator Current
R1 = Stator Effective Resistance
X1 = Stator Leakage Reactance
Z1 = Stator Impedance (R1 + jX1)
Io = Exciting Current (this is comprised of the core loss
component = Ic, and a magnetizing current = Im)
The rotor winding can be represented as:
Rotor Circuit
I2 = Rotor Current
R2 = Rotor winding Resistance
X2 = Rotor Leakage Reactance
Z2 = Rotor Impedance (R1 + jX1)
E2 = Induced EMF in the rotor (generated by the air gap flux)
The EMF (E2) is equal to the stator terminal voltage less the
voltage drop caused by the stator leakage impedance.
Note:
● Never use three-phase equivalent circuit. Always use per-
phase equivalent circuit.
● The equivalent circuit always bases on the Y connection
regardless of the actual connection of the motor.
● Induction machine equivalent circuit is composed of stator
circuit and rotor circuit.
3.19.1. Effective circuit of induction motor at standstill

Standstill means rotor circuit is open. At open
circuits, S = 1, accordingly, E1 = E2, fs = fr, X2 = 2πfrL2.
Refer to section 3.7 and 3.8.
64
Chapter 3
Effective circuit at standstill

E2 = V1 - I1 (Z1)
Where E2 is rotor induced emf at standstill
E2 = V1 - I1 (R1 + jX1) = I1 Z1
3.19.2. Effective circuit of induction motor under

operating conditions (rotor winding is shorted)
 Now suppose induction-motor is loaded down. As motor’s load
increases its slip rises because of which the rotor speed
falls.
 Greater relative motion produces a stronger rotor voltage E2
which in turn produces a larger rotor current I2.
 Then the rotor magnetic field φ also increases. Since rotor
slip is larger, rotor frequency rises (fr = s fs ) and rotor
reactance increases (ωLr). Therefore, rotor current lags
further behind the rotor voltage.
Accordingly the parameters will be changed to be as follows:
The stator and rotor sides are, in the figure below, separated
by an air gap.
I2 = Rotor current in running condition
It is important to note that as load on the motor changes, the

motor speed changes. Thus slip changes. As slip changes the
65
Chapter 3
reactance of standstill X2 changes to be sX2 which is shown

variable.
The rotor impedance can be represented by:
Effective circuit of induction motor under operating

conditions
In the running condition the variable resistance R2/s can be
rearranged as follows:
So the variable rotor resistance R2/s has two parts.

1. Rotor resistance R2 itself which represents copper loss.
2. R2(1 - s)/s which represents load resistance RL. So it is
electrical equivalent of mechanical load on the motor.
Key Point : Thus the mechanical load on the motor is
represented by the pure resistance of value R2(1 -s)/s.
The effective circuit of the induction motor under operating
condition shall be as following:
It means that R2/s = rotor copper resistance + load resistance.
66
Chapter 3
3.19.3. Power Relations
1. Input Power
2. Stator copper losses
3. Rotor copper losses
4. Air gap power
5. Mechanical power
6. Output power
7. Output torque
Power flow diagram
67
Chapter 3
Example 1
A 480-V, 60 Hz, 50-hp, three phase induction motor is drawing
60A at 0.85 PF lagging. The stator copper losses are 2 kW, and
the rotor copper losses are 700 W. The friction and windage
losses are 600 W, the core losses are 1800 W, and the stray
losses are negligible. Find the following quantities:
1. The air-gap power PAG.
2. The power converted Pm.
3. The output power Pout.
4. The efficiency of the motor.
Solution
Example 2
A 480V, 60 Hz, 6-pole, three-phase, delta-connected induction
motor has the following parameters:
R1=0.461 Ω, R2=0.258 Ω, X1=0.507 Ω, X2=0.309 Ω, Xm=30.74 Ω
Rotational losses are 2450W. The motor drives a mechanical
load at a speed of 1170 rpm. Calculate the following
information:
 Synchronous speed in rpm
 Slip
 Line Current
 Input Power
 Air gap Power
 Torque Developed
 Output Power in Hp
 Efficiency
Solution
68
Chapter 3
Note: the core losses is so small as the Io<<<<<I1 so it is

neglected.
 Synchronous speed in rpm
 Slip
 Line Current
Phase current is given by:
Note that the machine is delta connected, so, V1 = VLL = 480 V
69
Chapter 3
Therefore IL = √3 × 46.6 = 80.6 A

 Input Power
 Air gap Power

Air gap power is the input power minus stator losses.
 Torque Developed
 Output Power in Hp
Neglecting friction and windage losses, so, Pout = Pm
 Efficiency
3.20. Determination of motor parameters

The motor parameters are determined from three tests:
 Stator DC resistance measurement. Determines the stator
resistance value (R1).
o The motor is supplied by DC voltage between two terminals A
and B at the figure below.
o The dc voltage and current are measured.
o If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator
resistance is:
o If the stator is Delta-connected, the per phase stator

resistance is:
70
Chapter 3
No load test
 No-load test: Provides the magnetizing reactance and core
resistance (Rc and Xm). In this course we will only find Xm
and ignore Rc
o The motor is allowed to spin freely

o The motor is supplied by rated line-to-line voltage V, the
no-load current I1 and the no load input power P are
measured.
o The only load on the motor is the friction and windage
losses, so all Pm is consumed by mechanical losses.
o The slip of the induction motor at no-load is very low.
Thus, the value of the equivalent resistance R2(1-s)/s in the
rotor branch of the equivalent circuit is very high.
The equivalent circuit reduces to…
Combining Rc & RF+W we get……
71
Chapter 3
o At the no-load conditions, the input power measured by

meters must equal the losses in the motor.
o The PRCL is negligible because I2 is extremely small because
R2(1-s)/s is very large.
o The input power equals
o The equivalent input impedance is thus approximately
o The value of the stator leakage reactance X1 can be

determined from the blocked rotor test. The value of the
magnetizing reactance can then be determined.
 Blocked Rotor Test

o In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so that it
cannot move, a voltage is applied to the motor, and the
resulting voltage, current and power are measured.
o The AC voltage applied to the stator is adjusted so that
the current flow is approximately full-load value.
o The locked-rotor power factor can be found as
o The magnitude of the total impedance
Where X’1 and X’2 are the stator and rotor reactances at the
test frequency respectively
72
Chapter 3
X1 and X2 as
function of
XLR
Rotor Design X1 X2
0.5 0.5
Design A
XLR XLR
0.4 0.6
Design B
XLR XLR
0.3 0.7
Design C
XLR XLR
0.5 0.5
Design D
XLR XLR
Example
The following test results are obtained from three phase 100
hp, 460 v, eight pole star connected induction motor, design A
rotor.
No load test:
460 v, 60 Hz, 40 A, 4.2 Kw.
Blocked rotor test:
100 v, 60 Hz, 140 A, 8 Kw.
Average DC resistor between two stator terminals is 0.152 
Determine:
1. The parameters of the equivalent cicuit
2. The motor is connected to 3φ, 460 v, 60 Hz supply and runs
at 873 rpm. Determine:
a. The input current
b. The input power
c. Air gap power
d. Rotor copper loss
e. Mechanical power developed
f. Output power
g. Efficiency of the motor
3. The speed of the rotor field relative to stator structure
and stator rotating field.
Solution
73
Chapter 3
From No load test:
From block rotor test:
As rotor is design A, then,
Equivalent circuit
Input impedance:
74
Chapter 3
Input Power:
Stator copper loss:
Air gap power:
Rotor copper loss:
Mechanical power developed:
From no load test:
3.21. NEMA standard for squirrel cage induction motor

Design A Motor
Hp range: 0.5 – 500 hp.
Starting current: 6 to 10 times full-load current.
Good running efficiency: 87% - 89.
Good power factor: 87% - 89%.
Low rated slip: 3 –5 %.
Starting torque is about 150% of full load torque.
Maximum torque is over 200% but less than 225% of full-load
torque.
Typical applications: constant speed applications where high
starting torque is not needed and high starting torque is
tolerated.
75
Chapter 3
Design B motor
Hp range: 0.5 to 500 hp
Higher reactance than the Design A motor, obtained by means of
deep, narrow rotor bars.
The starting current is held to about 5 times the full-load
current.
This motor allows full-voltage starting.
The starting torque, slip and efficiency are nearly the same
as for the Design A motor.
Power factor and maximum torque are little lower than class A,
Typical applications: constant speed applications where high
starting torque is not needed and high starting torque is
tolerated.
Unsuitable for applications where there is a high load peak
Design C motor
Hp range: 3 to 200 hp
This type of motor has a "double-layer" or double squirrel-
cage winding.
It combines high starting torque with low starting current.
Two windings are applied to the rotor, an outer winding having
high resistance and low reactance and an inner winding having
low resistance and high reactance.
Operation is such that the reactance of both windings decrease
as rotor frequency decreases and speed increases.
On starting, a much larger induced currents flow in the outer
winding than in the inner winding, because at low rotor speeds
the inner-winding reactance is quite high.
As the rotor speed increases, the reactance of the inner
winding drops and combined with the low inner-winding
resistance, permits the major portion of the rotor current to
appear in the inner winding.
Starting current about: 5 times full load current.
The starting torque is rather high (200% - 250%).
Full-load torque is the same as that for both A and B designs.
The maximum torque is lower than the starting torque, maximum
torque (180-225%).
Typical applications: constant speed loads requiring fairly
high starting torque and lower starting currents
76
Chapter 3
Design D motor
Produces a very high starting torque-approximately 275% of
full-load torque.
It has low starting current,
High slip: 7-16%
Low efficiency.
Torque changes with load
Typical applications: used for high inertia loads
The above classification is for squirrel cage induction motor
3.22. Torque of squirrel cage induction motor

In order to perform useful work, the induction motor must
be started from rest and both the motor and load accelerated
up to full speed. Typically, this is done by relying on the
high slip characteristics of the motor and enabling it to
provide the acceleration torque.
Induction motors at rest, appear just like a short circuited
transformer, and if connected to the full supply voltage, draw
a very high current known as the "Locked Rotor Current". They
also produce torque which is known as the "Locked Rotor
Torque". The Locked Rotor Torque (LRT) and the Locked Rotor
Current (LRC) are a function of the terminal voltage to the
motor, and the motor design. As the motor accelerates, both
the torque and the current will tend to alter with rotor speed
if the voltage is maintained constant.
The starting current of a motor, with a fixed voltage, will
drop very slowly as the motor accelerates and will only begin
to fall significantly when the motor has reached at least 80%
full speed. The actual curves for induction motors can vary
considerably between designs, but the general trend is for a
high current until the motor has almost reached full speed.
The LRC of a motor can range from 500% Full Load Current (FLC)
to as high as 1400% FLC. Typically, good motors fall in the
range of 550% to 750% FLC.
77
Chapter 3
The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a

fixed voltage, will drop a little to the minimum torque known
as the pull up torque as the motor accelerates, and then rise
to a maximum torque known as the breakdown or pull out torque
at almost full speed and then drop to zero at synchronous
speed. The curve of start torque against rotor speed is
dependent on the terminal voltage and the motor/rotor design.
The LRT of an induction motor can vary from as low as 60% Full
Load Torque (FLT) to as high as 350% FLT. The pull-up torque
can be as low as 40% FLT and the breakdown torque can be as
high as 350% FLT. Typical LRTs for medium to large motors are
in the order of 120% FLT to 280% FLT.
78
Chapter 3
Figure above graph shows that starting torque known as locked

rotor torque (LRT) is higher than 100% of the full load torque
(FLT), the safe continuous torque rating.
The locked rotor torque is about 175% of FLT for the example
motor graphed above. Starting current known as locked rotor
current (LRC) is 500% of full load current (FLC), the safe
running current. The current is high because this is analogous
to a shorted secondary on a transformer.
As the rotor starts to rotate the torque may decrease a bit
for certain classes of motors to a value known as the pull up
torque. This is the lowest value of torque ever encountered by
the starting motor. As the rotor gains 80% of synchronous
speed, torque increases from 175% up to 300% of the full load
torque. This breakdown torque is due to the larger than normal
20% slip.
The current has decreased only slightly at this point, but
will decrease rapidly beyond this point. As the rotor
accelerates to within a few percent of synchronous speed, both
torque and current will decrease substantially. Slip will be
only a few percent during normal operation. For a running
motor, any portion of the torque curve below 100% rated torque
is normal.
The motor load determines the operating point on the torque
curve. While the motor torque and current may exceed 100% for
a few seconds during starting, continuous operation above 100%
can damage the motor. Any motor torque load above the
breakdown torque will stall the motor. The torque, slip, and
current will approach zero for a “no mechanical torque” load
condition. This condition is analogous to an open secondary
transformer.
There are several basic induction motor designs (Figure below)
showing considerable variation from the torque curve above.
The different designs are optimized for starting and running
different types of loads. The locked rotor torque (LRT) for
various motor designs and sizes ranges from 60% to 350% of
full load torque (FLT). Starting current or locked rotor
current (LRC) can range from 500% to 1400% of full load
current (FLC). This current draw can present a starting
problem for large induction motors.
79
Chapter 3
Torque of NEMA designs
80
Chapter 4
Protector (Seal)
Table of Content
1 Seal section functions 2
2 Seal section basic type 3
2.1 Labyrinth seal
2.2 Positive seal
3 Mechanical face seal 11
4 Axial thrust bearings 13
5 Modular protector 17
6 Seal operation cycle 20
7 Application 25
1
Chapter 4
Protector (Seal)
What is Protector?
 Protector is located between the intake/GS above, and the
motor below. It serves as a vital link in the entire ESP
system.
 It has several functions and each of them has to be
considered carefully for overall system design.
4.1. Seal Section Functions

4.1.1. Equalize pressure
It equalizes the pressure inside and outside of the
system and at the same time provides room for motor oil
thermal expansion.
The Protector needs to balance the pressure inside the
system and the pressure outside.
How does it do this??
o By maintaining a fluid interface between the motor oil
and the well fluid of different specific gravity
(labyrinth protector), if the well fluid specific gravity
is greater than 0.85, or
o Maintain separation of the two fluids through an elastomer
bag (bag protector), if the well fluid specific gravity is
lower than 0.85.
o Protector is open to the well-bore, allowing the motor
pressure to remain the same as that in the well annulus
around it.
o The labyrinth design uses the difference in specific
gravity of the well fluid and the motor oil to keep them
apart even though they are in direct contact.
4.1.2. Absorb thrust
Another function of the Protector is to absorb the
thrust generated by the pump. It can either be upthrust or
downthrust, depending on the pumping conditions.
The seal section’s position is driven by the need to support
the pump shaft thrust load, so that none of the thrust is
transferred to the motor thrust bearing. The seal section
has room for a large thrust bearing with more capacity than
is possible in the motor head (where the motor thrust
bearing is located). Also, the seal section does not have to
support the motor rotor weight, allowing more capacity for
pump thrust support.
2
Chapter 4
The thrust bearing works on hydrodynamic lubrication

principle. The runner carrying the thrust forces is riding
on a hydrodynamic oil film created by the relative motion
between the runner and the bearing. There are three types of
bearing (Reda).
Fig (4.1) Thrust Bearing
 Standard bearing – Babbitt (lead based)

 HL Bronze bearing - (9000 LBS – 540 series, 60 HZ)
 HL bearing – Polymer coated tilting pad bearing
(12000 LBS – 540 series, 60 HZ)
4.1.3. Isolate motor oil
It isolates the clean dielectric motor oil from well
bore fluid. Preventing well fluid entry is critical for
bearing lubrication and electric isolation strength. For
this reason multiple redundant isolation chambers have
become standard.
4.1.4. Transmit torque
One other function which the Protector carries out is
transmission of the motor torque to the pump since it is
physically located between the two.
Although this may seem a little trivial, in the selection
process we need to be certain that the Protector shaft is
capable of delivering the full torque required without
exceeding its yield strength which could result in a broken
shaft.
4.2. Seal Section Basic Types

4.2.1. Labyrinth Type
Fig (4.2) shows a typical labyrinth type isolation chamber in
the lower chamber. The labyrinth design uses the difference in
3
Chapter 4
specific gravity of the well fluid and the motor oil to keep
them apart even though they are in direct contact.
 The heavier gravity well fluid is separated by gravity.
 A “U-tube” design keeps the heavy well fluid going lower
into the unit keeping the thrust bearing and motor full of
clean oil. With this design, the motor oil and well fluid
are in contact.
 The labyrinth chamber is isolated from the shaft rotation by
the shaft tube so that no mixing will occur by unit turning.
 The well fluid is generally immiscible with motor oil so,
even though there is a direct contact; there is no tendency
to contaminate the motor oil.
Fig (4.2) typical labyrinth type
Fig (4.3) shows motor oil expansion and contraction in the

labyrinth type (Top of unit is in contact with well fluid via
the pump intake and bottom of unit is in direct contact with
motor head)
A schematic layout is shown in fig (4.4). It is referred to as
"labyrinth" or "U tube" style chamber.
4
Chapter 4
Typically, there is a mechanical seal located at the top of

this chamber and mounted on the shaft. Its function is to
prevent the well fluid from traveling directly down the shaft
and through the chamber. The mechanical seal will be discussed
in detail in a later section.
Fig (4.4)
For pressure equalization to the well annulus, a passageway is
provided in the seal head connecting the area just above the
mechanical face seal to the outside annular section of the
labyrinth chamber.
The complete fluid flow path through the chamber is shown in
fig (4.5).
As the temperature of the unit increases, the dielectric oil
expands up the inner annular section formed by the shaft and
the shaft support tube. At the top of this annulus, the
dielectric oil migrates over to the middle annular section
formed by the shaft support tube and middle tube. It then
travels down this section and up the outer annular section
formed by middle tube and the outer housing. The dielectric
oil then travels through the passageway connecting the area
above the mechanical face seal. Upon the contraction, the
dielectric oil follows the reverse path through the chamber.
During expansion mode, motor oil (dielectric oil) is being
vented through the chamber to the well bore. As the unit cools
down and the motor oil inside the unit contracts, fluid
outside the chamber (well fluid) is pulled back along the flow
path into the outer annulus of the chamber. As well fluid
5
Chapter 4
usually has a higher specific gravity than the motor oil, it

will settle to the bottom of that annular section.
Therefore, as the unit goes through further thermal cycling,
the well fluid in this chamber will U-tube back and forth
between the middle and outer annular sections. If there is a
several expansion cycle, then the well fluid can be U-tubed
out of the middle annulus and additional motor oil can be
displaced by well fluid. If there is a sever contraction, well
fluid could be pulled high enough into the middle annulus to
flow over into the inner annulus and down into the cavity
below the chamber.
One weakness of this style is the fact that the two fluids
have a common interface. With time, the motor oil will see a
degradation of dielectric strength because of water saturation
or wetting from the well fluid.
Fig (4.5) flow diagram

There are conditions when it is not convenient to use this
type of protector:
 Well fluid,
The heavier gravity well fluid is separated by gravity.
A "U-tube" design keeps the heavy well fluid from going
lower into the unit keeping the thrust bearing and motor
full of clean motor oil.
6
Chapter 4
With this design, the motor oil and well fluid are in direct
contact. The labyrinth chamber is isolated from the shaft
rotation by the shaft tube so that no mixing will occur by the
unit turning.
The well fluid is generally immiscible with the motor oil so,
even though there is direct contact; there is no tendency to
contaminate the motor oil.
When the well fluid is lighter gravity than the motor oil
(i.e. about 0.85). The motor oil will go to the bottom of the
chamber rather than the top causing the motor fluid to be
replaced by well fluid pretty quickly.
Fig (4.6) The well fluid is lighter than the dielectric oil
 Horizontal or Highly Deviated Wells.
Labyrinth Protectors also will not work in horizontal or
highly deviated wells. The gravity separation design requires
the unit to be mostly upright. This Protector can operate in
some amount of deviation but the expansion volume is somewhat
reduced.
Deviation from vertical at the setting depth has a significant
effect on the expansion / contraction capacity of all
labyrinth type chambers. In the extreme situation case the up-
down-up labyrinth path becomes left-right-left. Needless to
say, the usefulness of density separation in this extreme
situation is eliminated.
Fig (4.7) shows labyrinth chamber in 90O deviation and its
remaining capacity. The capacity of the chamber is reduced in
direct proportion to the deviation angle.
It is important to make sure that the labyrinth type chambers
have enough expansion capacity for the application at the
installed deviation angle. If the a chamber does not have
enough capacity, well fluid can pass the chamber in one
thermal cycle. The amount of oil expansion / contraction at
each isolation chamber depends upon three variables:
1. The amount of oil below each chamber.
2. The oil’s coefficient of thermal expansion.
7
Chapter 4
3. The operating thermal cycles of all oil volumes below the

chamber.
Fig (4.7) Labyrinth Type in Horizontal Position

4.2.2. Positive Type
Often referred to as a "bag" or "bladder" style
chamber, this design incorporates a positive barrier between
the well fluid and motor oil. The middle tube of the labyrinth
style chamber is replaced with flexible membrane which seals
around the chamber shaft support tube.
An illustration of this chamber is shown in fig (4.8)
Fig (4.8) positive seal

The positive seal is applied where the well fluid and motor
oil gravities are similar or where a well is highly deviated.
The positive barrier style chamber has a mechanical face seal
located on the shaft above the chamber. Its function it to
protect the shaft radial support bushing and to prevent well
fluid from migrating directly down the shaft and through the
chamber. It is important to protect the shaft pushing to
preserve the proper functioning of the mechanical face seal.
Pressure equalization to the well annulus is provided for by a
flow passageway communicating from the interior section of the
membrane, to the outer section, then through the head to the
well bore.
8
Chapter 4
A flow diagram is shown in fig (4.9).

On expansion, the dielectric oil travels from the area below
this chamber, up through a communicating passageway to the
inner annular section. At the top of this section, it flows
into the interior section of the membrane through a set of
communication holes located near the top the shaft support
tube.
After the membrane interior section is equalized or filled,
the fluid will continue up the inner annular section to the
communication passageway at the top of the chamber. There it
will pass through two, low pressure check valves set in
series, to the outer section of the chamber.
The use of multiple check valves will enhance their functional
reliability in case of one of them fails to seal. The fluid
will then flow through another communication passageway to
area above the mechanical seal.
On contraction, the check valves remain seated and the
flexible membrane will compensate for the volume reduction by
collapsing inward. The pressure in the outer section is
equalized by the flow of the well fluid back into this section
of the chamber from the area above the face seal.
The higher specific gravity well fluid will settle to the
bottom of this section away from direct contact with the check
valves.
Upon further thermal cycling, the flexible membrane will
expand as the fluid heats up and contract as fluid cools down.
Unless the maximum temperature of the initial thermal cycle is
exceeded, there should be no further expansion of motor oil
out of the membrane interior section.
Figure (4.9) flow diagram
9
Chapter 4
Fig (4.10) Typical Bag Type

The bag is made of a high temperature / high performance
elastomer which can withstand the harsh downhole environments
typically encountered. The bag keeps the well fluid and the
clean motor oil completely separate from each other on either
side of the elastomer that the bag is made of.
When the motor oil expands or contracts, the bag simply
expands or contracts to accommodate the necessary volume
change.
10
Chapter 4
Fig (4.7)
Bag Type in inflated and deflated position
 Positive Seal Protectors –Limitations
The positive seal Protector offers a great deal of
flexibility and is useful in a wide variety of applications.
One area where care needs to be taken with this type of
Protector is with harsh well chemicals as may be experienced
with a treatment program. As with any oil field elastomer,
care must be taken to ensure that the rubber will not be
damaged by anything it will encounter in the well (See table
4.1)
Table (4.1)
* Temperature Limit above indicates maximum operating temperature for the
pecific REDA compound. An elastomeric component will operate at a
temperature higher than the well ambient temperature depending on its
location in the equipment. Contact REDA for specific application assistance.
1 = Excellent long term resistance (very low swell/maintains very high
physical properties)
2 = Good long term resistance (moderate swell/maintains high physical
properties)
3 = Fair - depends upon exposure time and temperature (good short term
resistance)
4 = Poor - no resistance even in short term
Table (4.1) Ealstomer Selection
4.3. Mechanical Face Seals

Each independent isolation chamber has its own mechanical
face seal, usually located at top of each chamber. The
mechanical seal is a dynamic seal that prevents well fluid
migration down the shaft. It has rotating assembly that fixed
to the shaft and a stationary component called a seat or
primary ring. Fig (4.11) shows a mechanical seal and all four
of its critical seal location.
Each mechanical face seal includes three static seals. The
first is the o-ring between the stationary seat and the bore
in which it is inserted. The third static seat is between the
rubber bellows and the shaft.
Each of static seals uses rubber materials which are
compressed against hard surfaces with an appropriate finish.
The rubber materials must be selected for compatibility with
11
Chapter 4
the well fluid and any chemical treatments. A leak at any of

the three static seals location will cause well fluid to fill
the chamber which the mechanical face seal protects.
Fig (4.11) Mechanical Face Seal

The dynamic seal location is between the rotating face and
stationary seat. The rotating face and stationary seat must be
extremely flat on the surface in contact with the other. Any
surface defects can cause dynamic seal to leak. It is also
important that the rotating face must be moving in a very
circular path. The dynamic seal is a wet seal with motor oil
extending partially across the face from one side, and well
fluid extending in from the other. Significant eccentricity in
the rotation well cause the motor oil and well fluid to
intermingle and result in a pumping affect across the seal
face, usually outward. Sand and scale can damage the dynamic
seal faces and cause leaks. In wells with significant amount
of scale and/or sand, ceramics or tungsten carbide are good
selections for the faces in the uppermost mechanical face
seals.
Proper filling of the motor and seal section is critical
to the mechanical health of the bearings in both components.
However, even under ideal conditions, a small amount of air
may remain in the system after filling. Any air remaining in
the motor or seal section will tend to rise up and form pocket
under mechanical seals. The motor, having more oil volume and
laminated construction, is the most likely source of residual
air. An air pocket will reduce the dynamic seal face
lubrication and provide insulation. Reduce lubrication causes
more heat generation and insulation raises the seal face
temperature, further reducing lubricity. A graphite seal face
will tolerate loss of lubrication much better than other
materials, due to its self lubricating nature.
12
Chapter 4
Therefore, a graphite rotating mechanical seal face is

frequently used in lower position(s), where air is most likely
to form pockets.
The metal components of the mechanical face seal are
commonly available in either stainless steel or monel. The
spring is most often attacked first due to it being in pre-
stressed condition. Monel should be specified for the
uppermost mechanical seal spring(s), when H2S acid or other
chemistry is present that could lead to corrosion or hydrogen
stress cracking in stainless steel. When the spring is
upgraded to monel, the rest of the mechanical seal’s metal
component are also often upgraded.
4.4. Axial thrust Bearings

ESP system predominately use tilting pad type plane
thrust bearing. This type of bearing generates much less heat,
tolerates more contamination and support more thrust under
3600 rpm operating condition, compared to rolling element
bearings. A variety of thrust bearing designs are available in
the industry and the ESP manufacturer guidelines for thrust
capacity should be adhered to when selecting the thrust
bearing design.
Several factors affect the thrust capacity of the bearing and
thrust exerted on it by the pump.
The first factor is the pump stage type. Different pump sages
produce different thrust characteristics, even through the
stages may appear quite similar.
The second factor is how each stage transmits its thrust onto
its support. Floater type stages transmit their thrust
directly onto the mating diffuser below. Floater pumps produce
shaft downthrust equal to the differential pressure generated,
multiplied by the area of the shaft’s cross section. Stages
fixed to the shaft transmit their thrust entirely onto the
shaft. Fixed stage pumps typically generate more shaft thrust
than floater pumps and the thrust level is characteristic of
the stage hydraulics.
Third factor is speed. The seal thrust bearing capacity varies
approximately in direct proportion to the speed for a limit
range above and below 3600 rpm. Meanwhile, the pump thrust
tends to change in relation to the square of the rotating
speed. The net result is that you can carry few stages at
higher speed and more stages at lower speed.
The forth factor is the viscosity index of the oil type being
used in the seal. More viscous oils will carry higher loads
under the same condition. However, more viscosity also causes
the radial bearings with fixed clearances to generate more
heat and this can cause problems, practically in the motor
rotor bearings. A good rule of thumb is to use the same oil in
13
Chapter 4
the seal as that recommended by ESP manufacturer for proper

performance of the motor radial bearings, under the expected
operation conditions. This will result in an appropriate
viscosity index selection.
The fifth factor is the temperature of the seal section thrust
bearing lubricating oil. As temperature increases, viscosity
decreases, thereby reducing the thrust capacity.
In one set of circumstances, the pump down thrust can actually
increase of the life of the system. Mixed flow pump stages are
often hydraulically balanced by a seal ring on the top of each
impeller. If this seal balance ring becomes worn by erosion
and/or corrosion, the resulting flow over the top of the stage
can cause the pressure on the top of the stage to rise. The
pressure increase can cause doubling of the pump stage
downthrust, and sometimes more. This is only a factor for the
seal section if the impellers are fixed to the shaft so that
they transmit their thrust onto the seal section. So, if you
have hydraulic balance (mixed flow) stages, fixed to the pump
shaft and operating in an erosion or corrosion condition, then
the thrust exerted on the seal section can increase
significantly over the life of the system.
Proper thrust bearing design and selection is critical to seal
assembly. Applications requiring high pump TDH (Total Dynamic
Head) outputs coupled with the inherent diametric restrictions
of ESP equipment have demanded rigorous service from these
bearings.
The basic operating principles of hydrodynamic thrust bearing
designs utilized in ESP's are very similar.
The stationary bearing surface is divided into a number of
separated pads, with each pad allowed to pivot under operating
conditions.
The bearing is submerged in lubricating oil, which adheres to
the moving and stationary surfaces and is thus carried into
spaces between the thrust runner and the bearing pads.
Tapered lands are machined on the pad edges to aid this
process.
Fluid pressure builds along the entrance side of the pads,
causing the pads to tilt. This tilting action allows the
formation of a wedge-shaped oil film, generating sufficient
pressure to completely separate the runner and thrust pads.
This separation minimizes friction and wear to the bearing
surfaces insuring long bearing life.
Fig (4.12) depicts the hydrodynamic thrust bearing operation
mode.
A common bearing design employed in ESP's is the pedestal or
solid shoe type, illustrated in fig (4.13). the individual
bearing pads are mounted on pedestals located at the center of
14
Chapter 4
each pad. The pedestals are designed to deflect slightly in

operation, allowing the pads to tilt and form the necessary
oil; film.
For applications requiring higher loading capacity, a self-
equalizing tilting pad thrust bearing is available, shown in
fig (4.14). These bearings use a series of leveling link to
control individual pad heights so that the load is shared
equally by all pads.
The individual pads are supported by balls or spherical faced
links, allowing them to pivot freely. This freedom of motion
coupled with a self aligning feature, typically permits
allowable bearing loads of 400-500 psi, twice the capability
of solid shoe bearing.
Fig (4.12) hydrodynamic thrust bearing operation
Fig (4.13) Solid shoe thrust bearin

A more recent development in thrust bearing design is swing-
pad bearing, shown in fig (4.15). the individual pads are
15
Chapter 4
round in shape, consist of spherical segments of bonded

alternate metal elastomer layers. Instead of tilting on a
centerline, the pads swing in the direction of the curvature
thus allowing the film wedge to form.
Fig (4.14) modified Kingsbury thrust bearing
Fig (4.15) swing pad thrust bearing

This bearing has been successfully applied in ESP's at face
loading pressures to 800 psi and has been laboratory tested
under ESP loading conditions to 1000 psi without failure.
16
Chapter 4
4.5. The Modular Protector

The modular protector system consists of a single
infrastructure upon which all protector types are built. Since
all chamber types (such as labyrinth or bag) have been
designed with common interfaces, they can be placed in almost
any order and, theoretically, in any quantity. There are
practical limits to the number of chambers, however, imposed
by maximum available shaft length, power consumption, and
cost. The system is shown schematically in fig (4.16).
Initially, protectors with two or three chambers are planned,
though this will be subjected to change once the protectors
are in production. The new system can be used to make a
version without any chambers as well. This would essentially
be a bearing section which could be added between the main
protector and motor to provide a back up thrust bearing.
If a back up bearing is desired, a bearing only section could
be added between the motor and protector which would provide
additional protection in the case of wear debris cause
failure.
4.4.1. Reda Designation of Protector Types (See fig(4.17)
Due to the enormous number of types of protectors which
can be made using this system, a standardized system of
designating the configuration has been arrived at. The first
part of the designation will consists of letters designating
the chambers and their interconnection, beginning with the top
chamber and using the following configurations:
L = Labyrinth B = bag S = Series
P = Parallel
For example, the designation [LSBPB] indicates that there is a
labyrinth chamber on the top in series with a bag chamber
which in parallel with another bag chamber. The designation
[LSL] describes a chamber model similar to 66L protector.
MP = Modular Protector
HL = High Load (bearing)
HS = High Tensile Strength (Shaft)
FS = Ferritic Steel (Material of base, head and housing)
It is important to note that there are several restrictions in
the specification of chambers:
o Parallel labyrinth chambers are not currently supported.
Labyrinth chambers in parallel with bag are not available.
o It is not generally accepted to put a single bag chamber in
series with parallel bag chamber.
17
Chapter 4
Fig (4.16) Modular Protector System
18
Chapter 4
Fig (4.17) Reda Designation

4.4.2. Centrilift Designation of Seal Types (See table(4.2)
and fig (4.18))
Table (4.2) Centrilift designation
Fig (4.18)
19
Chapter 4
4.6. Seal Operation Cycle.

o All modular Protectors come "pre-filled“.
o During field assembly, the FST (Field Service
Technician) will "top up" the protector to replace any
oil lost during the assembly process.
o Vent plugs are replaced at intervals.
Fig (4.19) servicing the protector prior to installation.

This is an view of an LSB protector. The red arrows indicate
the oil flow path during filling. The vent plugs are replaced
at intervals to ensure all air is removed from the unit.
Since the protector is serviced at surface, the motor oil
temperature will be the current Outside Ambient Temperature
(OAT), fig (4.20)
Fig (4.20) Protector holds 100% oil
20
Chapter 4
System landing at setting depth, oil expands, fig (4.21).

Given that the system can only hold 100% volume, the system
will dump the 9% overboard. This oil will never be
recovered.
Fig (4.21) system landing at setting depth, oil expands.

Motor Operates, oil expands more, fig (4.22).
When the system is started for the first time, the internal
heating of the motor will increase its temperature until the
motor reaches its operating temperature (MOT). This will
cause an additional expansion of oil, typically another 2-
4%.
Fig (4.22) motor Operates, oil expands more.
21
Chapter 4
Motor Operates, oil expands more, fig (4.23).

But again, the system can only hold 100% volume. The 2-4%
oil expanded will again be lost to the well bore.
Fig (4.23) motor Operates, oil expands more.

Motor stops, oil contracts, fig (4.24).
Now the system is only 96 - 98% full of motor oil so the
protector will then have a small amount of well fluid in the
first chamber making up the balance of the volume.
Bag contracts
Fig (4.24) motor Stops,, oil contracts
22
Chapter 4
Motor operating cycles-on, oil expands, fig (4.25).

As the unit cycles, the system can loose additional motor
oil due to several reasons: Motor Temp, Specific Gravity,
Gas in Motor Oil, Emulsions, etc.
Bag expands
Fig (4.25) motor Operates, oil expands.
Motor operating cycles-off, oil contracts fig (4.26).
Bag contracts
Fig (4.26) motor Operating ,cycle off, oil contacts.

Pulling the unit to surface, oil contracts, fig (4.27).
23
Chapter 4
When the unit is pulled, the motor oil will cool once again
to surface temperature (OAT). Most bag damage is caused
during system removal from the well and not during down hole
operation.
Bag contracts
more
Fig (4.27) pulling the unit to surface, oil contracts
Fig (4.28) seal operation cycles
24
Chapter 4
4.7. Application
One of the primary reason for the existence of the
Modular Protector system is its ability to supply a protector
configured for specific set of well conditions. The
information given below is to aid in specifying a system
appropriate to the application:
 High GOR or Low Specific Gravity Fluid
In wells with low specific gravity fluids a labyrinth
chamber serves very little function. Since the well fluid
floats on top of the motor oil, it accumulates at top of the
chamber where it is easily drawn in when the oil cools and
contracts at shutdown.
If there is a high gas concentration, especially free gas
with saturated oil, the gas can come out of solution in the
protector chamber as the pump pulls the fluid level down and
reduces the down hole pressure. As the gas comes out of
solution, it rises to the top of the chamber and could
actually push the fluid out of the protector chamber.
This may not a big problem until fluid os pushed from the
next labyrinth chamber below and falls below the gas cap
when the unit restarts. Depending upon the type of cycling
the unit is subjected to, gas can then be pulled off the top
of the upper chamber into the next chamber down, thus
displacing oil, and could eventually pump a large amount of
oil out of the protector.
The recommendation in these cases would be to have a
positive (bag) seal chamber on the top of the protector to
provide a solid barrier to gas or low SG fluid entry.
 Low Angle Operation
A labyrinth decreases in effectiveness as the equipment is
operated closer to horizontal. In general, it is best to use
bag chambers if low angle operation is anticipated.
 High Water Cut
This typically the best use of a labyrinth chamber, where
gravity separation is most effective. Of course a bag
chamber is also effective in these cases. All things being
equal, a labyrinth on top and bag below can be one of the
most effective combinations for this basic application.
 Fluid which Degrades Bag Material
In these cases, it is necessary to run either an all
labyrinth chamber protector or labyrinth protector over the
bag chambers. In general, the fluids which are causing the
bags problems are probably also effecting the seal bellows
and o-rings as well, so one should know as much as they can
about these fluids before designing a protector for
them.(See table 4.1 for elastomer selection).
25
Chapter 5
ESP Gas Technology
Table of Content
1 Introduction 2
2 Basic types of intake sections 3
2.1 Intake 3
2.2 Static gas separator 4
2.3 Dynamic gas separator 5
2.3.1 Rotary gas separator 5
2.3.2 Vortex gas separator 7
2.3.3 AGH 8
1
Chapter 5
ESP Gas Technology
5.1. Introduction
When an oil Well is initially completed, the downhole
pressure may be sufficient to force the Well fluid up the Well
tubing string to the surface. The downhole pressure in some
Wells decreases, and some form of artificial lift is required
to get the Well fluid to the surface. One form of artificial
lift is suspending an electric submersible pump (ESP) downhole
in the tubing string. The ESP will provide the extra lift
necessary for the Well fluid to reach the surface. In gassy
wells, or wells which produce gas along with oil, there is a
tendency for the gas to enter the pump along with the well
fluid. Gas in the pump decreases the volume of oil transported
to the surface, which decreases the overall efficiency of the
pump and reduces oil production.
In order to prevent the gas from interfering with the pumping
of the oil, various downhole separators have been developed to
remove gas from the Well fluid prior to the introduction of
the well fluid into the pump. A typical gas separator is
attached to the lower end of the pump assembly, Which in turn
is suspended on production tubing. Normal gas separators
separate most of the gas and discharge the separated gas into
the annulus outside the tubing string where the gas flows up
the Well to the surface. The separator discharges the liquid
into the tubing to be pumped to the surface.
When free gas is present in the first stage impeller (or first
few stages), it takes up useable space and restricts the
volumetric efficiency of the pump. The result is a decline in
expected production. In fact, if the impeller eye fills
completely with gas, the pump will "lock" or stop producing at
all, see fig (5.1).
The amount of gas a pump can handle without gas locking
depends on stage designs and sizes. Smaller pumps with radial
stages have been known to handle 10 to 15 vol% free gas, and
larger pumps with mixed-flow staging can tolerate 20 to 25
vol%.
There are two basic types of intake Sections:
Intakes
Gas Separators
 Static
 Dynamic
2
Chapter 5
Fig (5.1)
5.2. Basic types of intake Sections
5.2.1. Intake
A standard intake does not separate gas. Some gas
separation might occur with a standard intake, but it will
only be natural separation due to some of the gas not turning
and going into the intake when the rest of the fluid does.
Intakes can be either standard or ARZ. The ARZ intake uses
Zirconium bearings and sleeves to better protect against
abrasive wear and lateral vibration.
Fig (5.2) pump intake
3
Chapter 5
5.2.2. Static (Reverse flow) gas separator

A gas separator is still an intake, but with some
special features designed to keep free gas from entering the
pump.
Original gas separator designs were based on increasing gas
separation by forcing the fluid flow to reverse in the
wellbore. This is where the name of this type of gas
separator, REVERSE FLOW, comes from.
Since this type of gas separator does no real "work" on the
fluid, it is also called a "static" gas separator.
This technique relies on causing the well fluid to flow
downward before reaching the pump intake to cause separation
of gas. Gas bubbles within the well fluid flow tend continue
flowing upward as a result of the buoyant force of the gas
bubbles. The downward flowing liquid in the Well fluid creates
an opposing drag force that acts against the upward moving
bubbles. If the upward buoyant force is greater than the
downward drag force, the bubbles will break free of the
downward flowing Well fluid and continue moving upward.
Buoyancy is a function of the volume of the bubble, and the
drag force is a function of the area of the bubble. As the
diameter of the bubble increases, the buoyant force will
become larger than the drag force, enabling the bubble to more
easily separate from the liquid and flow upward. Consequently,
if the bubbles can coalesce into larger bubbles, rather than
dispersing into smaller bubbles, the separating efficiency
would be greater.
Accordingly, as well fluid enters the gas separator it is
forced to change direction due to buoyancy force. Some of the
gas bubbles continue to rise instead of turn or rise inside of
the gas separator, exit the housing and continue to rise, see
fig (5.3) and (5.4).
4
Chapter 5
Fig (5.3)
Fig (5.4) static gas separator

5.2.3. Dynamic gas separator
5.2.3.1. Rotary Gas Separator (RGS)
Dynamic gas separators actually impart energy to the
fluid in order to get the gas to separate from the liquid.
The original gas separator was called a KGS (Kinetic Gas
Separator). This design uses an inducer to increase the
pressure of the fluid and a centrifuge to separate the gas and
liquid.
This design could likewise be called a centrifugal gas
separator.
The RGS (rotary gas separator), is a descendant of the original
KGS design which has been improved with Zirconium bearings,
hardened materials, and a few hydraulic enhancements.
The rotary gas separator design works in a similar fashion to a
centrifuge. The centrifuge "paddles" spinning at 3500 rpm cause
the heavier fluids to be forced to the outside, through the
5
Chapter 5
crossover and up into the pump, while the lighter fluid (vapor)
stays toward the center, and exits through the crossover and
discharge ports back into the well.
Fluid travels up the Well and enters separator through
openings at its lower end. The fluid is separated by an
internal rotating member with blades attached to shaft
(inducer) at its lower end to aid in lifting the fluid to the
rotating separating member. The rotating separator member
causes denser fluid to move toward the outer Wall of separator
due to centrifugal force.
The fluid mixture then travels to the upper end of separator
and passes through a flow divider or cross-over member.
A radial support bearing is often required to support the span
of such a long central shaft.
Divider comprises a circular ring and a conical upper end.
Divider is oriented to be parallel to and coaxial with central
shaft. One or more gas exit ports communicate an opening in
the sidewall of separator and the interior of flow divider. As
the fluid nears flow divider, the outer (more dense) fluid
remains in the annulus surrounding flow divider and is
diverted radially inward and upward to a liquid exit port. The
inner (less dense) fluid enters flow divider and is channeled
radially outward and upward to gas exit ports. Liquid exit
port leads to pump, but gas exit ports open into annulus (fig
5.5).
6
Chapter 5
Fig (5.5) rotary gas separator

5.2.3.2. Vortex Gas Separator (VGS)
In certain applications in the past, we have
experienced some reliability problems and associated failures
in the rotary gas separators.
Problem:
Extended length of shaft in an area with a rotating mass of
very high inertia which may be radially unbalanced either in
manufacture or in operation because it is filled with a non-
homogeneous fluid of variable specific gravity or may be n0m-
uniform eroded by abrasives with time or combination of the
three.
Accordingly, reducing the mass of the rotating element and
decrease the radial bearing spacing become the solution of
instability of the dynamic gas separator, in addition to
adding Axial Impeller to induces a fluid vortex, this is the
latest dynamic gas separation devices (Vortex Gas Separator).
Fig (5.6)
The Vortex* gas separator is a dynamic gas separation device
that utilizes a natural vortex action created by a specially
designed inlet configuration, axial flow inducer, multiple
vortex generators, multiple flow-through bearings, and a
discharge crossover to provide highly effective gas
separation.
The Vortex gas separator offers an extended range and greater
efficiency over a broader range of flow conditions than
previous 400 and 540 series rotary gas separators.
7
Chapter 5
Additionally, the Vortex gas separator features the patented,

compliant mount abrasion-resistant zirconia radial bearing
technology coupled with a dramatically improved overall
bearing system to provide far superior reliability over
previous designs.
To further extend life expectancy, the rotor assembly has been
designed to impart very little energy to solid particles
produced through the separator. The improved hydraulics in the
Vortex gas separator allow for more effective gas separation
at higher fluid flow rates than previously possible (fig 5.7).
Fig (5.7) Vortex Gas Separator

5.2.3.3. Advanced Gas-Handler (AGH)
The AGH advanced gas-handling device was designed to
improve the overall lift efficiency of a submersible lift
installation by maintaining a higher gas-to-liquid ratio in
the tubing string. The system’s higher GVF reduces the
hydraulic horsepower required to lift fluid to surface. The
8
Chapter 5
AGH system uses a unique centrifugal stage design to alter the

pressure distribution of the impeller, creating a homogenized
mixture with reduced gas bubble size. This conditioned fluid
behaves as a single-phase fluid before entering the pump.
So, the objectives of AGH are:
 Homogenize the mixture.
 Reduce bubble size.
 Put gas back into solution.
 Help gas to move to main stream.
The AGH can be used with a standard intake or with a gas
separator. The choice will depend on how much free gas will be
present at the intake for producing condition and on whether
there is a packer preventing gas production up the annulus,
see fig (5.8).
Fig (5.8)
The AGH results in stable operation with reduced restarts due
to under load shutdown (i.e. gas lock). This improves
production and enhances reliability.
See fig (5.9) of amperage chart.
9
Chapter 5
Fig (5.9)
10
Chapter 6
Electric Submersible Power Cable
Table of Content
1 General concept 3
2 Cable construction 3
2.1 Conductor
2.2 Insulation
2.3 Barrier
2.4 Jacket
2.5 Armor
3 Motor connection options 8
3.1 Potheads
4 General considerations in cable type and
size selection 10
5 Conductors 10
5.1 Definition
5.2 General properties
5.3 Types
5.4 Mil
5.5 Circular mil
5.6 AWG
5.7 Conductivity
5.8 International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS)
5.9 Resistivity
5.10 Temperature Coefficient
5.11 Number of wire in stranded conductors
6 Voltage drop in ESP cable 19
6.1 Correction of voltage drop for temperature
6.2 Maximum carrying capacity of the cable
7 Method of selecting cable wire size and
type 23
8 ESP cable pulling rates and decompression 24
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Decompression theory
8.3 Material hoop strength
9 Cable test 28
9.1 Types of tests
9.2 Resistance vs. length in ESP cables
9.3 Resistance vs. current
9.4 Resistance vs. wire size
9.5 Resistance vs. shielding
9.6 Industry methods
9.7 Recommended practice
9.8 Megohm correction
9.9 DC Hi-Pot voltage
1
Chapter 6
9.10 DC Hi-Pot leakage current

9.11 Time before test
10 Cable Nomenclature 40
11 Cable families and designation examples 41
Cable selection example 48
2
Chapter 6
Electric Submersible Power Cable
6.1. General Concept

Power is supplied to the electric motor by electric cable.
As mentioned in the previous chapter that the downhole
electric motor is a three phase, accordingly the power cable
has three conductors one for each phase.
The configuration of the electric cables is either flat or
round. Each one of them has different sizes and each size has
different types for different operating conditions.
Round Flat
As an option both Round and Flat include injection tube for
injecting chemicals down hole.
Round and flat cables includes injection tube
6.2. Cable Construction

The cable construction is mainly consists of:
 Three copper conductors
 Insulation
 Barrier
 Jacket
 Armor
 Injection tube (option)
Conductors Barrier
Insulation Jacket
Armor
Injection tube
3
Chapter 6
6.2.1. Conductor
The conductors are made of alloy-coated copper. The
alloy coating provides corrosion protection for the copper and
prevents degradation of the adhesive bond between the
conductor and the insulation.
6.2.1.1. Conductor configurations

Conductor is configured in three types,
 SOLID
 Smallest diameter / lowest cost
 Lower interfacial electrical stress
 Stranded
 Greater diameter / higher cost
 Greater flexibility
 Greater damage resistance
 Compacted
 Up to 10% decrease in diameter versus round stranded
conductor
Conductor types
6.2.1.2. Factors to be considered in conductor Selection
 Size
 Resistance
 Flexibility
 Cost
6.2.2. Insulation
The purpose of the cable insulation is to provide
protection to the current carrying conductors from attack from
well fluids which will result in a short down-hole circuit. In
addition the insulation can be applied in thicknesses to meet
kv rating required (phase to phase)
6.2.2.1. Insulation types
Polypropylene (Thermoplastic)
(used in cables for lower temperature applications)
Advantages
 Excellent resistance to well fluids
4
Chapter 6
 Excellent electrical properties

 Low cost
Disadvantages
 Upper temperature range, softens at 205°F (96°C)
 Subject to crazing in certain environments
<205°F/96°C >205°F/96°C
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Methylene) RUBBER (Thremoset)
(used in cables for higher temperature applications)
Advantages
 Excellent high-temperature stability has been used at up to
550°F (288°C) in geothermal wells.
 Excellent electrical properties, although higher power
losses than polypropylene.
Disadvantages
 Limited well fluid resistance, oil swells EPDM compounds.
 Susceptible to mechanical damage at elevated temperatures.
6.2.2.2. Thermoplastic vs. Thermoset
Thermoplastic Thermoset
• Definite melt point • No melting point
• Limited by temperature • Often higher temperature rating
• Ease of processing • More difficult to process
• Simple formulations • Complex formulations
• Thermal failure is often dramatic • Thermal failure is generally gradual
6.2.3. Barrier (tape and braid)

Tapes are added over insulation. A synthetic braid is
woven over the tape. Tape is used as protection against oil
and chemical attack. Braid is used to provide additional
reinforcement and hoop strength (to prevent any swelling and
gas decompression of EPDM insulation) i.e, ensuring superior
performance in wells with hostile environments or wells with
high gas/oil ratios.
6.2.3.1. Barrier Selection
Factors to be considered:
 Temperature
 Chemical environment
 Gas
5
Chapter 6
 Handling
Barrier
6.2.3.2. Barrier Types

 Polyvinyl dine Fluoride Extrusion - 300°F (150°C)
 TEDLAR™ tape - 300°F (150°C)
 TEFLON™ FEP Extrusion - 350°F (175°C)
 PROPRIETARY High Temperature tape - 400°F (205°C)
 Lead - 550°F (288°C)
6.2.3.3. Tape vs. Extruded Barrier
Tape advantages
 Superior hoop strength
 Higher temperature
Extruded Barrier advantage
 Faster to process
6.2.4. Jacket
 The jacket is there mainly to provide mechanical protection
to internal components of the cable.
 The jacket also physically binds all three conductor strands
together.
 It also allows armor to be applied to the cable without
damaging the conductors.
 Control temperature resistance.
6.2.4.1. Factor to be considered
 Temperature
 Chemical environment
 Gas
 Handling conditions
Jacket
6.2.4.2. Jacket types
 185°F (85°C), HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (HDPE)
 275°F (135°C), NITRILE*
 >350°F (176°C), EPDM
* Some manufacturer produce another types of Nitriles worked
at 250 °F and 350 °F.
6
Chapter 6
6.2.4.2.1. Nitrile Rubber Jacket

 Excellent resistance to oil
 Good physical properties
 Poor electric properties
 Poor resistance to water
 Hardens at temperature above 275 O
F (135 O
C)
 Slow decompression rate
Swelled
+ Water =
6.2.4.2.2. EPDM Rubber Jacket (>350 F)

 Excellent high temperature stability
 Poor resistance to oil
Swelled
+ Oil =
Nitrile (NBR) EPDM

Physical properties Good Poor to fair
Oil resistance Good Poor to fair
Water resistance Poor to fair Good
Damage resistance Good Poor
H2S resistance Fair Good
Amine resistance Fair Good
Heat resistance Fair Good
Service temperature up to* Greater than
275°F/135°C 350°F/176°C
HSN is available up to 350 oF
6.2.5. Armor
Cable armor made from steel strips featuring a
galvanized coating on all sides is the standard. The use of
one of many armor options can improve resistance to corrosion
and mechanical damage.
Armor
6.2.5.1. Armor Types

 Standard galvanized armor(GSA, 0.020"/0.51mm and 0.025"/ 0.64
mm thick)
 Heavy galvanize steel (0.034"/0.86mm thick)
7
Chapter 6
 Stainless steel
 Monel
6.2.5.2. Armor configurations
 Standard crown profile interlocked
 Flat profile interlock
 Flat profile
Standard crown profile interlocked
Flat profile interlocked
Flat profile
6.2.5.3. Factors to be considered in armor selection
 Damage resistance
 Decompression containment
 Corrosion resistance
 Casing and tubing coupling sizes
The following table summarizes the cable construction
Conductors Solid Compacted Stranded
Insulation PPE EPDM
Tedlar FEB
Barriers High temp. tape Lead
tape extrusion
Jacket HDPE Nitrile EPDM
Armor Galvanized HG Double armor SS Monel
6.3. Motor Connection Options

Motor lead extension cable (MLE) (sometimes called Flat
Cable Extension (FCE)) has special configuration designs
provide the optimum combination of installation clearance and
downhole performance due to the following reasons:
1. Size of ESP (always bigger than the tubing coupling)
2. Size of casing
3. Adapt different motor amperes
8
Chapter 6
4. Down-hole temperatures
Example:
 KEOTB - 250 OF (121 OC)of Reda
 KELB - 450 OF (232 OC)of Reda
 4KLHT – 450 OF (232 OC) of Centrilift
K = Polyimide (Kapton™ ) primary insulation

E = EPDM secondary insulation
O = Nitrile jacket
TB = Tape (probably Tedlar™) & braid
4 = # 4 AWG
L = Lead
HT = High Temperature
6.3.1. Potheads
Types:
 Tape-In Pothead - Tape wrapped around individual connector
leads inside motor.
Advantages:
o Most Reliable
o Highest breakdown strength in industry
Disadvantages
o Longer installation time on rig floor
Tape-in design
 Plug-In Pothead - mating block mounted in motor.
Advantages:
o Easy of installation
Disadvantages
9
Chapter 6
o Lower breakdown strength

o Not as reliable as Tape-In
 Direct Connect Pothead - Power cable attached directly to the
Pothead. (Plug-In Type)
6.4. General consideration in cable type and size

selection
 The best cable type for each selection is based on the
environment for each application where the cable will be
utilized and exposed.
 It is important to review all of the data and study these
factors specifically for each well condition to ensure the
cable selected is compatible with the well environment.
 The most critical data values for selecting cable are
temperature considerations and the fluid composition.
 The proper cable size is governed by the amperage, voltage
drop, and space available between the tubing collar and
casing.
 There are many factors which can negatively affect the
performance of cable downhole. Amongst these factors to be
considered are:
 Temperature
 Pressure changes
 Gas oil ratio (GOR)
 CO2
 H2S
 Oil attack
6.5. Conductors
6.5.1. Definition
Conductor is a body so constructed from conducting
material that it may used as a carrier of electric current.
6.5.2. General properties of conductors
Electric current in general possess four fundamental
electric properties, consisting of, resistance, inductance,
capacitance, and leakage conductance. That portion of a
current which is represented by its conductors will also
possess these four properties, but only two of them are
related to the properties of the conductor consider by it
self. Capacitance and leakage conductance depend in part upon
the external dimensions of the conductors and their distance
from one another and from other conducting bodies and in part
upon dielectric properties of the material employed for
insulating purpose.
Inductance is a formation of the magnetic field established by
the current in a conductor but this field is a whole is
divisible into two parts; one being wholly extended to the
10
Chapter 6
conductor and the other being wholly within the conductor,

only the latter portion can be regarded as corresponding to
magnetic properties of the conductor material.
Resistance is strictly a property of the conductor it self.
Both resistance and internal conductance of conductors change
in effective values when the current changes with great
rapidly as in case of high frequency alternating current, this
termed as “skin effect”.
6.5.3. Types of conductor
In general, conductor consists of solid wire or
multiplicity of wires stranded together, made of conducting
material and use either bare or insulated. Usually conductor
is made of copper or aluminum, but application requiring high
strength such as transmission lines, bronze, steel, and varies
composite construction are made.
Pure copper, rolled, forged, or drawn and then annealed are
always used in power cables (density of 8.89 g/cm3 at 20 OC or
8.90 g/cm3 at 0 OC).
6.5.4. Mil
Mil is a term universally used to measure wire diameter
and is a unit of length equal to one-thousandth of an inch.
6.5.5. Circular Mil
Is a term universally used to define cross sectional
area, being a unit of area of a circle 1 mil in diameter. Such
circle, however, has an area of 0.7854 (or π/4) mil2. Thus a
wire 10 mils in diameter has cross sectional area of 100 cmils
or 78.54 mils2. Hence, a cmil equals 0.7854 mil2.
6.5.6. American Wire Gauge
This gauge has the property, in common with a number of
other gauges that is sizes represent approximately the
successive steps in the process of wire drawing. Also, like
many other gauges, its numbers are retrogressive, a large
number denoting a smaller wire, corresponding to the
operations of drawing. These gauge numbers are not arbitrarily
chosen, as in many gauges, but follow the mathematical law
upon which the gauge is found.
Basic of the AWG is a simple mathematical law. The gauge is
formed by the specification of two diameters and the law that
a given number of intermediate diameters by geometric
progression. Thus, the diameter of No.0000 (4/0 AWG) is
defined as 0.4600 in and of No. 36 AWG is 0.0050 in. There 38
sizes between these two; hence the ratio of any diameter to
the diameter of the next greater number is given by this
expression
0.4600 39
39  92  1.1229322
0.0050
11
Chapter 6
The square of this ratio = 1.2610. The sixth power of the

ratio, that is, the ratio of any diameter to the diameter of
the sixth greater number = 2.0050. The fact that this ratio is
so nearly 2 is the basis of numerous useful relations or short
cuts in wire computation.
In general AWG diameter conventional formula for bare copper
wire is:
Wire diameter in millimeter = (92^((36-AWG)/39))/39)*0.127
Wire diameter in mils = (92^((36-AWG)/39))*5
There are a number of approximate rules applicable to the AWG

which are useful to remember
o An increase of three gauge number (for example No. 10 to 7)
doubles the area and weight and consequently halves the dc
resistance.
o An increase of six gauge numbers (for example No. 10 to 4)
doubles the diameter.
o An increase of ten gauge numbers (for example No. 10 to 1/0)
multiplies the area and weight by 10 and divides the
resistance by 10.
o A No. 10 wire has a diameter of about 0.10 in, an area of
about 10,000 mils, and (standard annealed copper at 20 OC) a
resistance of approximately 1.0 Ω/1000 ft.
o The weight of No. 2 copper wire is very close to 200 lb/ 1000
ft.
AWG tables for some sized of bare Copper Wire

D.C. Max.
AWG Dia.(mils) Dia.(mm) lbs/kft Amps
ohms/kft Amps
0000 459.99 11.684 0.0501 640.48 282.12 423.18
000 409.63 10.405 0.0631 507.93 223.73 335.6
00 364.79 9.2657 0.0795 402.8 177.43 266.14
0 324.85 8.2513 0.1003 319.44 140.71 211.06
1 289.29 7.348 0.1264 253.33 111.59 167.38
2 257.62 6.5436 0.1593 200.9 88.492 132.74
3 229.42 5.8272 0.2009 159.32 70.177 105.27
4 204.3 5.1893 0.2533 126.35 55.653 83.48
5 181.94 4.6212 0.3195 100.2 44.135 66.203
6 162.02 4.1153 0.4028 79.46 35.001 52.501
7 144.28 3.6648 0.508 63.014 27.757 41.635
8 128.49 3.2636 0.6405 49.973 22.012 33.018
9 114.42 2.9063 0.8077 39.63 17.456 26.185
10 101.9 2.5881 1.018 31.428 13.844 20.765
 AWG: American Wire Gauge size varying from #000m0 to #40 `

 Dia. (mils): Wire diameter in mils (1 mil = 0.001 inches)
12
Chapter 6
 Dia. (mm): Wire diameter in millimeters. This was included to help when
dealing with metric system.
 D.C. ohms/kft: Wire electrical resistance against direct current in ohms
per 1,000 feet
 lbs/kft: Wire section weight in pounds per 1,000 feet
 Amps: Wire conservative current rating in amperes
 Max. Amps: Wire maximum allowable current rating in amperes. Do NOT
exceed this rating.
Resistance
AWG wire Diameter
Area CM* Ω/kft @ 20
size (solid) 0 inch
C
0000(4/0) 211600 0.049 0.46
000(3/0) 167810 0.0618 0.40965
00(2/0) 133080 0.0779 0.3648
0(1/0) 105530 0.0983 0.32485
1 83694 0.124 0.2893
2 66373 0.1563 0.25763
3 52634 0.197 0.22942
4 41742 0.2485 0.20431
5 33102 0.3133 0.18194
6 26250 0.3951 0.16202
AWG = American Wire Gauge
Dia Mils = Diameter in Mils (1 Mil = 0.001 inch)
The following cables are the most usable one in oil business:
 AWG # 1
o Solid
Conductor size 1 AWG
Area 42.408 mm^2 (square-mm)
Area 83693 CM (circular mil)
Diameter 289.3 mil (1)
Diameter 7.348 mm (1)
DC-resistance 0.000407 Ohm/m
Tensile strength 1272.23 kgf (2)
Weight 377.004 kg/km (Cu)
Weight 114.501 kg/km (Al)
Construction: solid
Note:
1. Diameter of stranded conductor is an approximation.
2. Tensile strength of crimped terminal is about 60 % of
conductor.
o Stranded
Area 83693 CM circular mil)
13
Chapter 6

Construction: stranded
Note:
conductor.
 AWG # 2
o Stranded
Conductor size: 2 AWG
Area: 33.631 mm^2 (square-mm)
Area: 66371 CM (circular mil)
Diameter: 297.6 mil (1)
Diameter: 7.558 mm (1)
DC-resistance: 0.000523 Ohm/m
Tensile strength: 1008.93 kgf (2)
Weight: 298.978 kg/km (Cu)
Weight: 90.803 kg/km (Al)
Note:
1. diameter of stranded conductor is an approximation.
conductor.
o Solid
Construction: solid
Note:
conductor.
 AWG # 4
o Solid
14
Chapter 6

Construction: solid
Note:
conductor.
o Stranded
Area 41741 CM (circular mil)
Note:
2. Tensile strength of crimped terminal is about 60 %
of conductor.
6.5.7. Percent Conductivity
Conductivity is an important property of a material
used in electric circuits, which is a measure of its ability
to conduct electricity, the definition of conductivity (  ) is
Current density in ampere per sq. meter
 =
Potential gradient in volt per meter
 = J/E
 = conductivity Ω-1/m
J = current density A/m2
E = Electric field density v/m
 = A/m2  v/m = A/m2 x m/v = Ω-1/m = Siemens/m (S/m)
The units of conductivity are thus the reciprocal of ohm.meter
or siemens/meter. Typical values of conductivity for good
conductors are 1000 to 6000 s/m. The reciprocal of
conductivity is called resistivity.
Percent conductivity is very common to rate the conductivity
of a conductor in terms of its percentage ratio to the
conductivity of chemically pure metal of the same kind as the
conductor is primarily constituted or in ratio to the
conductivity of the international copper standard. Both forms
of the conductivity ratio are useful for various purposes.
This ratio can also express in two different terms, one where
the conductor cross sections are equal and therefore termed
the volume-conductivity ratio and the other where the
conductor masses are equal and therefore termed the volume-
15
Chapter 6
conductivity ratio.
6.5.8. International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS)
IACS is the international accepted value of the
resistivity of annealed copper of 100% conductivity. This
standard is expressed in terms of mass resistivity as 015328
Ω.g/m2 or the resistance of a uniform round wire 1 m long and
weight of 1 g at standard temperature of 20 OC.
Equivalent expressions of the annealed copper standard, in
various units of mass resistivity or volume resistivity are as
follows:
0.15328 Ω.g/m2
875.2 Ω.lb/mi2
1.7241 µΩ.in @ 20 OC
1.725x10-8 Ω.mt @ 20 OC
10.371 Ω.Cmil/ft
0.017241 Ω.mm2/m
6.5.9. Electric resistivity of conductor
It is a measure of resistance of a circuit of a unit
quantity of a given material, it may expressed in terms of
either mass or volume
Rm
Mass resistivity =  = 2
Ω/m

 2
Resistance = R = Ω
m
RA
Volume resistivity =  = Ω.m


Resistance = R =
A
R = Resistance, m = Mass,  = Length, and A = Area
Accordingly,
I
Voltage drop in conductor = IR = volts
A
I
Voltage drop per meter “potential gradient” = volts
A
Current density in ampere per sq. meter
Conductivity = =
Potential gradient in volt per meter
= A/m2 x m2/(A.Ω.m) = Ω-1m-1 (Siemens/m)
6.5.10. Temperature coefficient of conductor resistance
The resistance of all pure metals increases with
increase temperature, where as the resistance of carbon,
electrolytes and insulating materials degreases with increase
temperature. For a moderate range of temperature such 100 OC,
the change of resistance is usually proportional to the change
of temperature, if Rt1 is the resistance at temperature t1, and
αt1 is the coefficient at that temperature, the resistance at
16
Chapter 6
some other temperature t2 is expressed by the formula

Rt2 = Rt1[1+αt1(t2-t1)]
Upon assuming the general linear relationship between
resistance and temperature, the new coefficient at any
temperature t within the linear range is expressed
1
 t  (1 /
 t 2)  (t  t1)
The coefficient of resistance is the ratio of the increase of
resistance per OC rise to resistance at 0 O
C. Alternative the
temperature coefficient of resistance can be defined as “the
increase in resistance of 1 Ω at 0 OC for 1 OC rise of
temperature”.
The variation of resistance of copper for the range over which
copper conductors are usually operated is represented by the
following graph,
If this graph extended backwards, the point of intersection

with the horizontal axis is found to be -234.5 OC.
Hence, for standard annealed conductor having a resistance of
1 Ω @ 0 OC, the variation of resistance over 234.5 OC
(resistance of annealed copper is 0 Ω @ -234.5 OC) is 1 Ω,
1
 t 0 = 234.5 = 0.004264 Ω/OC
O
In general, coefficient of conductor resistance at t C is:
1
 t
=
234.5  t
= 0.004264 Ω/OC
Example:
Coefficient at t =15 OC is
1
 t 15 = 234.5  15 = 0.004008 Ω/OC
17
Chapter 6
1
 t 20 = 234.5  20 = 0.003929 Ω/OC
1
 t 25 = 234.5  25 = 0.0038535 Ω/OC
From above graph,
R1  t1  234.5  t1  1    1
t1
R0 234.5 234.5
R2  t 2  234.5  t1  1    1
t2
R0 234.5 234.5
R1 = R0(1+  t1)
R2 = R0(1+  t2)
R1   t1  1
R2  t 2  1
R1  t1  234.5 and, t  R2 234.5  t  234.5
2 1
R2 t 2  234.5 R1
Over moderate range of temperature, the change of resistance is
usually proportional to the change of temperature. Resistivity
is always expressed at standard temperature, usually 20 OC (68
O
F).
The coefficient of copper less than standard conductivity
(100%) is proportional to the actual conductivity, expressed
as decimal percentage. Thus if n is the percentage
conductivity (95% = 0.95), the temperature coefficient will be
α’t = nαt, where αt (0.00393) is the coefficient of the
annealed copper standard at 100% conductivity.
1
 1  [1 / n * (0.00393)]  ( 
t1 20)
Example:
Coefficient of annealed copper conductor of 95% conductivity
at 20 OC is
1
 20  [1 / 0.95 * (0.00393)]  (  0.00373
20  20)
Coefficient of annealed copper conductor of 95% conductivity
at 25 OC is
1
 25  [1 / 0.95 * (0.00393)]  (  0.00367
25  20)
6.5.11. Number of wires in stranded conductors
Each successive layer in a concentrically stranded
conductor contains six more wires than the proceeding one. The
total number of wires in conductor for 1-wire core
18
Chapter 6
construction (1,7,9,….etc) is
N = 3n(n+1)+1
Where n is number of layers over core, which is not counted as
layer.
if n = 1 then N = 7
Core
Layer 1
If n = 2 then N = 19
Layer 1
Layer 2
Core
6.6. Voltage drop in the ESP cables

The voltage drop per 1000 ft (kft) length of cable is
published as a chart for each manufacture at certain
temperature. For cables operating at conductor temperatures,
the value obtained from voltage drop chart must be multiplied
by correction factor (issued by manufacturer) Although the
actual conductor temperatures varies along the length of the
cable, an acceptable industry practice is to assume that the
conductor temperature is equivalent to the maximum well
temperature.
The voltage drop formula used for a given length of cable ia
as follows:
 f 
Voltage drop  1.732  I  l x  Rac  cos   X L   sin  
 60 
Where:
I = current in ampere,
l = length of cable in 1000 ft
Rac = ac resistance at specified conductor temperature in
Ω/kft.
Cos φ = Power factor
XL = Inductive reactance
f = Frequency c/s
19
Chapter 6
p.f cos φ sin φ

--- ----- -----
80% 0.80 0.600
85% 0.85 0.527
90% 0.90 0.436
95% 0.95 0.312
For the inductive reactance XL (Ω/kft) each manufacturer issued
values of each of their cables. For example the following
values are for Philips cables (Ω/kft @ 60 hz)
AWG # Round Flat
----- ----- -----
1 0.033 0.042
2 0.034 0.044
4 0.036 0.047
6 0.039 0.050
In case if the frequency is other than 60, the above mentioned
values should multiply by (f/60).
For example, cable size AWG #2, motor amps is 100 A, cable
length is 8000 ft, the PF = 0.85 and conductor resistance at
77 OF is 0.1708 Ω so, The voltage drop =
  50 
V ..D  1.732  100  1  0.1708  0.85   0.034   0.527   27.73 volts
  60 
Each manufacturer issues the voltage drop curves for their

cables conductor at certain temperature, the following curves
represent an example (Reda),
Voltage Drop for Reda Cables @ 77 OF
60
50
Voltage Drop volts/kft
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Motor Amps
AWG #6 AWG #4 AWG #2 AWG #1
For example, if the motor amperage (name plate) is 100 amp so,
The voltage drop of conductor size AWG# 1 is 17.75 volts.
20
Chapter 6

Definitions
 Maximum Well Temperature: It is defined as the ambient
temperature surrounding the cable during steady state
operation. This temperature depends on the initial bottom
hole temperature, the heat rise from the operating
submersible equipment, and the heat generated by the power
losses in the cable.
 Conductor temperature: It is defined as the temperature on
the surface of the current carrying conductor during steady
state operation.
 Maximum conductor temperature: It is the highest temperature
at which the cable can continuously operate without causing
significant degradation of cable dielectric material.
6.6.1. Correction of voltage drop for temperature:
The issued voltage drop curves (by manufacturers) are at
certain temperature (20 OC [68 OF] or 25 OC [77 OF), so the
voltage drop must be corrected to the conductor temperature.
The following steps are used for the corrections:
 Calculate the conductor temperature using the motor amperage
and the maximum well temperature,
T C  a * I  T well
2 O
F
Where:
TC = Conductor temperature
I = Motor amperage
a = Factor for each cable size (issued by manufacturer)
Twell = Maximum well temperature
 Adjust the voltage drop at maximum well temperature from the
following equation using the voltage drop have got from the
manufacturer chart at motor amperage, cable size, and
conductor temperature calculated in the previous step
V adj  V a  (1  0.00214  (T C  77))
Where:
Vadj = Adjusted voltage drop
Va = Voltage drop from the curve
Example:
I = 50 A, Twell = 200 OF, cable is AWG# 4 Reda hot type
a = 0.00117
. (from Reda issued table)
Tc = 0.00117
. x (50)2 + 200 = 229 OF
Vadj = 22 x (1+0.00214(229-77)) = 29 volt/1000’
Note:
Most of the cable manufacturers issue tables of
temperature correction factor which can be used directly
NOTE: Correct 0.00117 @ 0.0117
21
Chapter 6
instead of using the previous equation. For example, the

following table is issued by Centrilift for their cable:
O
Conductor V.D. Temp. factor @ 77 F
Temp. OF Corr. factor Temp. OF Corr. factor
50 0.95 221 1.31
59 0.96 230 1.33
68 0.98 239 1.35
77 1.00 248 1.37
86 1.02 257 1.39
95 1.04 266 1.40
104 1.06 275 1.42
113 1.08 284 1.44
122 1.10 293 1.46
131 1.12 302 1.48
140 1.13 311 1.50
149 1.15 320 1.52
158 1.17 329 1.54
167 1.19 338 1.56
176 1.21 347 1.58
185 1.23 356 1.60
194 1.25 365 1.62
203 1.27 574 1.64
212 1.29 383 1.65
6.6.2. Maximum carrying capacity of the cable (Imax)
The maximum carrying capacity of a cable can be
calculated using the following equation:
T C max  BHT
I max 
a
Where:
T C max = Maximum conductor temperature F
O
BHT = Bottom hole temperature OF

a = Current temperature factor (an example here is below Reda
current temperature factor table for their cables)
Current temperature factor (a) table for Reda cables
Conductor Size (AWG)
Cable Type
6 4 2 1 1/0 2/0
Redablack Flat (EEF) 0.0275 0.0167 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Redablack Round (EER) 0.0199 0.0115 0.0058 0.0043 0.0032 0.0025
Redalead Flat (ELB) 0.0281 0.0169 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Redalead Round (ELBE) 0.0202 0.0116 0.0058 0.0042 0.0031 0.0025
Redablack Round (ETBE-300) 0.0199 0.0115 0.0058 0.0043 0.0032 0.0025
Redablack Flat (ETBE-300F) 0.0275 0.0167 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Redahot Round (ETBO) 0.02 0.0117 0.0062 0.0046 0.0034 0.0027
Motorlead (KELB) 0.0281 0.0169 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Low Temperature Motorlead (KEOTB) 0.0275 0.0169 0.009 0.0068 0.0053 0.0042
Redalene Flat (POTB) 0.0281 0.0176 0.0097 0.007 0.0048 0.0038
22
Chapter 6
Redalene Round (PPEO) 0.0199 0.0112 0.0062 0.0045 0.0031 0.0025
Current temperature factor (a) table for Centrilift cables

O
Cable type Max. F AWG 6 AWG 4 AWG 2 AWG 1
CPNF 205 0.0261 0.0155 0.0091 0.0065
CPNR 205 0.0222 0.0132 0.0077 0.0056
CENF 260 0.0289 0.0171 0.01 0.0072
CENR 260 0.0195 0.0115 0.0068 0.0049
CEBNR 280 0.0195 0.0092 0.0054 0.0039
CEBER 300 0.0195 0.0092 0.0054 0.0039
CEBER-HT 400 0.0156 0.0092 0.0054 0.0039
CEEF 400 0.0272 0.0161 0.0095 0.0068
CEER 400 0.0156 0.0092 0.0054 0.0039
CELF 450 0.0272 0.0161 0.0095 0.0068
Example:
The maximum current carrying capacity for Reda black
O
round 400 F (ETBE) size AWG #2 at bottom hole temperature 200
O
F is:
T C max  BHT = 400  200 = 185.7 amps
I max 
a 0.0058
for size AWG #4 Imax is:
400  200
= = 131.9 amps
0.0115
6.7. Method of selecting Cable wire size and type

1. From the voltage drop (VD) chart, select a cable gauge that
results in a three phase voltage less than 30 volts per 1000
ft at motor name plate amps. For example at the motor
amperage 100 the VD of size AWG 4 is 42.29 volts and size
AWG 2 is 28.59 volts, accordingly, size AWG 2 is selected as
is VD is <30 volts/kft. This VD’s are at 77 OF.
Note:
VD = 1.732 x R x I in case if the p.f is 1.00 i.e. cosφ =1
VD = 1.732 x 0.176 x 100 = 30.48 v/kft for AWG 2.
At VD = 28.59 v/kft the p.f is 0.86 (φ=30.7O) and inductance
reactance is 0.027 ohm/kft at 50 hz and 77 OF.
23
Chapter 6
2. Adjust VD for the selected cable to the down hole well

temperature, suppose that the average DHT is 200 OF, then,
V adj  V a  (1  0.00214  (T C  77))
Vadj = 28.59 x (1+0.00214(200-77)) = 36.1 volt/1000’
Vadj > 30 volts/kft, accordingly, the bigger size should be
selected (lower AWG), so size AWG 1 is selected, VD of AWG 1
is 17.75 volts/kft,
V adj  V a  (1  0.00214  (T C  77))
Vadj = 17.75 x (1+0.00214(200-77)) = 22.4 volt/1000’
3. Adjust conductor temperature based on the well DHT as

follows,
T C  a * I  T well F
2 O
=0.0058 x 1002 + 200 = 258 OF

AWG 1, Reda Hot 275 OF (maximum cable temperature) is a good
choice.
6.8. ESP cable pulling rates and decompression

6.8.1. Introduction
When discussing cable handling techniques one area of
concern is the effect of pulling rates on the internal
components of the cable. Unfortunately, this is not simple
issue and there are not definitive means for determining
optimum pulling rates. The intent of this part, however, is to
discuss the factors involved in decompression of the cable,
whether it is due to pulling of the downhole equipment or
simply drawdown of the fluid.
6.8.2. Decompression theory
When a cable is initially installed in the oil well it
is exposed to an external pressure created by gas pressure and
24
Chapter 6
the static head of the fluid. The cable components, however,

undergo a pressure equalization process whereby the insulation
and jacket compress and gases and fluids migrate into the
material. The rate at which this migration occurs, however, is
highly variable.
Two general factors control the permeation rate,
1. The diffusion between molecular chains.
2. The stability the permeant (the migrating fluid or gas) in
the polymer (the insulation and jacket).
The diffusion is dependent on pressure and concentration
factors; for liquids this referred to as the concentration
gradient and for gas as the partial pressure (total pressure
multiplied by gas concentration). Other parameters affecting
the above two factors include the temperature at which the
cable is operating (high temperature increase the permeation
rate), jacket and insulation thickness, intermolecular chain
forces, degree of cross-linking, molecular size, and chemical
similarity between the permeant and the polymer.
Once the internal components of the cable have reached the

same pressure as the well through the diffusion and physical
compression, the cable has reached equilibrium. Once the
fluids are drawdown, however, or the equipment is pulled, a
pressure differential is created with the high pressure
existing in the cable insulation and jacket material
themselves. The material will physically expand to relieve
some of this pressure, much as they compressed under an
external pressure. The problem arises, though, due to gas
which “dissolved” in the polymer. Give sufficient time this
gas will migrate back out the material without imparting any
permanent damage to the cable. In some instances, however, the
polymer are not given sufficient time to outgas thereby
causing the pressure differential to exceed the strength of
the material causing a “blowout” which appears as a bubble or
cavity in the insulation or jacket.
6.8.3. Material hoop strength

6.8.3.1. Insulation
A fundamental property when dealing with decompression
is the hoop strength of the cable material. Hoop strength of
tubing reflects the amount of internal pressure that the tube
can contain without yielding the tube material. Likewise, the
hoop strength of an insulation would approximate the pressure
differential that could be maintained across the insulation
without yielding the insulation material. The equation of hoop
strength is as follows:
2 H t
P
D
25
Chapter 6
Where
P = Internal pressure psi
H = Yield or tensile strength (hoop strength) of material psi
t = Thickness of material inch
D = Diameter over insulation inches
PD
Hoop Strength =  H 
2t
Or
P = Internal pressure Mpa
S = Yield or tensile strength (hoop strength)of material Mpa
t = Thickness of material mt
D = Diameter over insulation mt
Internal
t
Pressure
Example 1
P (internal pressure) = 6.6 Mpa
D (outside diameter) = 6.6 mt
t (thickness) = 18.5 mm
6.6  6.6
Hoop strength =  H   1177.3 Mpa = 170.75 psi
2  0.0185
 6.6 
6.6  3.281   
 6.89974  = 170.75 psi
H 
2  0.0185  3.281
Example 2
Assume we are looking at a polypropylene insulated, 3
kv rated, AWG #4 conductor as a Redalene type cable. The
tensile strength of polypropylene is approximately 3500 psi,
the insulation thickness on a 3kv rated cable is 0.075”, and
the diameter over the insulation is 0.354”, therefore,
2  3500  0.75
P = 1483 psi
0.354
Unfortunately, the above tensile strength is at room
temperature and since polypropylene is a relatively low
temperature thermoplastic and softens at higher temperature,
26
Chapter 6
the hoop strength is considerably reduced at normal operating

temperature. Here are below tables of the calculated hoop
strengths for polypropylene insulated conductors for different
conductor sizes and voltage ratings, at two different
temperatures.
O
Hoop strength of polypropylene at 115 F conductor temperature
kV AWG #4 psi AWG #2 psi
3 112 90
4 124 101
O
Hoop strength of polypropylene at 160 F conductor temperature

3 28 22
4 31 25
EPDM insulation, on the other hand, by its nature as a

thermoset or cross linked compound has much better temperature
stability than polypropylene so that it retains a fairly
constant tensile strength in the 212-300 OF temperature range
for which the following data was calculated.
O
Hoop strength of EPDM at 212-300 F conductor temperature

3 390 312
4 431 351
The above shows first that EPDM insulations may provide
greater decompression resistance than polypropylene, but
second that neither provides sufficient decompression strength
on stand alone basis to prevent cable blowout.
6.8.3.2. Tape and Braid
The incorporated of tape and braid over the
insulation provides two advantages to the cable when
considering decompression. First, the tap acts as a barrier to
migration of the well fluids and gases into the insulation,
preventing the absorption of agents which would latter have to
migrate out of the insulation upon decompression. Second, both
the tape and braid provide additional hoop strength to the
insulation. Rough calculations indicate that the additional
hoop strength provided by the poly-vinyl-fluoride (PVF) tape
and nylon braid is approximately 25 psi at 160 OF.
6.8.3.3. Lead jacket
The use of a lead jacket goes one step beyond the
protection provided by the tape and braid and provides a
totally impervious barrier to migration of well fluids or
gases, thereby totally insulating the insulation from the
chemical environment in the well. Therefore, the initial
pressure equalization is accomplished entirely through the
build up of compressive forces in the lead jacket and the
27
Chapter 6
insulation which are easily relieved during compression ; with

the lead jacket there are no trapped gases which must permeate
out of the insulation. Thus the lead jackets are the best
means of preventing decompression damage.
6.8.3.4. Armor
Not surprisingly, the primary cable component for
preventing decompression damage in non-leaded cables is the
armor. The jacket provides additional hoop strength, but
generally just transfers stresses from the insulation to the
armor. Provided below the hoop strengths for a single wrap of
0.025” galvanized steel armor (GSA) with an interlocked
profile; due to the temperature vs strength relationship for
steel, these values would essentially be constant across the
range of operating temperature.
Hoop strength of 0.025” GSA

3 1260 1074
4 1190 1064
Obviously these values will quickly decrease if armor

corrosion is problem. Various armor packages are available to
increase the degree of containment provided by the armor.
These include the use of 0.034” armor strip instead of the
standard 0.025” strip on round cables, the use of second wrap
of armor applied over the first, the use of flat profile armor
configuration, and finally the use of higher strength, more
corrosion resistant alloys such as 316 stainless steel.
6.8.3.5. Recommendation
The key, therefore, is to be aware of the role of the
different cable component and after choosing the appropriate
cable type, to monitor its decompression performance; this
information should be then fed back into the cable selection
criteria. This of course means being aware of the downhole
conditions when the cable is pulled, as well as the pulling
rates themselves.
In terms of cable choices, three key things should be
evaluated:
1. The insulation and jacket polymer type being used.
2. Is a barrier tape or lead jacket being used to prevent the
migration of gases into the insulation?
3. What type of armor is being used and is corrosion negating
the containment role of the armor?
6.9. ESP Cable Test

A variety of test devices and procedures are used in an
effort to determine the quality of cable. Even when using the
same test device, different interpretations and widely
divergent values are used by various companies.
28
Chapter 6
Reuse of cable is a serious consideration in the economic

evaluation of a well. A cable may present up to one-third of
the equipment cost of an installation. Even more important is
the fact that premature cable failure may well result in
pulling the well before payout of the installation.
Where pulling costs are extremely expensive, many many
producers opt to avoid reuse of cable because of risk. Junking
a $30,000 cable that may be perfectly good, has been
determined to be economically prudent in these conditions.
There must be better way of evaluating ESP cable for use.
6.9.1. Types of tests
Various test are used to determine the performance of
cable. The most common are volt-ohmmeter (VOM), insulation
resistance (IR), and high potential dc test (dc hi-pot). As
with most things worth doing, more valuable information is
obtained from the more expensive and difficult tests.
6.9.1.1. VOM
Since volt-ohmmeter is common, inexpensive, safe, easy
to use, it is very popular. Although useful for some
application, the volt-ohmmeter is virtually useless for
evaluating cable insulation. The instrument usually relies on
a 9 volt battery to energize the cable.
This test is only used for an initial indication of cable
condition while it still in the well. About the best that can
be said about a VOM test is that if the reading indicates bad,
then the cable or some other component of the electric system
is bad. However, if it indicates good, little or nothing is
known about the quality of the cable.
6.9.1.2. IR
The megohmmeter is a portable, moderately expensive
test device that provides limited information about cable
quality. The instrument usually contains a 1000 volt supply to
energize the cable. Some machines are rated up to 5000 volts.
The higher voltage can help determine the basic performance
level of the cable. However, the meter readings are subjected
to so any variations that consistent results are seldom
achieved.
6.9.1.3. Hi-pot
The high potential dc tester is an expensive test machine
which, given the present state of the art, provides the most
information about cable quality. It typically can apply up to
35,000 volts to energize the cable. Some machines at research
facilities are rated up to 200,000 volts or more.
The higher voltage can be used to cause virtually any cable to
fail at weakest point. However, it is very difficult to find a
way to interpret the readings so that the quality of cable can
be determined without taking the cable to destruction.
29
Chapter 6
Experience, skill, and knowledge of local conditions taken in

conjunction with test results are major aids in analyzing the
suitability of cable for reuse.
6.9.2. Resistance vs. Length in ESP cables
Cable insulation is essentially a large resistor that I
spread over along distance. Using finite element analysis, the
insulation ca modeled as numerous resistors. Each resistor
represents a unit length. All the resistors between the
conductors and ground are then connected in parallel to obtain
the total insulation resistance as shown as the following
figure.
R1 R2 R3 Rn
Energized conductor
Grounded shield
Based on the relationship for parallel resistors, the total

resistance will always be lower than the lowest resistor
anywhere on the cable. In addition, the value will lower
exponentially as the length increases.
1 1 1 1 1
    .......... 
Rt R1 R2 R3 Rn
The reciprocal of the total resistance, Rt, is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of all individual resistances along the
length of the cable.
End effects, associated with where the conductors are exposed
to air, constitute two additional resistors. These are also in
parallel with insulation resistance.
The concept of parallel resistances is important in gaining an
appropriate understanding of the total leakage current, the
insulation resistance, and leakage conductance. These have a
pronounced effect on the mega-ohmmeter and dc hipot leakage
current test leakage.
6.9.3. Resistance vs current in ESP cables
The insulation resistance R in megohms and the leakage
current I in microamps are related by Ohm’s low.
V = R * I
It is apparent that the test voltage V plays a role in the
relation ship. For cable insulation, the resistance varies
with the length. As the length increases, the megohm value
decreases. This is a non linear change. For a fixed test
voltage, the leakage current must increase exponentially as
the length increases.
During varies tests, we have observed that the leakage current
30
Chapter 6
and megohm values vary over a wide range. For a particular

group of conditions, one value of leakage current and
insulation resistance might be appropriate, but no single
number satisfies all conditions. Some of the conditions
influencing both leakage current and insulation resistance
include length, temperature, material, moisture, and oil
gravity.
Cable length has to be incorporated in Ohm’s law relationship.
If the resistance is multiplied by length the appropriate
units are megohm-thousand feet (MΩ-kft). The reciprocal is
called conductance and has units of micromhos per thousand
feet (μmho-kft).
Alternatively, the conductance can be expresses in units of
microamps per volt per thousand feet (μA/kv/kft). Observe that
the leakage conductance is directly related to the reciprocal
of the insulation resistance.
Traditionally, the industry has strived to determine one
megohmmeter number that can be used to judge the quality of
any cable. Basic analysis reveals it is futile to try to
define performance of all cables by using single number read
from meter. Length, wire diameter, insulation type,
construction geometry, and voltage must be considered.
The example below illustrates the the effect of length and
voltage on the meter r99 eading. These based on a leakage
conductance of 0.2 μa/kv/kft.
Effect of length and voltage on insulation resistance
Length Voltage Current Conductance Resistance

Kft kv μa μA/kv megohm
1 1 0.2 0.2 5000
1 5 1 0.2 5000
1 15 3 0.2 5000
2 15 6 0.4 2500
5 1 1 1.0 1000
5 15 15 1.0 1000
10 15 30 2.0 500
I = V/R = 1/5000*103 = 0.2*10-6 amps = 0.2 μa/kv/kft

3
I = V/R = 5/5000*10 = 1.0*10-6 amps = 1.0 μa/kv/kft
I = V/R = 15/5000*103 = 3.0*10-6 amps = 3.0 μa/kv/kft
3 -6
I = V/R = 15*2/5000*10 = 6.0*10 amps = 6.0 μa/kv/kft
I = V/R = 15/5000*103 = 3.0*10-6 amps = 1.0 μa/kv/kft
I = V/R = 1*5/5000*103 = 1.0*10-6 amps = 1.0 μa/kv/kft
3
I = V/R = 15*10/5000*10 = 30.0*10-6 amps = 30 μa/kv/kft
R = V/I = 1/0.2*10-6 = 5*106 ohm = 5000 MΩ
R = V/I = 5/0.2*10-6 = 5*106 ohm = 5000 MΩ
R = V/I = 15/3.0*10-6 = 5*106 ohm = 5000 MΩ
R = V/I = 15/6.0*10-6 = 2.5*106 ohm = 2500 MΩ
R = V/I = 1/1.0*10-6 = 1*106 ohm = 1000 MΩ
R = V/I = 15/30*10-6 = 0.5*106 ohm = 500 MΩ
31
Chapter 6
The measured megohm value is not a single number, but varies

with length. This corresponds to the parallel resistance model
previously discussed.
6.9.4. Resistance vs wire size

Insulation resistance is related to dimensions of by
resistivity (ρ).
L
R
A
Characteristic material properties are included in the
resistivity. The length (L) and surface across sectional area
(A) define the volume occupied by the insulation. Previous
discussion identified the effect of length on the resistance.
The ara is calculated from circumference around the conductor
(Пd) and thickness (t) of the insulation.
A = Пd*t
Because cable insulation is essentially a tube around a wire,
an alternate from this relationship is used. It takes into
consideration the overall diameter (D), the wire diameter (d)
and the bulk resistivity constant (K) which is a constant for
each material.
D
R  K log
d
Typical resistance constants for high quality electrical
insulations have been determined by the power cable industry.
These are based on years of experience at high voltage levels.
For example, the bulk constant of ethylene propylene diene
monomers (EPDM) insulation for use at service level up to
138,000 volt ac is 20,000 megohm-thousand feet for new
insulation. The polyethylene value is 50,000 Mohm-kft.
Insulation that has been environmentally exposed will have
values that are significantly lower than these new resistance
constants. Because new insulation is such high quality, lower
values on used cable may still represent excellent insulation
for this application.
Stranded wire will be having more insulation in contact with
the wire than solid conductor. This greater surface causes a
proportional increase in the area. In addition, a large size
will have a greater area.
An increase in area causes a decrease in the resistance of the
insulation. Because of the very small dimensions involved in a
wire configuration, any increase in area can have a dramatic
effect.
The table below shows the impact of the wire configuration.
The EPDM constant for new cable is used to determine the
minimum insulation resistance and corresponding leakage
conductance for cables with nominal 75 and 90 mil insulation
32
Chapter 6
thickness. The minimum thickness (t) for nominal 75 mil

insulation is 68 mils. The overall diameter (D) is calculated.
D = d + 2t
As an example, the overall diameter for AWG #1 is 439 mils
(289+75+75).
Size effect on insulation resistance, EPDM (K=20,000 MΩ-kft)
Wire R MΩ-kft G R MΩ-kft
Wire Size G
Diameter for 75 μa/kv/kf for 90
AWG μa/kv/kft
(d) mil mil wall t mil wall
6 162 5290 0.19 6020 0.17
4 205 4430 0.19 5070 0.20
4S 232 4110 0.24 4710 0.21
2 258 3680 0.27 4240 0.24
2S 292 3390 0.30 3910 0.26
1 289 3350 0.30 3860 0.26
1S 328 3080 0.33 3560 0.28
It is apparent that the measured insulation resistance changes

significantly with a change in wire dimensions. The resistance
will also change depending on the insulation material. The
same table recalculated for polypropylene.
Size effect on insulation resistance, Poly (K=50,000 MΩ-kft)
Wire R MΩ-kft G R MΩ-kft
Wire Size G
Diameter for 75 μa/kv/kf for 90
AWG μa/kv/kft
(d) mil mil wall t mil wall
6 162 13240 0.076 15050 0.066
4 205 11080 0.090 12680 0.079
4S 232 10275 0.096 11775 0.084
2 258 9210 0.109 10600 0.094
2S 292 8470 0.118 9780 0.102
1 289 8370 0.120 9660 0.104
1S 328 7690 0.130 8900 0.112
When insulation resistance decreases, the leakage conductance

increases. The relationships demonstrate some of the reasons
why it is very difficult to have a single value of leakage
conductance or insulation resistance for every submersible
cable. These changes are for new cable. The effect is even
more pronounced for used cable.
Example:
In AWG #1, 75 mils nominal insulation, EPDM thickness is 75
mils, and wire diameter is 289 mils.
So, d = 75 mils, D = 289 + 2 * 75 = 439 mils = 0.239 inch
D 0.439
R  K log  20,000 * log = 3,631 MΩ-kft
d 0.289
In AWG #4, stranded, 75 mils nominal insulation, EPDM
thickness is 75 mils, and wire diameter is 205 mils.
33
Chapter 6

D 0.355
R  K log  20,000 * log = 4,769 MΩ-kft
d 0.205
In AWG #1 stranded, 75 mils nominal insulation, polyethylene
thickness is 75 mils, and wire diameter is 289 mils.
D 0.439
R  K log  50,000 * log = 9,078 MΩ-kft
d 0.289
6.9.5. Resistance vs. shielding
During a test or use, a voltage gradient is set up
between the conductor and the ground plan as illustrated I the
following figure. This potential difference is distributed
across all the insulating materials in the electric field.
Therefore, the total measured resistance depends on the
insulating properties of all materials between energized
conductors and ground plane.
Armor
Jacket
Insulation
Conductor
energized
Ground
Voltage gradient between conductor and ground
If shielding is placed directly over the individual insulated
wire, the ground plane is moved closer conductor. This reduces
the resistance, so it increases the leakage conductance and
leakage current. For example, a lead covered cable provides a
very effective shield. Hence the leakage current values will
be greater for leaded cable than for other designs.
Most three phase cables have three conductors twisted a
triplex configuration. This spacing tends to fog the
dimensions between the conductor and ground plane. Hence, this
insulation resistance tends to be greater than most other
configurations.
34
Chapter 6
6.9.6. Industry methods

There are many diverse methods used in an effort to
determine if a particular cable is suitable for reuse in a
well. For example, many users merely require that the cable be
visually inspected and that it pass a five minutes hi-pot dc
withstand test at specified voltage level. Even this rather
straightforward evaluation method is complicated by the lack
of consensus on the appropriate voltage test level for various
types of cable.
For a used 75 mil, EPDM insulated cable, the dc voltage used
in the industry is usually 11,000 volts. At the other extreme,
some users reportedly test the same cable at level up to
25,000 volts. This extreme difference indicates a series lack
of understanding about the basic testing criteria of cable.
Furthermore, certain users attempt to establish a specified
maximum leakage current. Others specify a leakage conductance
which is leakage current per thousand volts per thousand feet.
Still others may require that the leakage current or
insulation resistance be balanced within a maximum ratio of 3
to 1.
6.9.7. Recommended practice
There are several organizations responsible for
recommended practices addressing this high performance cable.
An overview of the development of these guidelines has been
represented by Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers
(IEEE).
IEEE has three documents that address the performance of new
cable; these provide conservative criteria for evaluation of
newly manufactured cable and acceptance of the shipped cables.
The guidelines are supported by broad experience outside the
submersible industry. They were developed and accepted by
submersible cable manufacturers and producers based ob
industry knowledge at the time of development.
IEEE test values
Thickness Factory Acceptance Maintenance
Mils kv kv kv
75 27 22 11
90 35 28 14
These provide a starting point for evaluating used cable.

Maintenance test are performed on cables that remain installed
but can be tested. Used submersible cable is usually tested
after removal from the well where considerably higher test
voltages can be applied. Therefore, the maintenance values are
often regarded by some evaluators as too low for used cable.
Despite the lack of hard data to support their
recommendations, an API task Group is pressing forward in an
attempt to provide guidance for reuse testing. At this time,
35
Chapter 6
the tentative draft guideline for testing used EPDM and

polypropylene (poly) cable is based solely on new cable
criteria. More work needs to be done.
6.9.8. Megohm correlation
There is considerable controversy about the minimum
required megohm reading on a used cable. The test method is
widely used, but how it works on this specialty cable is not
well under stood. Perhaps it will be useful to review what
this test actually measures. How test results are related to
cable length and other variables are then considered.
An insulation resistance (megohmmeter) test is usually
performed by 1000 volts dc to one conductor. The other two
conductors and the armor are grounded.
The following figure illustrates the relationship between
insulation resistance and cable length. Two assumptions are
used, first, resistance is uniformly distributed along the
length of the cable, second, the end effects are ignored.
Insulation resistance vs Length

1800
1600
1400
1200
Megohm
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Thousand feet
The curve is based on a 200 megohm resistance for an 8000 foot

cable. This a value some have used as a threshold for
acceptance used cable. However, we will develop more effective
relationship later.
The graph dramatically illustrates that as cable get shorter,
the insulation resistance (IR) reading increases very rapidly.
As a result, it is very difficult for those unaware of this
relationship to properly interpret megohm readings as a
function of length. The relationship is definitely not liner.
In addition, it should be observed that as the cable gets
shorter, it becomes more and more difficult to get meaningful
results. The meter has limited resolution for values greater
36
Chapter 6
than 5000 megohms.
Furthermore, for short length, the end effect resistance

begins to dominate more than the actual insulation resistance.
The end effect resistance is lowered by increasing humidity,
lack of cleanliness, and preparation of the ends.
One other observation from the simple parallel resistance
model is worthy of further comment. The megohmmeter will
always indicate a value lower than the lowest resistance along
the complete length of the cable. The lower value arises
because of the parallel nature of the resistors. This effect
depicts how the entire length of an otherwise perfectly good
cable can be condemned because a small section has been
damaged locally.
In other words, one can not determine the overall quality of a
cable from the megohm reading. The value may reflect the
insulation resistance and presumably the condition of all the
insulation along the cable or it may reflect just the
resistance of a local spot along the cable.
Because of these inherent test limitations, it is clear that
megom readings alone do not provide sufficient information to
be used as the sole criteria for evaluating the condition of a
cable.
6.9.9. DC Hi-pot voltage
The preferred method of evaluating cable at this time is
the high potential dc tester. Even this respected method
always many interpretations. As a result, there is no
consensus of appropriate voltage or current levels for
evaluating used cable.
The IEEE recommended practice gas generally accepted voltage
values for factory test of newly manufactured and acceptance
test of newly delivered cable. These were given in the
previous table.
With the present improved quality of cable and the experience
of the industry, the values given for maintenance test are
often considered too low for cable removed from service. Many
service centers and users specify much higher dc voltage for
evaluating used cable.
One part of the argument is that higher voltage will find more
weak spots before installation of the cable in the well. The
counter point f argument is that excessive test voltage will
unnecessarily damage of insulation of otherwise perfectly good
cable. In addition, there is concern in some circles that
repeated testing of cable may cause deterioration of the
insulation. An underlying problem is the lack of experimental
data or information to validate either of these arguments.
6.9.10. DC Hi-pot leakage current
Another difficulty arises when trying to interpret the
37
Chapter 6
microamp current values observed during hi-pot test. The

microamp dc current is made of three components. There are
capacitance charging current, absorption current, and
conduction current.
The charging current energizes the capacitor formed by the
dielectric that exists between the conductors and ground. This
current component starts extremely high and decreases
exponentially. If the applied voltage remains stable, the
value drops to zero within a few seconds after the test
begins.
Absorption current results from the charge absorption in the
dielectric as a result of polarization of the insulation. This
current component starts high but decreases somewhat more
slowly. The current typically stabilized after 5 minutes,
although reasonably acceptable data is available after 2
minutes.
Conduction current is steady state leakage current value. This
is the current that flows over, under, around and through the
insulation.
A low value of steady state conduction current is commonly
accepted as indicating a good cable. However, a much more
through evaluation can be made by measuring the leakage
current at various voltages and plotting leakage current vs
applied voltages. If the resistance is “ideal”, it will not be
affected by voltage level and the relationship will be linear.
Increasing leakage current with voltage indicates that the
insulation has been weakened. As the cable ages, deteriorates,
or becomes wet, the leakage current increases dramatically for
the same applied voltage.
Leakage current values are primarily influenced by materials
and environmental conditions.
Some users are not concerned with the current level but simply
use a dc withstand test. The approach is to apply a dc voltage
level to the cable for five minutes. If the cable does not
fail, then it is accepted. This approach provides no true
information about comparative quality or stability for reuse
in the particular environment.
Other users try to look at the level of microamp leakage.
However, there are no consistent guidelines for evaluating
these current levels.
6.9.11. Time before test
The leakage current is influenced by many factors
including the physical condition of the cable, the ac strength
of the insulation, the physical and chemical condition of the
insulation material, and the amount of gas still absorbed in
the insulation system. External influences are leakage at the
ends because of improper termination, inadequate cleaning,
moisture in the air, wind velocity, and insulation
temperature. All these factors tend to increase the leakage
38
Chapter 6
current.
It is imperative that cable be stabilized at ambient
conditions before comparing results. This ensures the
temperature will be consistent, while gas and moisture will be
allowed to migrate from the insulation system.
We have evaluated cable tested within two hours after removal
from a well. When the same type cable was exposed to the same
test well conditions during simultaneous tests, but was
allowed to “set” for 5 days after removal, the test results
indicated much better quality.
The cables evaluated in this test had 75 mil EPDM insulation,
a barrier, 60 mil EPDM jacket, and galvanized steel armor.
Subsequent investigations were made using different materials
for barrier.
Representative migohmmeter results taken two hours after
removal from the well are as below.
Megohmmter values
Mohms @ Mohms @
Phase
1000 v 5000 v
A-B 20,000 15,000
B-C 20,000 16,000
C-A 20,000 14,000
C-G 20,000 9,000
B-G 20,000 10,000
A-G 20,000 11,000
The magohmmeter values indicate the wet cable would be
expected to be good even though the 5000 v megohmmeter values
indicate some deterioration of the cable insulation system.
The cables were then subjected to a high potential as test at
two hours and five days after removal. The test was halted
when the insulation failed for the voltage exceeded the
termination rating.
Leakage Current and ac breakdown strength after delays
Two hours Five days
Material
kV ma kV ma
Alpha 34 21 39 10
Alpha 34 20 42 16
Alpha 44 28 52 16
Beta 30 24 100 24
Gamma 32 23 48 19
Gamma 28 32 48 16
Although the magnitude of the results was different for the
various materials, the effect was identical. All the cables
failed at low levels when energized immediately after pulling.
When the cable was allowed to dry, the results were very
different. The five day results show values as good as any
used cable has been evaluated.
39
Chapter 6
6.10. Cable Nomenclature

 Insulation
o Reda
PPE or P = Polypropylene /ethylene
E = EPDM (ethylene propylene dienemethylene)
K = Polyimide (Kapton™)
T = Semi-conductive tape(RedaSurface)
o Centrilift
P = Polypropylene
E = EPDM (ethylene propylene dienemethylene)
T = Thermolpastic
 Barrier
o Reda
S = Extruded polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF or Solef™)
TB-300 = Tape & braid polyvinyl fluoride
(PVF or Tedlar™)
F = Extruded fluoropolymer (FEP)
TB-400 = Proprietary high temperature tape/braid
L = Lead
o Centrilift
L = Lead
 Jacket
o Reda
PE = High density polyethylene (HDPE)
N = Nitrile (Oil resistant nitrile rubber compound)
E = EPDM (EPDM rubber compound)
o Centrilift
E = EPDM (EPDM rubber compound)
N = Nitrile (Oil resistant nitrile rubber compound)
T = Thermoplastic
 Armor (General)
G = Galvanized steel
HG = Heavy galvanized steel
GG = Double galvanized (two layers)
SS = Stainless steel
M = Monel
= Standard interlocking profile
FP = Flat profile armor
 Voltage rating and cable geometry (General)
3, 4, 5, 8 = Voltage rating (kV)
F = Flat cable configuration
R = Round cable configuration
40
Chapter 6
 Cable Size (General)

#1 = AWG # 1 (American Wire Gauge # 1)
6.11. Cable families and designation examples

 Reda
 Redalene
Description
All cable designs in the Redalene family utilize
polypropylene insulation (designated P or PPE) and an oil-
resistant nitrile jacket (designated O).
Features
o Temperature
The maximum conductor temperature is 205°F [96°C].
o Conductor
The conductors are made of alloy-coated copper. The alloy
coating provides corrosion protection for the copper and
improves long-term electrical properties of the
insulation.
o Insulation
Polypropylene
o Barrier
Tape and braid. Barrier prevents failure from chemical
attack and gas decompression, ensuring superior
performance in wells with hostile environments or wells
with high gas/oil ratios.
o Jacket
Nitrile rubber compound with exceptional physical
properties and oil resistance is used.
o Armor
Cable armor made from steel strips featuring a galvanized
coating on all sides is the standard. The use of one of
many armor options can improve resistance to corrosion and
mechanical damage.
PPEO
POTB
41
Chapter 6
Redalene: 205°F (96°C)

 Redahot
Description
All cable designs in the Redahot family utilize a
proprietary EPDM insulation (designated E) and an oil-
resistant nitrile jacket (designated O).
Features
o Temperature
The maximum conductor temperature is 220° to 350°F [121°
to 177°C]. The temperature rating is based on the options
selected.
o Conductor
The conductors are made of alloy-coated copper. The alloy
coating provides corrosion protection for the copper and
prevents degradation of the adhesive bond between the
conductor and the EPDM (ethylene propylene diene
methylene) insulation.
o Insulation
EPDM insulation compounds provide the optimum combination
of electrical, physical and chemical properties.
o Barrier
Tape and braid. Barrier prevents failure from attack and
gas decompression, ensuring superior performance in wells
with hostile environments and wells with high gas/oil
ratios.
o Jacket
Nitrile rubber compounds with exceptional physical
properties and oil resistance.
o Armor
Cable armor made from steel strips featuring a galvanized
coating on all sides is the standard. The use of one of
many armor options can improve resistance to corrosion and
mechanical damage.
ETBO
Redahot: 250-350°F (121-177°C)
42
Chapter 6
 Redablack
Description
All cable designs in the Redablack family utilize a
patented EPDM insulation formulation (designated E) and a
patented EPDM jacket (designated E).
Features
o Temperature
The conductor temperature range is 300°F to 400°F [149°F
to 204°FC]. The temperature rating is based on the
options selected.
o Conductor
alloy coating provides corrosion protection for the
copper and prevents degradation of the adhesive bond
between the conductor and the EPDM (ethylene propylene
diene methylene) insulation.
o Insulation
EPDM insulation compounds provide the optimum
combination of electrical, physical and chemical
properties.
o Barrier
Tape and braid. Barrier prevents failures from chemical
attack and gas decompression, ensuring superior
performance in high-temperature wells with hostile
environments or wells with high gas/oil ratios.
o Jacket
The patented EPDM rubber jacket compounds provide
exceptional physical properties and temperature
capabilities.
o Armor
galvanized coating on all sides is the standard. The use
of one of many armor options can improve resistance to
gas, corrosion and mechanical damage.
EER
ETBEF
REDABLACK: 300-400°F (149-204°C)

 Redablead
43
Chapter 6
Description
All cable designs in the Redalead family utilize a
patented EPDM insulation formulation (designated E) and
an impervious lead barrier (designated L).
Features
o Temperature range
The conductor temperature range is 400° to 450°F [203°
to 232°C].
o Conductor
alloy coating provides corrosion protection for the
copper and prevents degradation of the adhesive bond
between the conductor and the EPDM (ethylene propylene
diene methylene) insulation.
o Insulation
EPDM provide the optimum combination of electrical,
physical and chemical properties.
o Barrier
The fatigue and corrosion-resistant lead has an
impervious lead barrier that prevents failure from
chemical attack and gas decompression, ensuring
superior performance in high-temperature wells with
hostile environments or wells with high gas/oil ratios.
o Jacket
Additional barriers and various jacket types are
available to prevent mechanical damage and to maximize
cable run life
o Armor
galvanized coating on all sides is the standard. The
use of one of many armor options can improve resistance
to gas, corrosion and mechanical damag
ELBE ELB
Redalead: 400-450°F (203-232°C)
44
Chapter 6
Motorleads: 250-450°F(121-232°C)
 Centrilift
 Centriline CTT Cable (Centriline Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic)
Centriline CTT cable is designed for a maximum
operating temperature of 190°F (88°C) and can
be safely installed at temperatures as low as -
40°F (-40°C). This product is one of the most
cost effective cables in the Centriline cable
family.
The high dielectric electrical grade
thermoplastic insulation is formulated for
down-hole applications. Another layer of
electrical grade thermoplastic is applied over
the insulation as a jacket that adds physical
protection.
This cable can be used in shallow wells,
marginal oil wells and water well applications
where large quantities of CO2, and/or light
ends are not an issue. The CTT design is
available in a flat configuration for wells
with marginal clearance.
Galvanized steel armor provides an overall protection to
the cables. It is recommended that cable protectors be
used in highly deviated wells or wells with minimal
clearance.
CTT FLAT CABLE
1- Armor: Galvanized Steel
2- Jacket: Electrical Grade Thermoplastic
3- Insulation: High Dielectric Thermoplastic
4- Conductor: Soft Drawn Tin Coated Copper (SDTC)
 Centriline CPN Cable (Centriline Polypropylene Nitrile)
Centriline CPN cable is designed for maximum operating

temperatures of 205°F (96°C) and can be safely
installed at temperatures as low as -30°F (-34°C). This
45
Chapter 6
product is one of the most cost effective cables in the

Centriline cable family.
CPN Flat Cable
1 - Armor: Galvanized Steel
2 - Jacket: Oil Resistant, Patented Flexible Nitrile
3 - Insulation: High Dielectric Polypropylene
4 - Conductor: Solid Tinned Copper
Features and Benefits

CPN Round Cable
2 - Jacket: Oil Resistant, Patented Flexible Nitrile
3 - Insulation: High Dielectric Polypropylene
4 - Conductor: Solid Tinned Copper
A specially formulated nitrile rubber jacket provides

added physical protection and reduces the possibility of
damage due to gas, heat or pressure
 Centriline CEN Round Cable (Centriline EPDM Nitrile)

Centriline CEN Round cable is designed to operate over a
temperature range from -30°F (-34°C) to 280°F (138°C).
The insulation is a specially compounded, oil resistant
EPDM rubber with proven electrical properties. An oil
resistant nitrile jacket is used to protect the
insulation. This is the most cost effective construction
for wells operating below 280°F (138°C) with low to
moderate gassy conditions
Round constructions have a high temperature tape over the
insulation to allow the jacket to be removed without
damage to the insulation. Galvanized steel armor provides
an overall protection to the cables.
CEN Round Cable
2 - Jacket: High Modulus, Breathable Nitrile Rubber
3 - Tape: High Temperature Tape with Phase Identification
4 - Insulation: High Dielectric, Low Swell EPDM
5 - Conductor: Solid Bare Copper
 Centriline CEE Cable (Centriline EPDM EPDM)
Centriline CEE cable is ideal for moderately gassy wells.
CEE cable features insulation compounded with oil
resistant EPDM rubber with proven electrical properties.
A patented, high module EPDM rubber jacket adds hoop
strength and allows breath-ability during decompression.
This cable is designed to operate over a broad range of
46
Chapter 6
temperatures from 60°F (-51°C) to 400°F (204°C). CEE

cables can be manufactured in special designs for
specific well conditions. CEE cable is available in a
round as well as a flat construction for wells with
marginal clearance.
CEE Flat Cable
1. Armor: Galvanized Steel
2. Tape/Braid: High Temperature Barrier Tape and
hydrolytically Stable B-400 Braid
3. Jacket: High Modulus, Breathable EPDM Rubber
4. Insulation: High Dielectric, Low Swell EPDM Rubber
o Flat construction is provided with a barrier tape and a
high temperature braid over EPDM jacket, adding hoop
strength to the product for decompression resistance.
o CEE cables can be provided with capillary cables to control safety valves or inject
chemicals.
CEE Round Cable
2 - Jacket: High Modulus, Breathable EPDM Rubber
3 - Tape: High Temperature Barrier Tape
4 - Insulation: High Dielectric, Low Swell EPDM Rubber
o Round constructions have a high
temperature tape over the insulation to
allow the jacket to be removed without
damage to the insulation. Additional tape
and braid can be added to provide hoop
strength.
o Galvanized steel armor provides overall
protection for the cable. Cables can be
provided with special armors and
configurations to meet different well
requirements
 Centriline Duralead CPL (Centriline
Polypropylene Lead) Following extensive
testing at the Cable Development Center,
Centriline Duralead CPLF cable has been
rated to operate in a wide temperature
range* from -40ºF (-40°C) to 257°F (125°C). The
insulation is a specially compounded polypropylene with
proven electrical properties. A fatigue and corrosion
resistant lead sheath is used over the insulation, which
is imperious to chemical or gas penetration. The lead
sheath prevents decompression and is ideal for wells that
are gassy and have high levels of CO2 or H2S.
Using new technology, the galvanized steel armor is
47
Chapter 6
directly wrapped over the lead sheath. This armor has

been edge coated on all four sides, providing the best
corrosion protection. CPL is tested according to IEEE
1019 and API 11S6 and has 90 mil insulation tested to 5kV
standards. CPL has met rigorous repetitive bend testing
requirements. It is recommended that cable protectors be
used in highly deviated wells or wells with minimal
clearance. CPL cable is available with special armors as
required for different well conditions.
CPL FLAT CABLE
1- Armor: Galvanized steel
2- Lead Sheath: Lead sheath barrier, impervious to fluids
and gas
3- Insulation: High dielectric polypropylene
4- Conductor: Solid tinned copper
Example (cable selection)
In the example of chapter 2 (ESP motor), Motor is rated 120

hp, 60 HZ, 2270 v, 32.5 Amp
Pump Load is 104 hp
Motor operating current = (104/ 120) * 32.5 = 28.1 amp.
Choose a cable size with a volts drop < 30v/1000 ft
Choose #6 AWG cable

Voltage drop at 32.5 amps = 20 volts/1000 ft
Correct for Temp. [(160+100)/2]= 130 Deg F) = 20 * 1.12 = 22.4
volts/1000 ft
We have 5500 ft of cable allowing for 100 ft at surface
48
Chapter 6
Voltage drop = 5.6 * 22.4 = 126 volts

Surface Voltage required = 2270(motor) +126= 2396 v.
Calculate the conductor temperature using the motor amperage

and the maximum well temperature,
T C  a * I  T well
2 O
F
o
Select Reda hot round cable (275 F), then check the conductor
temperature,
I = 32.5 A, Twell = 160 OF, cable is AWG# 6 Reda hot type
a = 0.02 (from Reda issued table)
Tc = 0.02 x (32.5)2 + 160 = 181 OF
Conductor Size (AWG)
Cable Type
6 4 2 1 1/0 2/0
Redablack Flat (EEF) 0.0275 0.0167 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Redablack Round (EER) 0.0199 0.0115 0.0058 0.0043 0.0032 0.0025
Redalead Flat (ELB) 0.0281 0.0169 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Redalead Round (ELBE) 0.0202 0.0116 0.0058 0.0042 0.0031 0.0025
Redablack Flat (ETBE-300F) 0.0275 0.0167 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Redahot Round (ETBO) 0.02 0.0117 0.0062 0.0046 0.0034 0.0027
Motorlead (KELB) 0.0281 0.0169 0.0086 0.0064 0.005 0.0039
Low Temperature Motorlead (KEOTB) 0.0275 0.0169 0.009 0.0068 0.0053 0.0042
Redalene Flat (POTB) 0.0281 0.0176 0.0097 0.007 0.0048 0.0038
Redalene Round (PPEO) 0.0199 0.0112 0.0062 0.0045 0.0031 0.0025
The maximum carrying capacity of a cable can be calculated
using the following equation:
T C max  BHT
I max 
a
49
Chapter 6
Imax = [(275-160)/0.02]0.5 = 75.8 Amps
50
Chapter 7
Transformers
Table of Content
1 Introduction 2
2 Principal of operation 3
3 Induced voltage (EMF equation) 4
4 Transformer construction 7
4.1 Transformer construction of the core 8
4.2 Transformer laminations 9
4.3 Transformer core types 9
4.4 Transformer winding arrangement 10
5 Transformer dot orientation 11
6 Transformer Primary tap change 12
7 Transformer core losses 13
7.1 Hysteresis losses 13
7.2 Eddy current losses 13
7.3 Copper losses 14
8 Transformer loading 15
8.1 Transformer at NO-Load 15
8.2 Transformer On-Load 16
9 Three phase ideal transformer 20
10 Three phase transformer construction 26
11 Equivalent circuit transformer 26
11.1 Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer
at No-Load 27
11.2 Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer
On-Load 30
11.3 Equivalent circuit of real transformer 31
11.4 Approximate Equivalent circuit of
Transformer 34
12 Losses and efficiency of transformer 35
12.1 Iron losses or core losses 36
12.2 Core losses 38
12.3 Short circuit test 39
12.4 Efficiency of single phase transformer 40
13 Current transformer 39
14 Autotransformer 44
1
Chapter 7
Transformers
7.1. Introduction
In its simplest form a single-phase transformer consists
of two windings, wound on an iron core one of the windings is
connected to an ac source of supply f. The source supplies a
current to this winding (called primary winding) which in turn
produces a flux in the iron core.
This flux is alternating in nature (Refer Figure 6.1). If the
supplied voltage has a frequency f, the flux in the core also
alternates at a frequency f. the alternating flux linking with
the second winding, induces a voltage E2 in the second winding
(called secondary winding). [Note that this alternating flux
linking with primary winding will also induce a voltage in the
primary winding, denoted as E1. Applied voltage V1 is very
nearly equal to E1].
If the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings
is N1 and N2 respectively, we shall see later in this unit that
E1 / E2 = N1 / N2.
The load is connected across the secondary winding, between
the terminals a1, a2. Thus, the load can be supplied at a
voltage higher or lower than the supply voltage, depending
upon the ratio N1 / N2.
Figure (7.1) Basic arrangement of transformer

.When a load is connected across the secondary winding it
carries a current I2, called load current. The primary current
correspondingly increases to provide for the load current, in
addition to the small no load current. The transfer of power
from the primary side (or source) to the secondary side (or
load) is through the mutual flux and core. There is no direct
electrical connection between the primary and secondary sides.
In an actual transformer, when the iron core carries
alternating flux, there is a power loss in the core called
core loss, iron loss or no load loss. Further, the primary and
secondary windings have a resistance, and the currents in
2
Chapter 7
primary and secondary windings give rise to I2R losses in

transformer windings, also called copper losses.
The losses lead to production of heat in the transformers, and
a consequent temperature rise. Therefore, in transformer,
cooling methods are adopted to ensure that the temperature
remains within limit so that no damage is done to windings‟
insulation and material.
7.2. Principal of operation

A transformer operates on the principle of mutual
inductance between two (and sometimes more) inductively
coupled coils. It consists of two windings in close proximity
as shown in fig (7.2).
The two windings are coupled by magnetic induction. (There is
no conductive connection between the windings). One of the
windings called primary, has N1 turns is energized by a
sinusoidal voltage E1. The second winding, called secondary,
has N2 turns and feeds the load. The alternating current in the
primary winding sets up an alternating flux in the core. The
secondary winding is linked by most of this flux and emfs are
induced in the two windings. The emf induced in the secondary
winding drives a current through the load connected to this
winding. Energy is transferred from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit through the medium of the magnetic field.
A power transformer in which the secondary voltage is higher
than the primary is called a step-up power transformer; if the
secondary voltage is less than the primary, the device is
known as a step-down power transformer. The product of current
times voltage is constant in each set of coils, so that in a
step-up power transformer, the voltage increase in the
secondary is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the
current.
Figure (7.2)
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic
properties of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC
voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the
voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and
vice versa.
Faraday's Law
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will
3
Chapter 7
cause a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter

how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The
change could be produced by changing the magnetic field
strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving
the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil
relative to the magnet, etc.
Figure (7.3)
7.3. Induced voltage (EMF equation)

If the flux, φ, linking a coil of N turns and inductance,
L, varies sinusoidally at frequency f, then
   max sin t ---------------------------(6.1)
Where  max is the peak value of the flux
Then the induced emf (voltage) , from Faraday‟s law (voltage =
rate of change of flux linkage) is,
d d
eN  N  max sin t   N  max cos t
dt dt
 
e  2fN  max cos t  2fN  max sin t   ---------(6.2)
 2
The peak value of the induced emf is 2fN  max .
The rms (root mean square) value, E, of the induced emf is,
1
E 2fN  max  4.44 fN  max volt ----------(6.3)
2
4
Chapter 7
Example 1
The primary winding of a 50 hz transformer has 480
turns and is fed from 6400 v supply, find,
(a) the peak value of the flux in the core.
(b) Secondary voltage if the secondary winding has 20 turns.
Solution:
(a) From eqn. 6.3
6400
 max   0.06 Wb
4.44  50  480
(b) Voltage induced in secondary winding = 4.44x50x20x0.06 =
266.4 V
Transformation ratio
If Np and Ns are the number of turns in the primary and
secondary winding and Ep and Es are the rms values of primary
and secondary induced emf, eqn 6.3 gives
E p  4.44 f N p  max ---------------- (6.4a)
E s  4.44 f N s  max ----------------- (6.4b)

Therefore,
Ep N p
 ------------------------ (6.5)
Es N s
Thus the ratio of primary to secondary voltage is the same as
the ratio of primary winding turns to the secondary winding
turns. This ratio (Np/Ns) is known as transformation ratio. By
selecting this ratio properly the transformation can be done
from any convenient input voltage to any convenient output
voltage. If Np is greater than Ns, the secondary voltage will
be lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is known
as step down transformer. If Ns is greater than Np, the
secondary voltage would be higher than the primary voltage and
then the device is known as step up transformer.
If the losses in a two winding transformer are neglected, the
volt amperes in the primary and secondary must be equal.
Therefore,
E p I p  Es I s
Ep Is N p
  ---------------------- (6.6)
Es I p N s
Where Ip and Is are the currents in the primary and secondary
windings respectively. Thus the current is transformed in the
reverse ratio of the voltage. If the transformer steps up the
voltage, it steps down the current and vise verse.
5
Chapter 7
Figure (7.4)
Figure (7.5)
Examples:
1. step down transformer
2. Step up transformer
6
Chapter 7
3. Transformation ratio
Primary Secondary Turns Primary Secondary Terns

Windings Voltage Ratio Voltage Voltage Ratio
480 240 2/1 600 120 5/1
480 120 4/1 600 208 2.88/1
480 24 20/1 208 120 1.73/1
7.4. Transformer construction

The construction of a simple two-winding transformer
consists of each winding being wound on a separate limb or
core of the soft iron form which provides the necessary
magnetic circuit.
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the "transformer
core" is designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to
flow around, which is necessary for induction of the voltage
between the two windings.
However, this type of transformer construction were the two
windings are wound on separate limbs is not very efficient
since the primary and secondary windings are well separated
from each other.
This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two
windings as well as large amounts of magnetic flux leakage
from the transformer itself. But as well as this "O" shapes
construction, there are different types of "transformer
construction" and designs available which are used to overcome
these inefficiencies producing a smaller more compact
transformer.
The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be
improved by bringing the two windings within close contact
with each other thereby improving the magnetic coupling.
Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the
coils may improve the magnetic coupling between the two
windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the
magnetic losses of the transformer core. As well as providing
a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is
designed to prevent circulating electric currents within the
iron core itself.
Circulating currents, called "eddy currents", cause heating
and energy losses within the core decreasing the transformers
efficiency. These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in
the iron circuit, which is constantly being subjected to the
alternating magnetic fields setup by the external sinusoidal
supply voltage.
One way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to construct
the transformer core from thin steel laminations. In all types
of transformer construction, the central iron core is
7
Chapter 7
constructed from of a highly permeable material made from thin

silicon steel laminations assembled together to provide the
required magnetic path with the minimum of losses.
The resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high reducing the
eddy current losses by making the laminations very thin. These
steel laminations vary in thicknesses from between 0.25 mm to
0.5 mm and as steel is a conductor, the laminations are
electrically insulated from each other by a very thin coating
of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer on the
surface.
Figure (7.6)
7.4.1. Transformer construction of the core
Generally, the name associated with the construction of
a transformer is dependant upon how the primary and secondary
windings are wound around the central laminated steel core.
The two most common and basic designs of transformer
construction are the Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-
core Transformer. In the "closed-core" type (core form)
transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound
outside and surround the core ring. In the "shell type" (shell
form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings pass
inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a shell
around the windings as shown below.
Figure (7.7)
In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux
linking the primary and secondary windings travels entirely
within the core with no loss of magnetic flux through air.
8
Chapter 7
In the core type transformer construction, one half of each

winding is wrapped around each leg (or limb) of the
transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.
The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg
and the secondary on the other but instead half of the primary
winding and half of the secondary winding are placed one over
the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase
magnetic coupling allowing practically all of the magnetic
lines of force go through both the primary and secondary
windings at the same time.
However, with this type of transformer construction, a small
percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside of the
core, and this is called "leakage flux".
Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as
both the primary and secondary windings are wound on the same
centre leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of
the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic
flux has two closed magnetic paths to flow around external to
the coils on both left and right hand sides before returning
back to the central coils. This means that the magnetic flux
circulating around the outer limbs of this type of transformer
construction is equal to Φ/2.
As the magnetic flux has a closed path around the coils, this
has the advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing
overall efficiency.
7.4.2. Transformer laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and
secondary windings are wound around these laminated iron or
steel cores for this types of transformer constructions. The
coils are firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical,
rectangular or oval type cross section to suit the
construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core
type transformer constructions, in order to mount the coil
windings, the individual laminations are stamped or punched
out from larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin
steel resembling the letters "E's", "L's", "U's" and "I's" as
shown below.
7.4.3. Transformer core types
These lamination stampings when connected together form
the required core shape. For example, two "E" stampings plus
two end closing "I" stampings to give an E-I core forming one
element of a standard shell-type transformer core. These
individual laminations are tightly butted together during the
transformers construction to reduce the reluctance of the air
gap at the joints producing a highly saturated magnetic flux
density. Transformer core laminations are usually stacked
alternately to each other to produce an overlapping joint with
more lamination pairs being added to make up the correct core
thickness. This alternate stacking of the laminations also
9
Chapter 7
gives the transformer the advantage of reduced flux leakage

and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer construction
is mostly used in isolation transformers, step-up and step-
down transformers as well as auto transformers.
Figure (7.8)
7.4.4. Transformer winding arrangements
Transformer windings form another important part of a
transformer construction, because they are the main current-
carrying conductors wound around the laminated sections of the
core. In a single-phase two winding transformer, two windings
would be present as shown.
The one which is connected to the voltage source and creates
the magnetic flux called the primary winding, and the second
winding called the secondary in which a voltage is induced as
a result of mutual induction. If the secondary voltage is less
than that of the primary the transformer is called a "step-
down transformer", and if the secondary voltage is greater
then it is called a "step-up transformer".
The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor
in a transformer winding is either copper or aluminum. While
aluminum wire is lighter and generally less expensive than
copper wire, a larger cross sectional area of conductor must
be used to carry the same amount of current as with copper so
it is used mainly in larger power transformer applications.
Small kVA power and voltage transformers used in low voltage
electrical and electronic circuits tend to use copper
conductors as these have a higher mechanical strength and
smaller conductor size than equivalent aluminum types. The
downside is that when complete with their core, these
transformers are much heavier.
Transformer windings and coils can be broadly classified in to
concentric coils and sandwiched coils. In core-type
transformer construction, the windings are usually arranged
concentrically around the core limb as shown above with the
higher voltage primary winding being wound over the lower
voltage secondary winding. Sandwiched or "pancake" coils
consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form and are so
named due to the arrangement of conductors into discs.
Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the
centre in an interleaved arrangement with individual coils
being stacked together and separated by insulating materials
10
Chapter 7
such as paper of plastic sheet. Sandwich coils and windings

are more common with shell type core construction.
Helical Windings also known as screw windings are another very
common cylindrical coil arrangement used in low voltage high
current transformer applications. The windings are made up of
large cross sectional rectangular conductors wound on its side
with the insulated strands wound in parallel continuously
along the length of the cylinder, with suitable spacers
inserted between adjacent turns or discs to minimize
circulating currents between the parallel strands.
The coil progresses outwards as a helix resembling that of a
corkscrew. The insulation used to prevent the conductors
shorting together in a transformer is usually a thin layer of
varnish or enamel in air cooled transformers. This thin
varnish or enamel paint is painted onto the wire before it is
wound around the core. In larger power and distribution
transformers the conductors are insulated from each other
using oil impregnated paper or cloth.
The whole core and windings is immersed and sealed in a
protective tank containing transformer oil. The transformer
oil acts as an insulator and also as a coolant.
7.5. Transformer dot orientation

We can not just simply take a laminated core and wrap one
of the coil configurations around it. We could but we may find
that the secondary voltage and current may be out-of-phase
with that of the primary voltage and current. The two coil
windings do have a distinct orientation of one with respect to
the other. Either coil could be wound around the core
clockwise or anticlockwise so to keep track of their relative
orientations "dots" are used to identify a given end of each
winding. This method of identifying the orientation or
direction of a transformers windings is called the "dot
convention". Then a transformer windings are wound so that the
correct phase relations exist between the winding voltages
with the transformers polarity being defined as the relative
polarity of the secondary voltage with respect to the primary
voltage as shown below.
Figure (7.9)
11
Chapter 7
The first transformer shows its two "dots" side by side on the
two windings. The current leaving the secondary dot is "in-
phase" with the current entering the primary side dot. Thus
the polarities of the voltages at the dotted ends are also in-
phase so when the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the
primary coil, the voltage across the secondary coil is also
positive at the dotted end. The second transformer shows the
two dots at opposite ends of the windings which means that the
transformers primary and secondary coil windings are wound in
opposite directions. The result of this is that the current
leaving the secondary dot is 180o "out-of-phase" with the
current entering the primary dot. So the polarities of the
voltages at the dotted ends are also out-of-phase so when the
voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary coil, the
voltage across the corresponding secondary coil will be
negative. Then the construction of a transformer can be such
that the secondary voltage may be either "in-phase" or "out-
of-phase" with respect to the primary voltage.
In transformers which have a number of different secondary
windings, each of which is electrically isolated from each
other it is important to know the dot polarity of the
secondary windings so that they can be connected together in
series-aiding (secondary voltage is summed) or series-opposing
(the secondary voltage is the difference) configurations.
The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is
often desirable to compensate for the effects of variations in
the primary supply voltage, the regulation of the transformer
or varying load conditions. Voltage control of the transformer
is generally performed by changing the turns ratio and
therefore its voltage ratio whereby a part of the primary
winding on the high voltage side is tapped out allowing for
easy adjustment.
The tapping is preferred on the high voltage side as the volts
per turn are lower than the low voltage secondary side.
7.6. Transformer primary tap changes
Figure (7.10)
In this simple example, the primary tap changes are calculated
for a supply voltage change of ±5%, but any value can be
chosen. Some transformers may have two or more primary or two
or more secondary windings for use in different applications
providing different voltages from a single core.
12
Chapter 7
7.7. Transformer core losses

The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is
much greater than it is in air, and this ability to allow
magnetic flux to flow is called permeability. Most transformer
cores are constructed from low carbon steels which can have
permeabilities in the order of 1500 compared with just 1.0 for
air. This means that a steel laminated core can carry a
magnetic flux 1500 times better than that of air. However,
when a magnetic flux flows in a transformers steel core, two
types of losses occur in the steel. One termed "eddy current
losses" and the other termed "hysteresis losses".
7.7.1. Hysteresis losses
Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the
friction of the molecules against the flow of the magnetic
lines of force required to magnetise the core, which are
constantly changing in value and direction first in one
direction and then the other due to the influence of the
sinusoidal supply voltage. This molecular friction causes heat
to be developed which represents an energy loss to the
transformer. Excessive heat loss can overtime shorten the life
of the insulating materials used in the manufacture of the
windings and structures. Therefore, cooling of a transformer
is important. Also, transformers are designed to operate at a
particular supply frequency. Lowering the frequency of the
supply will result in increased hysteresis and higher
temperature in the iron core. So reducing the supply frequency
from 60 Hertz to 50 Hertz will raise the amount of hysteresis
present, decreased the VA capacity of the transformer.
7.7.2. Eddy current losses
Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused
by the flow of circulating currents induced into the steel
caused by the flow of the magnetic flux around the core. These
circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic
flux the core is acting like a single loop of wire.
Since the iron core is a good conductor, the eddy currents
induced by a solid iron core will be large. Eddy currents do
not contribute anything towards the usefulness of the
transformer but instead they oppose the flow of the induced
current by acting like a negative force generating resistive
heating and power loss within the core.
Figure (7.11) laminating the Iron Core
13
Chapter 7
Eddy current losses within a transformer core cannot be

eliminated completely, but they can be greatly reduced and
controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core.
Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core
material of the transformer or coil, the magnetic path is
split up into many thin pressed steel shapes called
"laminations".
The laminations used in a transformer construction are very
thin strips of insulated metal joined together to produce a
solid but laminated core as we saw above. These laminations
are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper to
increase the effective resistivity of the core thereby
increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow of the
eddy currents.
The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced
eddy current power-loss in the core is greatly reduced, and it
is for this reason why the magnetic iron circuit of every
transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all
laminated. Using laminations in a transformer construction
reduces eddy current losses. The losses of energy, which
appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy currents in
the magnetic path, is known commonly as "transformer core
losses".
Since these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result
of alternating magnetic fields. Transformer core losses are
always present in a transformer whenever the primary is
energized, even if no load is connected to the secondary
winding. Also these hysteresis and the eddy current losses are
sometimes referred to as "transformer iron losses", as the
magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at all loads.
7.7.3. Copper losses
But there is also another type of energy loss associated
with transformers called "copper losses". Transformer Copper
Losses are mainly due to the electrical resistance of the
primary and secondary windings.
Most transformer coils are made from copper wire which has
resistance in Ohms, (Ω). This resistance opposes the
magnetizing currents flowing through them. When a load is
connected to the transformers secondary winding, large
electrical currents flow in both the primary and the secondary
windings, electrical energy and power (or the I2 R) losses
occur as heat.
Generally copper losses vary with the load current, being
almost zero at no-load, and at a maximum at full-load when
current flow is at maximum. Transformers with high voltage and
current ratings require conductors of large cross-section to
help minimize their copper losses.
Then we can define an ideal transformer as having:
14
Chapter 7
1. No Hysteresis loops or Hysteresis losses → 0

2. Infinite Resistivity of core material giving zero Eddy
current losses → 0
3. Zero winding resistance giving zero I2R copper losses → 0
7.8. Transformer loading

In the previous transformer section, we have assumed that
the transformer is ideal, that is one in which there are no
core losses or copper losses in the windings.
However, in real transformers there will always be losses
associated with the transformer loading as the transformer is
put "on-load". But what do we mean by:
7.8.1. Transformer at No-Load
Well first let's look at when the transformer is in a
"no-load" condition that is without a secondary current
flowing.
A transformer is said to be on "no-load" when its secondary
side winding is open circuited, in other words, the
transformer loading is zero.
When an AC sinusoidal supply is connected to the primary
winding of a transformer, a small current, IOPEN will flow
through the primary coil winding due to the presence of the
primary supply voltage. With the secondary circuit open,
nothing connected a back EMF along with the primary winding
resistance acts to limit the flow of this primary current.
Obviously, this no-load primary current (Io) must be
sufficient to maintain enough magnetic field to produce the
required back emf. Consider the circuit below.
Figure (7.12) transformer "No-load"

The ammeter above will indicate a small current flowing
through the primary winding even though the secondary circuit
is open circuited. This no-load primary current is made up of
the following two components:
1. An in-phase current, IE which supplies the core losses (eddy
current and hysteresis).
2. A current, IM at 90o to the voltage which sets up the
magnetic flux.
15
Chapter 7
Figure (7.13)
Note that this no-load primary current, Io is very small
compared to the transformers normal full-load current. Also
due to the iron losses present in the core as well as a small
amount of copper losses in the primary winding, Io does not
lag behind the supply voltage, Vp by exactly 90o, (cosφ = 0),
there will be some small phase angle difference.
Example
A single phase transformer has an energy component, IE of 2
Amps and a magnetizing component, IM of 5 Amps. Calculate the
no-load current, Io and resulting power factor.
7.8.2. Transformer On-Load

When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding
of a transformer and the transformer loading is therefore
greater than zero, current flows in the secondary winding due
to the induced secondary voltage, set up by the magnetic flux
created in the core from the primary current.
This secondary current, IS which is determined by the
characteristics of the load, creates a secondary magnetic
field, ΦS in the transformer core which flows in the exact
opposite direction to the main primary field, ΦP.
These two magnetic fields oppose each other resulting in a
combined magnetic field of less magnetic strength than the
single field produced by the primary winding alone when the
secondary circuit was open circuited. This combined magnetic
field reduces the back EMF of the primary winding causing the
primary current, IP to increase slightly.
The primary current continues to increase until the cores
magnetic field is back at its original strength, and for a
transformer to operate correctly, a balanced condition must
always exist between the primary and secondary magnetic
fields. This results in the power to be balanced and the same
16
Chapter 7
on both the primary and secondary sides. Consider the circuit

below.
Figure (7.14) Transformer "On-load"

We know that the turns ratio of a transformer states that the
total induced voltage in each winding is proportional to the
number of turns in that winding and also that the power output
and power input of a transformer is equal to the volts times
amperes, (V x I). Therefore:
But we also know previously that the voltage ratio of a

transformer is equal to the turns ratio of a transformer as:
"voltage ratio = turns ratio". Then the relationship between
the voltage, current and number of turns in a transformer can
be linked together and is therefore given as:
Where:
NP/NS = VP/VS represents the voltage ratio
NP/NS = IS/IP represents the current ratio
Note that the current is inversely proportional to both the
voltage and the number of turns. This means that with a
transformer loading on the secondary winding, in order to
maintain a balanced power level across the transformers
windings, if the voltage is stepped up, the current must be
stepped down and vice versa. In other words, higher voltage 
lower current or lower voltage  higher current. The total
current drawn from the supply by the primary winding is the
vector sum of the no-load current, Io and the additional
supply current, I1 as a result of the secondary transformer
17
Chapter 7
loading and which lags behind the supply voltage by an angle

of Φ. We can show this relationship as a phasor diagram.
Figure (7.15) Transformer Loading Current

If we are given currents, IS and Io, we can calculate the
primary current, IP by the following methods.
Figure (7.16)
Example
A single phase transformer has 1000 turns on its primary
winding and 200 turns on its secondary winding. The
transformers "no-load" current taken from the supply is 3 Amps
at a power factor of 0.2 lagging. Calculate the primary
winding current, IP and its corresponding power factor, φ when
the secondary current supplying a transformer loading is 280
Amperes at 0.8 lagging.
18
Chapter 7
You may have noticed that the phase angle of the primary
current, φP is very nearly the same as that of the secondary
current phase angle, φS. This is due to the fact that the no-
load current of 3 amperes is very small compared to the larger
56 amperes drawn by the primary winding from the supply.
Actual real life, transformer windings have impedances of XL
and R.
These impedances need to be taken into account when drawing
the phasor diagrams as these internal impedances cause voltage
drops to occur within the transformers windings.
The internal impedances are due to the resistance of the
windings and an inductance drop called the leakage reactance
resulting from the leakage flux.
These internal impedances are given as:
Figure (7.17)
So the primary and secondary windings of a transformer possess
both resistance and reactance. Sometimes, it can be more
convenient if all these impedances are on the same side of the
transformer to make the calculations easier.
It is possible to move the primary impedances to the secondary
side or the secondary impedances to the primary side. The
combined values of R and L impedances are called "Referred
Impedances" or "Referred Values". The object here is to group
together the impedances within the transformer and have just
one value of R and XL in our calculations as shown.
Figure (7.18) Combining Transformer Impedances
19
Chapter 7
In order to move a resistance from one side of the transformer

to the other, we must first multiply them by the square of the
turns ratio, (Turns Ratio2) in our calculations.
So for example, to move a resistance of 2Ω from one side to
the other in a transformer that has a turns ratio of 8:1 will
have a new resistive value of: 2 x 82 = 128 Ω's.
Note that if you move a resistance from a higher voltage side
the new resistance value will increase and if you move the
resistance from a lower voltage side its new value will
decrease. This applies to the load resistance and reactance as
well.
7.9. Three phase ideal transformer

Since three-phase is used so often for power distribution
systems, it makes sense that we would need three-phase
transformers to be able to step voltages up or down. This is
only partially true, as regular single-phase transformers can
be ganged together to transform power between two three-phase
systems in a variety of configurations, eliminating the
requirement for a special three-phase transformer. However,
special three-phase transformers are built for those tasks,
and are able to perform with less material requirement, less
size, and less weight than their modular counterparts. A
three-phase transformer is made of three sets of primary and
secondary windings, each set wound around one leg of an iron
core assembly. Essentially it looks like three single-phase
transformers sharing a joined core as in Figure below.
Figure (7.19)
Three phase transformer core has three sets of windings.
Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be connected
in either Δ or Y configurations to form a complete unit. The
various combinations of ways that these windings can be
connected together in will be the focus of this section.
Whether the winding sets share a common core assembly or each
winding pair is a separate transformer, the winding connection
options are the same:
Primary - Secondary
Y - Y
Y – Δ
Δ – Y
Δ - Δ
20
Chapter 7
The reasons for choosing a Y or Δ configuration for

transformer winding connections are the same as for any other
three-phase application: Y connections provide the opportunity
for multiple voltages, while Δ connections enjoy a higher
level of reliability (if one winding fails open, the other two
can still maintain full line voltages to the load).
Probably the most important aspect of connecting three sets of
primary and secondary windings together to form a three-phase
transformer bank is paying attention to proper winding phasing
(the dots used to denote “polarity” of windings).
Remember the proper phase relationships between the phase
windings of Δ and Y: (Figure below)
Figure (7.20)
(Y) The center point of the “Y” must tie either all the “-” or
all the “+” winding points together.
(Δ) The winding polarities must stack together in a
complementary manner (+ to -).
Getting this phasing correct when the windings aren't shown in
regular Y or Δ configuration can be tricky. Let me illustrate,
starting with Figure below.
Figure (7.21)
Inputs A1, A2, A3 may be wired either “Δ” or “Y”, as may
outputs B1, B2, B3. Three individual transformers are to be
connected together to transform power from one three-phase
system to another. First, I'll show the wiring connections for
a Y-Y configuration: Figure below
21
Chapter 7
Figure (7.22)
Phase wiring for “Y-Y” transformer.
Note in Figure above how all the winding ends marked with dots
are connected to their respective phases A, B, and C, while
the non-dot ends are connected together to form the centers of
each “Y”. Having both primary and secondary winding sets
connected in “Y” formations allows for the use of neutral
conductors (N1 and N2) in each power system.
Now, we'll take a look at a Y-Δ configuration: (Figure below)
Figure (7.23)
Phase wiring for “Y-Δ” transformer.
Note how the secondary windings (bottom set, Figure above) are
connected in a chain, the “dot” side of one winding connected
to the “non-dot” side of the next, forming the Δ loop. At
every connection point between pairs of windings, a connection
is made to a line of the second power system (A, B, and C).
Now, let's examine a Δ-Y system in Figure below.
Figure (7.24)
Phase wiring for “Δ-Y” transformer.
22
Chapter 7
Such a configuration (Figure above) would allow for the

provision of multiple voltages (line-to-line or line-to-
neutral) in the second power system, from a source power
system having no neutral. And finally, we turn to the Δ-Δ
configuration, (Figure below)
Figure (7.25)
Phase wiring for “Δ-Δ” transformer.
When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the secondary
power system, Δ-Δ connection schemes (Figure above) are
preferred because of the inherent reliability of the Δ
configuration.
Three phase transformer configurations and calculations
In a delta connected group of transformers, the line voltage,
VL is equal to the phase voltage, VL = VPH. But the current in
each phase winding is given as: IL / √3 (or IL = IPH x √3) where
IL is the line current.
In a star connected group of transformers, the line voltage, VL
is equal to √3 the phase voltage, VL = √3VPH. But the current
in each phase winding is given as: IPH = IL where IL is the line
current.
Example of Delta-Delta
23
Chapter 7
Example of Delta-Star
Example of Star-Star
Example of Star-Delta
24
Chapter 7
TR 1:5 1:n
Line Voltage Line Current
Connection
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
Δ-Δ n*EL IL÷n
Δ-γ √3*n*EL IL÷√3*n
EL IL
γ-γ n*EL IL÷n
γ-Δ n*EL÷√3 √3*IL÷n
Δ-Δ 5*480=2400 100÷5=20
Δ-γ √3*480*5=4156 100†√3*5=11.55

480 100
γ-γ 5*480=2400 100÷5=20
γ-Δ 5*480†√3=1386 √3*100†5=34.64
Example 1
150 KVA Delta-Star transformer bank, 480 v primary, 208/120 v
secondary. Calculate, TR, ILP, ILS
Example 2
3φ Star-Delta transformer, ELP=6600, ILP=10 A, TR 12:1,
calculate ELS, EphP, and ILS
25
Chapter 7
7.10. Three phase transformer construction
Figure (7.26)
The three-limb core-type three-phase transformer is the most
common method of three-phase transformer construction allowing
the phases to be magnetically linked. Flux of each limb uses
the other two limbs for its return path with the three
magnetic fluxes in the core generated by the line voltages
differing in time-phase by 120 degrees. Thus the flux in the
core remains nearly sinusoidal, producing a sinusoidal
secondary supply voltage.
The shell-type five-limb type three-phase transformer
construction is heavier and more expensive to build than the
core-type. Five-limb cores are generally used for very large
power transformers as they can be made with reduced height.
Shell-type transformers core materials, electrical windings,
steel enclosure and cooling are much the same as for the
larger single-phase types.
7.11. Equivalent circuit of transformer

The performance of a transformer at no load and at load is
influenced by mutual flux, the leakage fluxes, the winding
resistances and the iron losses. For the purpose of
performance evaluation, the effect of these is represented on
an electrical circuit, in the form of resistances and
reactances. Such an electrical circuit is called “equivalent
circuit.”
In this section, we will develop the equivalent circuit of a
single-phase transformer in the following steps:
(a) Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer at no load
(b) Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer on load
(c) Equivalent circuit at load
(d) Equivalent circuit referred to primary side
(e) Approximate equivalent circuit.
26
Chapter 7
7.11.1. Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer at No

Load
Under certain conditions, the transformer can be treated as an
ideal transformer. The assumptions necessary to treat it as an
ideal transformer are :
(a) Primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This
means that ohmic loss (I2R loss), and resistive voltage drops
in windings are zero.
(b) There is no leakage flux, i.e. the entire flux is mutual
flux that links both the primary and secondary windings.
(c) Permeability of the core is infinite this means that the
magnetizing current needed for establishing the flux is zero.
(d) Core loss (hysteresis as well as eddy current losses) are
zero.
We have earlier learnt that:
(n is a constant, known as voltage transformation ratio or

turns ratio).
For an ideal transformer, V1 = E1 and E2 = V2.
Even at no load, a transformer draws some active power from

the source to provide the following losses in the core:
(a) Eddy-current loss, and
(b) Hysteresis loss.
The current responsible for the active power is nearly in
phase with V1 (applied voltage) and is known as core-loss
current. A transformer when connected to supply, draws a
current to produce the flux in the core. At no-load, this flux
lags nearly by 90o behind the applied voltage V1. The
magnetizing current, denoted by Im is in phase with the flux φ
and thus, lags behind the applied voltage by nearly 90o.
The phasor sum of the core loss component of current Ic and the
magnetizing current Im is equal to the no-load current I0.
Ic = I0 cos θ0 and Im = I0 sin θ0
Core loss = P0 = V1 I0 (cos θ0)
Where θ0 is the phase angle between V1 and I0, and, (cos θ0) is
the no load power factor.
The phase relationship between applied voltage V1, no-load
current I0, and its components Ic, Im is shown in Fig 7.27(a).
27
Chapter 7
Figure (7.27)
In the form of equivalent circuit, this can be represented as
Fig 7.27(b), in which Rc is a resistance representing core loss
and Xm is an inductive reactance (called magnetizing
reactance).
Note that the current in the resistance is in phase with V1 and
Xm being an inductive reactance, the current Im in this branch
lags V1 by 90o as shown in the phasor diagram of Fig 7.27(a).
(The representation in Fig 7.27, assumes that V1 = E1 (equal to
and in opposition to V1).
This implies that the primary winding resistance and leakage
reactance are neglected.
Similarly, in the secondary winding of transformer mutually
induced emf is antiphase with V1 and its magnitude is
proportional to the rate of change of flux and the number of
secondary turns. (You will learn about the concept of leakage
reactance when you study about the equivalent circuit at
load).
The equivalent circuit parameters Rc and Xm can also be
expressed as conductance and susceptance Gc, Bm such that
28
Chapter 7
Example
At no-load a transformer has a no-load loss of 50 W, draws a
current of 2A (RMS) and has an applied voltage of 230V (RMS).
Determine:
(i) no-load power factor,
(ii) core loss current, and
(iii) magnetizing current. Also, calculate the no-load circuit
parameter (Rc, Xm) of the transformer.
Solution
Pc = 40 W, Io = 2 A, E1 = 230 V
Pc = V1 Io cosφo
Magnetizing current,
Im = I0 sinφo
= 2 sin(83.76o)
= 1.988 A
Core-loss current,
Ic = Io cosφo
= 2 × 0.108
= 0.216 A
This equivalent circuit is shown below.
29
Chapter 7
7.11.2. Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer On Load

Under certain conditions the transformer can be
treated as an ideal transformer. The idealizing assumptions
are listed below
(a) Both primary and secondary windings have zero resistance.
This means, no ohmic power loss and no resistive voltage
drop.
(b) No leakage flux, i.e. all the flux produced is confined to
the core and links both the windings
(c) Infinite permeability of the core. This means no zero
magnetizing current is needed to establish the requisite
amount of flux in the core, i.e. Im = 0.
(d) Core-loss (hysteresis as well as eddy-current loss) is
zero, i.e. Ic = 0.
Assumptions (a), (b) and (d) mean that copper losses, and
iron losses being zero, the efficiency of the transformer
is 100%. Since Im = Ic = 0, Io = 0.
Figure (7.28)
As per earlier derived equation
where, V1 is supply voltage and V2 is voltage across load

terminals.
When load is applied, let the impedance of load be ZL, as shown
in Fig (7.28) Sinusoidal current i2 flows through the
secondary.
Therefore, secondary winding creates an mmf F2 = N2i2 which
opposes the flux φ.
But mutual flux φ is invariant with respect to load (otherwise
V1 = e1 balance is disturbed).
As a result, the primary winding starts drawing a current i1
from the source so as to create mmf F1 = N1i1 which at all
times cancels out the load-caused mmf N2i2 so that φ is
maintained constant independent of the magnitude of the load
30
Chapter 7
current which flows in the secondary winding. This implies

that for higher load, more power will be drawn from the supply
(Instantaneous power into primary) = (Instantaneous power out

of secondary)
In terms of rms values,
i.e. VA output = VA input, i.e. V1I1 = V2I2
The circuit representation of Fig (7.28), can be simplified by

referring the load impedance and secondary current to the
primary side. From Fig (7.28), we see that
V2 = I2ZL
Where
is said to be the load impedance referred to the primary side.

From V2 = I2 ZL we can also easily obtain V’2 = I’2 Z’L
Where
is secondary terminal voltage referred to primary side, and
is secondary current referred to primary side.

In the ideal transformer, I1 = I’2 and V1 = V’2.
7.11.3. Equivalent circuit of a real transformer
In real conditions, in addition to the mutual flux which links
both the primary and secondary windings transformer, has a
component of flux, which links either the primary winding or
the secondary, but not both.
This component is called leakage flux. The flux which links
only with primary is called primary leakage flux, and the flux
which links only with secondary is called secondary leakage
flux. Fig 7.28 shows schematically the mutual and the leakage
flux.
31
Chapter 7
From our knowledge of magnetic circuits, we know that a flux

lining with a winding is the cause of inductance of the
winding (Inductance = Flux linkage per ampere).
Since in a transformer the flux is alternating, its flux
linkage gives rise to an induced voltage in the winding. Thus,
primary leakage flux (which is proportional to I1) causes an
induced voltage, which acts as a voltage drop.
Similarly for the secondary leakage flux. The effect of these
induced EMFs are, therefore, represented as inductive leakage
reactances Xl1, Xl2.
Xl1 and Xl2 are called leakage reactances of the primary and
secondary respectively. These are also denoted as X1, X2.
The windings of the transformer have resistance R1, R2. These
resistances cause a voltage drop I1R1 and I2R2, as also ohmic
loss I12R1 and I22R2.
To sum up, in a Real Transformer,
(a) Both the primary and secondary windings possesses
resistance. As a result, the value of actual impressed
voltage across the transformer is the voltage V1 less the
drop across the resistance R1. Moreover, the copper loss in
the primary winding is I21R1 and in the secondary winding
I22R1.
(b) A Real Transformer has some leakage flux, as shown in the
Fig 7.28 These fluxes, as discussed earlier, lead to self-
reactances Xl1 and Xl2 for the two windings respectively.
(c) The magnetizing current cannot be zero. Its value is
determined by the mutual flux φm. The mutual flux also
determines core-loss taking place in the iron parts of the
transformer. The value of Io does not depend on load and
hence the iron-loss or core-loss is constant which is not
zero.
Considering the effects of resistances and leakage reactances,
a transformer can be visualized as shown in Fig 7.29.
Figure (7.29) Representation of transformer showing leakage

reactances
In the form of equivalent circuit, this can be represented as
in Fig 7.30.
32
Chapter 7
Figure (7.30) Exact equivalent circuit of real transformer

The use of this equivalent circuit is difficult and
calculations involved are laborious. For most practical
purposes (like calculations of voltage regulation and
efficiency) we need only a simplified form of equivalent
circuit. We will now proceed to first obtain a simplified
equivalent circuit and then to obtain an approximate
equivalent circuit.
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side
We will now refer the impedance R2 + jXl2 to the primary side
i.e. to the left hand side of the ideal transformer. We have
seen earlier that a load impedance ZL can be referred to
primary side as Z'L, where
Similarly Z2 = R2 + jXl2 can be referred to the primary side as
where Z'2 is said to be the secondary winding impedance

referred to the primary side.
Eq. (4) can be re-written as
Equating real and imaginary parts
R'2 is the secondary winding resistance referred to primary,

and X'l2 is the secondary winding leakage reactance referred to
primary side.
Fig (7.30) can now be modified (i.e. referring the secondary
resistance and reactance to the primary side) to get the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig (7.31)
33
Chapter 7
Figure (7.31) Exact Circuit with secondary parameters referred

to primary side
The secondary terminal voltage V2 and secondary current I2 can
also be referred to the primary side using the relations.
These referred quantities V'2 and I'2 are also marked in Fig
(7.31)
7.11.4. Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer
Transformers which are used at a constant power frequency (say
50 Hz), can have very simplified approximate equivalent
circuits, without having a substantial effect on the
performance evaluation (efficiency and voltage regulation).
It should be borne in mind that „higher the VA or KVA rating
of the transformers, better are the approximation-based
evaluation results.
It is assumed that V1 ~ E1 (V1 is approximately equal to E1)
even under conditions of load.
This assumption is justified because the values of winding
resistance and leakage reactances are very small. Therefore,
the exciting current drawn by the parallel combination of
conductance Gc and susceptance Bm would not be affected
significantly by shifting it to the input terminals. With this
change, the equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Fig (7.32).
Figure (7.32) Equivalent circuit referred to primary side
34
Chapter 7
Denoting
R1 + R'2 = R'eq
and
Xl2 + X'l2 = X'eq
The equivalent circuit becomes as shown in Fig (7.33) R'eq, X'eq
are called the equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance
referred to primary side.
Figure (7.33) Approximate Equivalent Circuit

If only voltage regulation is to be calculated even the
excitation branch can be neglected and the equivalent circuit
becomes as shown in Fig (7.34).
Figure (7.34) Most simplified form of approximate equivalent

circuit
7.12. Losses and efficiency of transformer

A transformer doesn't contain any rotating part so it is
free from friction and windage losses. In transformer the
losses occur in iron parts as well as in copper coils. In iron
core the losses are sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The hysteresis losses are Ph α fBxmax and eddy current loss is
equal to Pe a f2Bmax.
Where “f” is frequency “Bmax” is maximum flux density.
We know that the maximum flux density is directly proportional
to applied voltage so, if the applied voltage is constant then
35
Chapter 7
the flux density is constant and the hysterises losses are

proportional to f and eddy current losses are proportional to
f2.
7.12.1 Iron losses or core losses
To minimize hysteresis loss in transformer, we use Cold Rolled
Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon steel to build up the iron core.
Eddy current loss
When the primary winding variable flux links with iron core
then it induces some EMF on the surface of core. The
magnitude of EMF is different at various points in core. So,
there is current between different points in Iron Core having
unequal potential.
These currents are known at eddy currents. I2R loss in iron
core is known as eddy current loss.
These losses depend on thickness of core. To minimize the
eddy current losses we use the Iron Core which is made of
laminated sheet stampings. The thickness of stamping is
around 0.5 mm.
Determination of iron or core losses
Practically we can determine the iron losses by performing
the open circuit test.
Open circuit test
We perform open circuit test in low voltage winding in
transformer keeping the high voltage winding open.
The circuit is connected as shown in Fig (7.35). The
instruments are connected on the LV side. The advantage of
performing the test from LV side is that the test can be
performed at rated voltage.
When we apply rated voltage then watt meter shows iron losses
[There is some copper loss but this is negligible when
compared to iron loss]. The ammeter shows no load current I0
which is very small [2-5 % of rated current]. Thus, the drops
in R1 and Xl1 can be neglected.
Figure (7.35) Open Circuit Test

We have
Wo = iron loss
36
Chapter 7
Io = no load current
Under no load conditions the PF is very low (near to 0) in

lagging region.
By using the above data we can draw the equivalent parameter
shown in Fig (7.36).
Figure (7.36) No Load equivalent circuit from Open Circuit

test
Example
At no load test, a transformer draws a current of 0.2 Ampere
lagging behind the applied voltage by 80o, when the low
voltage winding of the transformer is connected to a 500 V
source. Calculate:
(a) iron loss and
(b) components of the no load current.
Solution
We have V1 = 500 V, Io = 0.2 A and φo = 80o
cos80o = 0.1736
PF = cosφf ~ 0.174 lagging
(a) Iron loss = V1Iocosφ = 500 × 0.2 × 0.174 = 17.4 watts
(b) Components of no load current
Ic = Iocosφ = 0.0348 A
Im = Io sinφ = 0.197 A or Im = √I2o – I2c = 0.197
37
Chapter 7
7.12.2. Copper losses

In a transformer the primary and secondary winding
currents increase with increases in load. Due to these
currents there is some I2R losses. These are known as copper
losses or ohmic losses. The total I2R loss in both windings at
rated or full load current is equal to I12R1+I22R2
[assuming I'1 = I1 , i.e. shunt branch neglected].

= I12Ro1
Similarly, it can be shown that
Copper loss = I22Ro2
Here I1 and I2 are primary and secondary current. R1 is primary
winding resistance and R2 is secondary winding resistance.
R01 is total resistance of winding referred to primary
Ro2 is total resistance of windings referred to secondary.
By performing short circuit test we find out copper loss
experimentally.
7.12.3. Short circuit test
It‟s an indirect method to find out the copper losses. To
perform this test, we apply a reduced voltage to the primary
winding through instruments keeping LV winding short
circuited. The connections are shown in Figure (7.37a).
We need to apply only 5-10% of rated voltage to primary to
circulated rated current in the primary and secondary winding.
The applied voltage is adjusted so that the ammeter shows
rated current of the winding.
Under this condition, the watt-meter reading shows the copper
losses of the transformer. Because of low value of applied
voltage, iron losses, are very small and can be neglected.
As applied voltage is very small, small voltage across the
excitation branch produces very small percentage of exciting
current in comparison to its full load current and can
therefore, be safely ignored. As a result, equivalent circuit
with secondary short circuited can be represented as Fig
(7.37b).
38
Chapter 7
Figure (7.37)
At a rated current watt meter shows full load copper loss. We
have:
Vs = applied voltage
Is = rated current
Ws = copper loss
So we calculate equivalent reactance:
These Req and Xeq are equivalent resistance and reactance of

both windings referred in HV side. These are known as
equivalent circuit resistance and reactance.
7.12.4. Efficiency of single phase transformer
Generally we define the efficiency of any machine as a
ratio of output power to the input power, i.e.
7.13. Current transformer

The Current Transformer (C.T.), is a type of "instrument
transformer" that is designed to produce an alternating
39
Chapter 7
current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the

current being measured in its primary. Current transformers
reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide
a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical
current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard
ammeter. The principal of operation of a current transformer
is no different from that of an ordinary transformer.
Figure (7.38)
Typical Current Transformer Unlike the voltage or power
transformer looked at previously, the current transformer
consists of only one or very few turns as its primary winding.
This primary winding can be of either a single flat turn, a
coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the core or just a
conductor or bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.
Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is
often referred too as a "series transformer" as the primary
winding, which never has more than a very few turns, is in
series with the current carrying conductor.
The secondary winding may have a large number of coil turns
wound on a laminated core of low-loss magnetic material which
has a large cross-sectional area so that the magnetic flux
density is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire,
depending upon how much the current must be stepped down. This
secondary winding is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5
Amperes.
There are three basic types of current transformers: "wound",
"toroidal" and "bar".
Wound current transformers
The transformers primary winding is physically connected in
series with the conductor that carries the measured current
flowing in the circuit. The magnitude of the secondary
current is dependent on the turns ratio of the transformer.
Toroidal current transformers
These do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the line
that carries the current flowing in the network is threaded
through a window or hole in the toroidal transformer. Some
current transformers have a "split core" which allows it to
40
Chapter 7
be opened, installed, and closed, without disconnecting the

circuit to which they are attached.
Bar-type current transformers
This type of current transformer uses the actual cable or
bus-bar of the main circuit as the primary winding, which is
equivalent to a single turn. They are fully insulated from
the high operating voltage of the system and are usually
bolted to the current carrying device.
Current transformers can reduce or "step-down" current levels
from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a
known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation.
Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can
be used with CT's because they are insulated away from any
high-voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering
applications and uses for current transformers such as with
wattmeter's, power factor meters, watt-hour meters,
protective relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit
breakers, or MCB's.
Figure (7.38) Current transformer

Generally current transformers and ammeters are used together
as a matched pair in which the design of the current
transformer is such as to provide a maximum secondary current
corresponding to a full-scale deflection on the ammeter.
In most current transformers an approximate inverse turns
ratio exists between the two currents in the primary and
secondary windings. This is why calibration of the CT is
generally for a specific type of ammeter. For most current
transformers the primary and secondary currents are expressed
as a ratio such as 100/5.
This means that when 100 Amps is flowing in the primary
winding it will result in 5 Amps flowing in the secondary
winding. By increasing the number of secondary windings, N2,
the secondary current can be made much smaller than the
41
Chapter 7
current in the primary circuit being measured. In other

words, as N2 increases, I2 goes down by a proportional
amount. We know from our tutorial on double wound
transformers that its turns ratio is equal to:
As the primary usually consists of one or two turns whilst

the secondary can have several hundred turns, the ratio
between the primary and secondary can be quite large. For
example, assume that the current rating of the primary
winding is 100A. The secondary winding has the standard
rating of 5A. Then the ratio between the primary and the
secondary currents is 100A-to-5A, or 20:1.
In other words, the primary current is 20 times greater than
the secondary current.
It should be noted however, that a current transformer rated
as 100/5 is not the same as one rated as 20/1 or subdivisions
of 100/5. This is because the ratio of 100/5 expresses the
"input/output current rating" and not the actual ratio of the
primary to the secondary currents.
Also note that the number of turns and the current in the
primary and secondary windings are related by an inverse
proportion. But relatively large changes in current
transformers turns ratio can be achieved by modifying the
primary turns through the CT's window where one primary turn
is equal to one pass and more than one pass through the
window results in the electrical ratio being modified.
So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of
say, 300/5 A can be converted to another of 150/5 A or even
100/5 A by passing the main primary conductor through its
interior window two or three times as shown.
This allows a higher value current transformer to provide the
maximum output current for the ammeter when used on smaller
primary current lines.
Figure (7.39) Current transformer primary Turns Ratio
42
Chapter 7
Example
A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary
and 160 turns on its secondary is to be used with a standard
range of ammeters that have an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω.
The ammeter is required to give a full scale deflection when
the primary current is 800 Amps. Calculate the maximum
secondary current and secondary voltage across the ammeter.
We can see above that since the secondary of the current

transformer is connected across the ammeter, which has a very
small resistance, the voltage drop across the secondary
winding is only 1.0 volts at full primary current.
If the ammeter is removed, the secondary winding becomes open-
circuited and the transformer acts as a step-up transformer
resulting in a very high voltage equal to the ratio of:
Vp(Ns/Np) being developed across the secondary winding.
So for example, assume our current transformer from above is
connected to a 480 volt three-phase power line.
Therefore:
This is why a current transformer should never be open

circuited or operated with no-load attached when the main
primary current is flowing.
If the ammeter is to be removed, a short-circuit should be
placed across the secondary terminals first. This is because
when the secondary is open-circuited the iron core of the
transformer operates at a high degree of saturation, which
produces an abnormally large secondary voltage, and in our
simple example above, this was calculated at 76.8 kV!. This
high secondary voltage could damage the insulation or cause
electric shock if the CT's terminals are accidentally touched.
Handheld Current Transformers
There are many specialized types of current transformers now
available. A popular and portable type which can be used to
measure circuit loading are called "clamp meters" as shown
below.
Clamp meters open and close around a current carrying
conductor and measure its current by determining the magnetic
field around it, providing a quick measurement reading usually
on a digital display without disconnecting or opening the
circuit.
As well as the handheld clamp type CT, split core current
transformers are available which has one end removable so that
43
Chapter 7
the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected

to install it.
These are available for measuring currents from 100 up to 5000

amps, with square window sizes from 1" to over 12" (25 to 300
mm).
Then to summarize, the Current Transformer, (CT) is a type of
instrument transformer used to convert a primary current into
a secondary current through a magnetic medium. Its secondary
winding then provides a much reduced current which can be used
for detecting overcurrent, undercurrent, peak current, or
average current conditions.
A current transformers primary coil is always connected in
series with the main conductor giving rise to it also being
referred to as a series transformer. The nominal secondary
current is rated at 1 A or 5 A for ease of measurement.
Construction can be one single primary turn as in Toroidal,
Donut, or Bar types, or a few wound primary turns, usually for
low current ratios.
Current transformers are intended to be used as proportional
current devices. Therefore a current transformers secondary
winding should never be operated into an open circuit, just as
a voltage transformer should never be operated into a short
circuit. Very high voltages will result from open circuiting
the secondary circuit of an energized CT so their terminals
must be short-circuited if the ammeter is to be removed or
when a CT is not in use before powering up the system.
7.14. Autotransformer
 Autotransformer Basics
Unlike the previous voltage transformer which has two
electrically isolated windings, the primary and the secondary.
An Autotransformer has only one single voltage winding which
is usually "tapped" at various points along it to provide a
percentage of the primary voltage supply across its secondary
load.
The autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only one
winding, which is common to both the primary and secondary
circuits.
44
Chapter 7
Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and secondary

windings are both linked together electrically and
magnetically. This type of transformer design is a lot cheaper
but the main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it
does not have the primary/secondary winding isolation of a
conventional double wound transformer.
The section of winding designated as the primary part of the
winding is connected to the AC power source with the secondary
being part of this primary winding.
An autotransformer can also be used to step the supply voltage
up or down by reversing the connections. If the primary is the
total winding and is connected to a supply, and the secondary
circuit is connected across only a portion of the winding,
then the secondary voltage is "stepped-down" as shown.
Figure (7.40) Autotransformer design

When the primary current IP is flowing through the single
winding in the direction of the arrow as shown, the secondary
current, IS, flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, in the
portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage, VS
the current flowing out of the winding is the difference of IP
and IS.
The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one
single tapping point. Autotransformers can be used to provide
different voltage points along its winding or increase its
supply voltage with respect to its supply voltage VP as shown.
Figure (7.41) Autotransformer with multiple tapping points
45
Chapter 7
The standard method for marking an auto-transformer windings

is to label it with capital (upper case) letters. So for
example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally the
common neutral connection is marked as N or n.
For the secondary tapings, suffix numbers are used for all
tapping points along the auto-transformers primary winding.
These numbers generally start at number 1 and continue in
ascending order for all tapping points as shown.
Figure (7.41) Autotransformer terminal markings

An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line
voltages to either change its value or to keep it constant. If
the voltage adjustment is by a small amount, either up or
down, then the transformer ratio is small as VP and VS are
nearly equal.
Currents IP and IS are also nearly equal. Therefore, the
portion of the winding which carries the difference between
the two currents can be made from a much smaller conductor
size, since the currents are much smaller saving on the cost
of an equivalent double wound transformer.
However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size
(since there is no second winding) of an autotransformer for a
given VA or KVA rating are less than for a double wound
transformer. Autotransformers are clearly much cheaper than
conventional double wound transformers of the same VA rating.
When deciding upon using an autotransformer it is usual to
compare its cost with that of an equivalent double wound type.
This is done by comparing the amount of copper saved in the
winding. If the ratio "n" is defined as the ratio of the lower
voltage to the higher voltage, then it can be shown that the
saving in copper is: n.100%. For example, the saving in copper
for the two autotransformers would be:
46
Chapter 7
Example
An autotransformer is required to step-up a voltage from 220
volts to 250 volts. The total number of coil turns on the
transformer main winding is 2000. Determine the position of
the primary tapping point, the primary and secondary currents
when the output is rated at 10KVA and the economy of copper
saved.
Then the primary current is 45.4 amperes, the secondary

current drawn by the load is 40 amperes and 5.4 amperes flows
through the common winding. The economy of copper is 88%.
 Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
1. The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does
not have the primary to secondary winding isolation of a
conventional double wound transformer.
Then autotransformer's can not safely be used for stepping
down higher voltages to much lower voltages suitable for
smaller loads.
2. If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited,
current stops flowing through the primary winding stopping
the transformer action resulting in the full primary voltage
being applied to the secondary circuit.
3. If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition,
the resulting primary current would be much larger than an
equivalent double wound transformer due to the increased
flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.
4. Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary
and secondary windings, earthing of the secondary winding
automatically earths the primary as there is no isolation
47
Chapter 7
between the two windings. Double wound transformers are

sometimes used to isolate equipment from earth.
The autotransformer has many uses and applications including
the starting of induction motors, used to regulate the voltage
of transmission lines, and can be used to transform voltages
when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity. An
autotransformer can also be made from conventional two-winding
transformers by connecting the primary and secondary windings
together in series and depending upon how the connection is
made, the secondary voltage may add to, or subtract from, the
primary voltage
48
Chapter 8
Switchboard and Variable Speed Drive
Table of Content
1 Switchboard 2
1.1 Standard feature 2
1.2 Basic components 3
1.3 Theory of operation 6
2 Variable Speed Drive (VSD) 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Components 8
2.3 Theory of operation 10
2.4 VSD effect on ESP components 10
2.5 Benefits of VSD 13
2.6 Harmonics 15
2.7 VSD Example 1 19
2.8 VSD Example 2 32
-1-
Chapter 8
Switchboard and Variable Speed Drive
8.1. Switchboard
Switchboard is an electro-mechanical controller provides:
1. Manual disconnect switch.
2. Magnetically operated motor controller.
3. Over-current relays.
4. Undercurrent relay for pump off and gas lock protection.
5. An automatic time delay relay (used to restart the pump
after a predetermined shutdown time).
6. A Bristol recording ammeter, with mechanical clock, records
running time, down time and amount of current being used
during operation.
Fig (8.1) Switchboard

8.1.1. Standard Features
1. Enclosures are NEMA-3R/12, suitable for outdoor
application.
2. "Hand-Off Auto" selection switch "start" push button and
disconnect switches.
3. Recording ammeter with a combination 24 hour, 7 day clock.
-2-
Chapter 8
4. Automatic restart feature provides for restarting after

expiration of a preset time interval after shutdown due to
underload or power failure.
5. Switchboards are suitable for use with external control
devices.
6. Three current-limiting fuses are provided for heavy fault
current protection.
7. Vacuum contactors.
8. Lightning arrestors are provided.
9. Modifications required for use with downhole monitoring
system.
10. Full protection is provided by Electro-Mechanical or Solid
State Protection systems.
8.1.2. Basic components
Potential Transformers (PTs)
The main function of potential transformers is to reduce
voltage and current to safe operating levels for use by the
control circuit.
Potential transformers have a low voltage rating of 120 volts
(secondary), and variable high voltage ratings (Primary).
The accuracy and ratios of these transformers on each tap are
tested to a tolerance of + 2%.
The rated secondary voltage is 126 volts at a no load
condition. (Note: Not 120 volts. Fully loaded, there is a 5%
to 7% secondary voltage loss through the transformer.
Therefore, the voltage ratio should be obtained by using 126
volts instead of 120 volts initially).
Current Transformers
Electronic and mechanical measuring devices monitor the
amperage in the switchboard. To monitor the motor current, it
must be reduced to a level that is easier to measure. If the
amperage drawn by the motor was not reduced, measuring devices
would have to be large and cumbersome in order to house
components capable of withstanding high currents. Most ESP
measuring devices (motor controllers) are designed to operate
from 0 to 5 amps. To reduce or scale-down the actual current
in the switchboard to an acceptable level, current
transformers (CTs) are used.
CT Ratio's
The CTs should be sized such that under normal operating
conditions, secondary control amp levels are between 2.5 and
3.5 amps. This is done to obtain the best motor controller
performance and to have the pen track along the center of the
recording ammeter chart.
-3-
Chapter 8
The CT ranges used in the controllers have a TR of 100:5,

200:5 and 150:5, 200:5, 300:5.
Example 1
If 180 A is flowing through the conductor and the TR is 200:5,
what will the current on the secondary side of the CT?
200:5 ratio is 40 = (200/5)
Secondary Amps = 180/40 = 4.5 A
If one pass of the wire results in a control circuit current

greater than 5 amps, the C.T. ratio must be increased by going
to one with a higher turns ratio.
Control Circuit amperage can also be doubled by looping the
wire for two passes or increased by three passes.
Example 2
Take a motor load of 90 amps and the only current transformers
available are 300:5. What current would the ammeter see in
each of the situations below?
Motor load 90 amps, current transformer ratio 300:5 (=60)
90/(300/1:5) 90/(300/2:5) 90/(300/3:5)
1.5 Amps 3 Amps 4.5 Amps
-4-
Chapter 8
Example 3
59 amps goes through the switchboard, which is the best CT
ratio to use?
Motor Controllers work best between 2.5 - 3.5 Amps. This has
the amp chart pen tracking the center of the chart.
200:5 ratio 59 / (200 / 5) = 1.48 Amps
150:5 ratio 59 / (150 / 5) = 1.97 Amps
100:5 ratio 59 / (100 / 5) = 2.95 Amps
Example 4
59 amps goes through the switchboard what is the best CT ratio
to use?
A short cut is to simply multiply the current by 1.6 to get
the nearest ratio.
59 x 1.6 is 94.4 the nearest ratio is 100:5
In example 2, we examined 90 amps, what would the ratio be
using this quick method?
Motor load 90 amps, current transformer ratio 300:5 (=60)
90 x 1.6 = 144 the nearest ratio is 150/5 = 30: 90/30= 3 A
Power Circuit
Incoming power to the controller is applied to the disconnect
switch which is manually operated, i.e., on or off.
A lightning arrestor can be attached below this switch to
provide some measure of protection to the control and motor
from lightning strikes.
The motor current carrying power wires pass through three
current transformers. These transformers step down the power
circuit current to an amp level usable by the various load
sensing devices in the control circuit.
A potential transformer is used to step down the incoming high
voltage to provide 120 volts for the control circuit.
Vacuum contactors utilize three sets of normally open
contacts.
When energized, power is transmitted directly to the downhole
motor. Vacuum contactors utilize 3 vacuum bottles to switch
the power circuit.
The Control Circuit
Each of the current transformers in the power circuit
transmits current to one of the three overload relay coils.
The recording ammeter and underload relay are in series with
two of these overload relays to allow underload sensing and
recording of the running current.
-5-
Chapter 8
Each overload relay has a normally closed contact. These three

contacts are in series with one side of the 120 volt control
circuit.
If an overload occurs in any one of the power circuit phases,
the corresponding contact opens, turns off the control circuit
and shuts down the motor.
The underload relay has a normally closed contact which is
open when the motor is running normally. This contact closes
on underload condition.
Under Current Relays
The under current relay is a safety feature, installed in the
electro-mechanical switchboard control circuit.
In case of pump off condition, pump intake plugging off, pump
gas lock or a broken shaft, and if the under current relay is
set correctly, it will sense the low current and shut the unit
down.
8.1.2. Theory of operation
Switchboards provide full voltage and current when the
contactors are engaged. As previously stated, the power
(voltage, current, and frequency) applied to the switchboard
is also the output voltage, current, and frequency. Step-up or
step-down transformers may be used in line with the
switchboard to change the voltage to a level suitable for the
ESP electrical components (motor and cable).
When starting an ESP system with a switchboard, the frequency
and voltage are the same at the input and output terminals.
This results in a fixed speed operation. When started, the
motor will ramp up to its rated speed within a fraction of a
second. During starting, a motor can draw 5 to 8 times its
rated current. This high starting current allows the motor to
deliver several times its rated torque. This can cause
excessive electrical and mechanical stress on the ESP
equipment, especially in shallow set applications.
Generally, an ESP is placed into operation at a depth that
requires several thousand feet of power cable. During start-up
operations, this piece of cable causes a voltage drop to the
motor. This reduced voltage start decreases the initial
starting current and torque.
Time delayed underload protection and automatic protection
against voltage or current imbalance on all three phases is
offered in most solid state controllers, underload, or some
type of pump off protection, is necessary since low flow past
the motor will not give adequate cooling. Circuits designed
for automatic restart after shut down are normally included.
External control devices should be interfaced with the
controller as recommended and/or approved by the pump
-6-
Chapter 8
manufacturer to give dependable and trouble free operation.

All external control devices are connected to a time delay
which activates or deactivates the controller after a short
time delay. Usual external control devices are tank hi-lo
level controls or line pressure switches.
8.2. Variable Speed Drive

8.2.1. Introduction
Variable speed drives (VSD) allow operators to vary ESP
performance by controlling the speed of the motor.
Controlling motor speed can
 Lower motor temperature.
 Improve ESP gas handling capabilities
 Control well drawdown
 Adjust ESPs to changing well conditions
 Decrease system stress at start-up
 Maximize the benefits of downhole monitoring, and improve
system harmonics.
Variable speed drives are also used to control the pump speed
and protect the pumping system. VSD shut down the system if
conditions develop that could potentially damage the ESP.
If operating parameters go outside a set point, but are still
within a critical limit range, the VSD will slowly make step
changes to return to the initial set point. The unit also
provides up to 200% starting torque to overcome hard start
situations.
Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP) are fairly inflexible when
operated at a fixed speed. The ESP is limited to a fixed range
of production rates and a fixed head output at each rate. The
VSD has gained acceptance as the ESP controller to alleviate
these restrictions. By allowing the pump speed to be varied,
the rate and/or head can be adjusted (depending on the
application) with no modification of the downhole unit.
8.2.2. Components
Converter (Rectifier)
The rectifier in a VFD is used to convert incoming ac power
into direct current (dc) power. One rectifier will allow power
to pass through only when the voltage is positive. A second
rectifier will allow power to pass through only when the
voltage is negative. Two rectifiers are required for each
phase of power. Since most large power supplies are three
phase, there will be a minimum of 6 rectifiers used.
-7-
Chapter 8
The term “6 pulse” is used to describe a drive with 6

rectifiers. A VFD may have multiple rectifier sections, with 6
rectifiers per section, enabling a VFD to be “12 pulse,”
“18 pulse,” or “24 pulse.”
Rectifiers may utilize diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers
(SCR), or transistors to rectify power.
Diodes are the simplest device and allow power to flow any
time voltage is of the proper polarity.
Silicon controlled rectifiers include a gate circuit that
enables a microprocessor to control when the power may begin
to flow, making this type of rectifier useful for solid-state
starters as well.
Transistors include a gate circuit that enables a
microprocessor to open or close at any time, making the
transistor the most useful device of the three.
In the diagram below, diodes (D1 through D6) allow current to
flow only in one direction when enabled by the gate signal.
In this diagram, the AC power on L1 goes into Diodes D1 and
D2. Because of the position of these diodes, current flow can
only go up. The D1 diode conducts when the AC is positive and
D2 conducts when the AC goes negative.
This drives the top line (+) more positive and the bottom
line (-) more negative. Diodes D3 and D4 convert L2 power to
DC and Diodes D5 and D6 convert L3.
A volt ohmmeter or VOM can be used to measure this DC voltage.
In this type of circuit, the DC voltage is 1.414 times the AC
line voltage.
If 240 Vac is coming in, 339 Vdc is generated.
If 380 Vac is coming in, 537 Vdc is generated.
If 460 Vac is the line voltage, 650 Vdc is generated.
Fig (8.2) VSD converter (6 pulse)
-8-
Chapter 8
DC Bus
After the power flows through the rectifiers it is stored
on a dc bus. The dc bus contains capacitors to accept
power from the rectifier, store it, and later deliver
that power through the inverter section.
The dc bus may also contain inductors, dc links, chokes,
or similar items that add inductance, thereby smoothing
the incoming power supply to the dc bus.
Inverter
The final section of the VSD is referred to as an “inverter.”
The inverter contains transistors that deliver power to the
motor.
The “Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor” (IGBT) is a common
choice in modern VSDs.
The IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per
second and precisely control the power delivered to the motor.
The IGBT uses a method named “pulse width modulation” (PWM) to
simulate a current sine wave at the desired frequency to the
motor.
Fig (8.2) VSD components
-9-
Chapter 8
System Control
The control system motor controller provides protection,
monitoring, and control for electrical submersible pumps.
Use of the latest digital electronics and graphic display
technology allows for an intuitive, human interface that
delivers ease of set-up, operation and diagnostics.
When combined with available sensors, the controller is
configurable for use in many types of programmable motor
control applications. The controller provides additional
flexibility with system expansion and customization.
The display unit is common to all modules of the control
system family, providing a familiar interface for a variety of
control and measurement products.
8.2.3. Theory of operation
The basic operation of the VSD is to convert the incoming 3
phase AC power, typically at 480 volts or 380 volts, to a
single DC power supply.
Then using power semiconductors as solid state switches, it
sequentially inverts the DC supply to regenerate three AC
output phases of pseudo-sine wave power. The frequency and
voltage of the output wave are controllable.
Although pumping flexibility is typically the original purpose
of applying a VSD, there are additional benefits to the
operator. Particularly, the VSD extends downhole equipment
life, provides soft start capabilities, controls wellbore
drawdown, automatically controls speed, provide line-transient
suppression and may eliminate the need for surface chokes.
The VSD also helps prevent electrical failures, VSD
controllers do this by isolating the load from incoming
switching and lightning transients, balancing output volts to
reduce motor heating, ignoring frequency instability from
generator supplies, compensating for brownouts, and minimizing
starting stresses.
In addition, VSDs can improve overall system efficiency,
reduce the required generator size, obviate the need for a
choke, reduce downhole unit size and provide intelligent
control functions to maximize production.
The best combination of drive features and benefits must be
selected and combined based on the application.
8.2.4. VSD effects on ESP components
Effects on Centrifugal Pumps
The performance of the centrifugal pump is described by a
curve of head versus rate for a given speed. Changes in speed
generate a new curve.
- 10 -
Chapter 8
The head values are larger if the speed is increased and

smaller if the speed is decreased. As the operating frequency
of a three-phase induction motor varies, the pump’s speed
changes in direct proportion to the frequency.
Thus, the speed of the pump and its hydraulic output can be
controlled simply by varying the power supply frequency. This
remains true provided that voltage and motor loading limits
are properly observed.
The technique of combining the performance characteristics of
the centrifugal pump and the three-phase induction motor,
allows a multiple frequency performance curve to be developed
(Figure 8.3). The following equations were derived based on
these conditions (Derived from Affinity Laws)
Fig (8.3) Variable speed pump curve
- 11 -
Chapter 8
Effects on Motor
A fixed frequency motor of a particular frame size has a
specified maximum output torque for the specified voltage that
is supplied to its terminals. This same torque can be achieved
at other speeds by varying the voltage in proportion to the
frequency. This allows the magnetizing current and flux
density to remain constant and so the available torque will
also be constant (at nominal slip rpm).
As a result, power rating is obtained by multiplying rated
torque by speed. Power output rating is directly proportional
to speed.
It should be noted that this rerating of motors increases the
maximum horsepower available to fit a particular size casing.
Matching Motor, Pump and VSD

Normally the pump is chosen to deliver a certain hydraulic
output at a particular speed.
A motor is chosen so that the capacity matches the pump when
operating at the maximum anticipated speed. Any frequency
above that speed will overload the motor due to the cubic
nature of the pump load. Similarly, the motor will operate in
underload at lower frequencies. This relationship is reflected
in the current drawn by the motor as the motor nameplate amps
will only be drawn at the chosen speed.
The surface kVA requirement is calculated to include the
resistive loss in the power cable and motor requirements at
maximum frequency since this represents the peak requirement
of the system. A VSD unit is selected if its rated kVA
capacity matches or exceeds the requirements.
The linear characteristic of the motor HP capability
intersects the cubic pump BHP characteristic at the design
maximum frequency. Higher operating frequencies would generate
a motor overload situation (Figure 8.4). These principles lay
out the theory, but in practice, there are several additional
details that also need to be considered when designing a full
VSD system.
- 12 -
Chapter 8
Fig (8.3) HP versus BHP chart

8.2.5. Benefits of VSD
Low Inrush Motor Starting (low motor starting current)
It is common for AC induction motors to draw 6 to 8 times
their full load amps when they are started across the line.
When large amounts of current are drawn on the transformers, a
voltage drop can occur affecting other equipment on the same
electrical system. Some voltage sensitive applications may
even trip off line. For this reason, many engineers specify a
means of reducing the starting current of large AC induction
motors.
A VSD is the ideal soft starter since it provides the
lowest inrush of any starter type. The VSD can use frequency
to limit the power and current delivered to the motor. The VSD
will start the motor by delivering power at a low frequency.
At this low frequency, the motor does not require a high level
of current. The VSD incrementally increases the frequency and
motor speed until the desired speed is reached.
High Power Factor
Power converted to motion, heat, sound, etc. is called real
power and is measured in kilowatts (kW).
Power that charges capacitors or builds magnetic fields is
called reactive power and is measured in Kilovolts Amps
Reactive (kVAR).
The vector sum of the kW and the kVAR is the Total Power
(energy) and is measured in Kilovolt Amperes (KVA).
- 13 -
Chapter 8
Power factor is the ratio of kW/KVA

Motors draw reactive current to support their magnetic fields
in order to cause rotation. Excessive reactive current is
undesirable because it creates additional resistance losses
and can require the use of larger transformers and wires. In
addition, utilities often penalize owners for low power
factor.
Decreasing reactive current will increase power factor.
Typical AC motors may have a full load power factor ranging
from 0.84 to 0.88. As the motor load is reduced, the power
factor becomes lower.
Power factor correction capacitors can be added to reduce the
reactive current measured upstream of the capacitors and
increase the measured power factor. In most cases, this
results in maximum corrected values of 0.90 to 0.95.
The VFDs include capacitors in the DC Bus that perform the
same function and maintain high power factor on the line side
of the VFD.
This eliminates the need to add power factor correction
equipment to the motor or use expensive capacitor banks. In
addition, VFDs often result in higher line side power factor
values than constant speed motors equipped with correction
capacitors.
Low Full Load KVA
Total Power (KVA) is often the limiting factor in the amount
of energy that can be transmitted through an electrical device
or system. If the KVA required by equipment can be reduced
during periods of peak demand, it will help decreasing the
voltage sags. Higher in power factor has significantly lower
KVA.
-------------------------------------------------------------
Input Kw PF Amps Volts KVA
-------------------------------------------------------------
350.4 0.84 502 480 417
350.4 0.99 426 480 354
Note:
KVA = Volts x Amps x 1.732
Backup generators are typically sized to closely match the
load. Lowering KVA can reduce the size of the generator
required.
When VSDs are used, the generator size can approach an ideal
1:1 ratio of kW/KVA because the power factor is near unity
(1.0) and the harmonics (will be discussed late) produced by
the VFD are extremely low.
- 14 -
Chapter 8
Lower KVA also benefits utilities. When the power factor is

higher, more power (kW) can be delivered through the same
transmission equipment.
8.2.6. Harmonics
Harmonics are integral multiples of some fundamental
frequency that, when added together, result in a distorted
waveform.
Power system harmonics:
Currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer
multiples (h=0,1,2,…N) of the fundamental power frequency
1st harmonic: 60Hz
nd
2 harmonic: 120Hz
rd
3 harmonic: 180Hz
Single phase 3rd, 6th, etc (triples) can cause transformer
neutral conductor overheating
Three phase 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc can cause equipment
malfunctions.
The following are some harmonics examples:
5th harmonics
- 15 -
Chapter 8
7th Harmonics
11th Harmonics
- 16 -
Chapter 8
13th Harmonics
Result of af 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics

 Negative Effects of Harmonics
 Overheating and premature failure of distribution
transformers.
Increasing iron and copper losses or eddy currents
 Overheating and mechanical oscillations in the motor
load system
- 17 -
Chapter 8
Producing rotating magnitude field, which is opposite to

the fundamental magnitude field.
 Overheating and damage of neutral ground conductors
Trouble sustained type Harmonics: 3rd, 9th, 15th …
A 3-phase 4-wire system: single phase harmonic will add
rather than cancel on the neutral conductor
 Power factor correction capacitor failure.
Reactance of a capacitor bank decreases as the frequency
increases.
 Attenuation of Harmonics
 Active filters
Inject equal an opposite harmonics onto the power system
to cancel those generated by other equipment.
 12 Pulse rectifier
Two separate rectifier bridges supply a single DC bus.
The two bridges are fed from phase-shifted supplies.
(Very effective in the elimination of 5th and 7th
harmonics
 18-pulse Rectifier
An integral phase-shift transformer and rectifier Input
which draws an almost purely sinusoidal waveform from
the source. (Attenuates all harmonics up to the 35th and
Stops harmonics at the source.
Sinusoidal waveform of different pulse converter
- 18 -
Chapter 8
8.2.7. VSD design example 1

Suppose we have an application where we want to produce a range
of 2000 BPD to 5500 BPD in a 7” casing well. The fluid gravity
is 1.048 and we have previously calculated that we will need
4900 feet of TDH at the 5500 BPD flow.
 The first thing to do is choose a pump.
Which pump is most likely to be the best selection for the
job?
 There is not always a clear cut answer as to what is the
"right pump". Let's take a look at the GN4000 of Reda.
 Although the curves do not extend down to 2000 BPD, we can

estimate by extrapolation that we could probably get there
with about 40 Hz.
In sizing the VSD application, the high end is more important.
 The upper end will determine the size of the pump required
since we need more TDH at this point and the pump puts out
less head per stage at higher flow rates for any given
frequency.
So where should we operate our GN4000 pump? That is, what
frequency should we choose for the 5500 BPD flow rate?
- 19 -
Chapter 8
 It looks like we can operate at 70 Hz and still be

comfortably within the recommended operating range.
At 70 Hz and 5500 BPD, the pump puts out about 37 feet of
head per stage.
So how many stages will we need?
No of stages = 4900 feet TDH ÷ 37.0 feet/stage
= 132 stages
 How much horsepower will this pump require to do the job?
Just to be safe, let's take the maximum point on the curve.
We can either take the BHP per stage we read on the 60 Hz
curve of 1.47 and correct it for frequency as:
HP @60 HZ=1.47*132*1.048=203 HP
BHP70 = 1.47 x (70 ÷60)3 = 2.33
or we can simply read the 70 Hz BHP curve directly from the
graph.
Either way we should get the same answer of 2.33.
- 20 -
Chapter 8
- 21 -
Chapter 8
 So our total pump Hp requirement at our maximum frequency

will be:
BHP70 = 2.33 x 132 x 1.048 = 322 hp
What size motor should we use (60 Hz rating)?
 Since the motor HP output varies directly with hertz, we can
easily calculate the 60 Hz equivalent requirement.
MHP = 322 x (60 ÷ 70) = 276 hp
We are ignoring the HP requirement for gas separator and
protector for this example
Let's select a 540 series PK type motor. Which one should
we select to do the job?
From the catalog, we will be using two 140 Hp's in tandem

for a total of 280 Hp, 2598 Volts and 69.5 Amps (60 Hz
Rating)
 Let's use a tandem motor with 140 Hp in each section for a
total of 280 Hp. This is more than the 276 Hp we actually
need so it will be adequate. The next size smaller would
only give us 260 Hp which is not enough.
We have three choices of winding for this size motor. Why
did we select one with low voltage?
If we had chosen the 2101 volt motor, this would be a
combined voltage of 4202 volts (at 60 Hz The maximum
allowable motor voltage is 4160, so we would exceed the
motor rating even operating at 60 Hz or less.
An even better reason is that it was not available in a CT.
We could not have done it if we had tried.
 By the way, what is the maximum frequency we can operate
this unit without overloading the motor?
Remember that we can easily check this with our equation:
- 22 -
Chapter 8
We do not have much more speed to play with but we have

enough to do the job.
 We sized the motor based on our anticipated production fluid
of 1.048 gravity.
What would happen if we were to have to unload a heavier
kill fluid used to workover the well?
We would expect the gravity to be higher and therefore the
load on the motor.
Should we size a larger motor to handle the overload caused
by the kill fluid?
 That is certainly one way to handle the problem.
Another solution might simply be to start up the well at a
lower frequency and bring the speed up to 70 Hz after the
well was unloaded.
An even better solution would be to operate the VSD on
"current mode". This also works very well in viscous
applications.
In "current mode", we ask the drive to try to maintain a
constant downhole current and adjust the frequency as
necessary to achieve this.
In general, we know that motor amperage will increase with
frequency. This relationship is approximately quadratic.
We know that at the maximum limiting frequency, the motor

will reach full load, or nameplate, amperage. Higher than
this frequency, it will continue to rise, overheating the
motor.
- 23 -
Chapter 8
In current mode, we have to define the maximum and minimum

desired currents as well as maximum and minimum frequencies.
As drawn, the unit will hit its current limit before it hits
its frequency limit. This means that variations in motor
load will cause the frequency to change (within the window)
to try to maintain the current constant.
 At this point we have sized the pump and motor and we know
we want to use a VSD.
The question now becomes what size VSD do we use?
- 24 -
Chapter 8
VSD's are sized in terms of KVA capability. So we need to

know how much KVA we have to supply.
In order to do this, we need to look at only the highest
frequency we plan to operate as this is where we will be
doing the most work.
The motor we will use is 280 Hp, 2598 V and 69.5 A at 60 Hz.
What will be the rated KVA at 70 Hz?
The motor voltage at 70 Hz will be:
V70 = 2598 x (70÷60) = 3031 v
What will the 70 Hz amperage be?
The amperage will still be nominally 69.5 A. We only expect
the voltage to change with frequency.
So the motor KVA at 70 Hz will be:
KVA = (3031 x 69.5 x 1.732) ÷ 1000 = 364
We need to remember the voltage drop in the cable.
In this case, assume we are using #2 AWG.
What will our voltage drop in the cable be if the cable is
5000 feet long?
It looks like the voltage drop is about 21 volt per 1000' so

our total voltage drop will be:
Voltage drop = 5000 x 21 ÷ 1000 = 105 volts
So we can add this to our 3031 motor voltage to get a
surface voltage of 3136 volts.
In other words we need the VSD to output 3136 volts at 70 Hz
to properly supply our motor for the task at hand.
The KVA required will be:
KVA = (3136 x 69.5 x 1.732) ÷ 1000 = 378
- 25 -
Chapter 8
This is pretty close to 390 KVA.

Could we use a 390 KVA VSD?
SPEEDSTAR 2000 NEMA 3
KVA Output Amperage
66 79
83 100
111 133
130 156
163 196
200 241
260 313
325 391
390 469
454 546
518 624
600 722
700 843
815 981
932 1122
1000 1203
1200 1445
No, we could not --- for a couple of reasons:
First, remember we just said that we needed the VSD to
output 3136 volts at 70 Hz. The only problem is that the
maximum voltage the VSD can possibly put out is 480 V.
This means we need a "Step-up" transformer between the VSD
and the motor. Transformers are not 100% efficient so we
need to add a couple of percent to the KVA the transformer
must supply the motor to come up with a KVA size for the
transformer.
If we add 4% to the 378 KVA demand, this gives us about 394
KVA. The 4% is just estimated, it is usually 2 - 4%.
Different transformers have different efficiencies and the
actual efficiency, if known, should be used.
We should pick a VSD and step up transformer with at least

394 KVA capacity.
Well our 394 KVA is still within a couple of percent of the
390 KVA drive size -- could we still use it?
No, the most important thing to remember about a VSD is that
it can never be overloaded for any reason, it will simply
blow fuses.
 The VSD Step-down transformer should have some special
considerations.
High impedance to reduce harmonic distortion on the power
- 26 -
Chapter 8
system.
10% oversized to reduce harmonic heating.
The Step-up transformer, however, must always be made
specifically for a VSD application.
 We need the VSD to output 394 KVA and fortunately VSD's are
rated by output KVA rather than by input.
VSD's are not 100% efficient either. Let's assume we will
only be about 98% efficient in power conversion. This means
we will need to input 402 KVA to the VSD to get 394 KVA out
so we will need at least a 402 KVA transformer.
If you plan to operate in the deserts of the Middle East, it
might not be wise as the drive may get too hot. Derating
may be helpful in prolonging life.
Another thing to consider is that a VSD is not always
capable of delivering its maximum KVA.
Unbalanced voltage or weak power systems may prevent optimum
usage of the VSD.
In general terms, for this case it looks like we need a 454
KVA (60 Hz rating) drive.
Remember we plan to operate from 40 to 70 Hz on this drive
so we need to know this information when the drive is being
set up by the service engineer.
 The VSD can operate over a wide frequency range but the
maximum voltage output will be 480 V.
What we want to do is set the drive up so that it outputs
480 V at our maximum frequency of 70 Hz.
This way we are getting the maximum output KVA capability of
the drive.
- 27 -
Chapter 8
What happens if we set the drive up with 60 Hz as the base

frequency?
This means that the drive can never go higher than 60 Hz and
we know we need to get up to 70 Hz.
What would happen if we set the drive up with 90 Hz as the
base frequency?
If 90 Hz is our "base" operating frequency, the VSD will
only output about 373 volts at our 70 Hz design point.
 Well we have selected a 454 VSD for our application and we

are still using our 280 Hp motor. We know that the pump
will draw 322 Hp at 70 Hz.
Where should we set our overloads and underloads to properly
protect the motor?
Assume we will set them 15% above and 20% below nominal
amperage.
We know that our motor is 69.5 A so we should set the U/L as
69.5 x 80% or 56 amps.
We should set the O/L as 69.5 x 115% or 80 amps.
Remember that the motor will not draw 69.5 amps simply
because it says so on the nameplate.
The current draw will depend on the load placed on the
motor.
 What we need to do is determine the load on the motor.
The pump BHP at 70 Hz is 322 Hp.
A 280 (60 Hz rating) motor is capable of delivering 327 Hp
at 70 Hz so the load on the motor will be:
- 28 -
Chapter 8
Percent Full Load = 322 ÷ 327 = 98.5%

Now compare this to the motor curve.
From the curve we can see that the motor should draw about
99% N.P. amps or 68.8 amps.
The correct U/L would then be 55 amps and the O/L should be
set at 79 amps.
This is not too far off the nameplate calculations we did
before so we probably did not need to go to such extremes.
 What would happen if we decided to operate our unit at 50 Hz
for a short period?
What is the Pump BHP requirement at 50 Hz?
HP50 = 1.47 x 1.048 x 132 x (50 ÷ 60)3 = 118 hp
What is the motor output horsepower at 50 Hz?
MHP = 280 x (50 ÷ 60) = 233 hp
% N.P. Load = 118 ÷ 233 = 50%
Let us look at motor curve again
- 29 -
Chapter 8
From the curve we can see that the motor should draw about
55% N.P. amps or 38 amps.
Obviously we would need to reset the underload so that the
unit will not shut off automatically. We also need to reset
the overload -- otherwise the unit could pull almost 200% of
running amps before shutting off which could easily damage
the downhole equipment.
Since our nominal running amperage should be 38 amps.
The correct U/L would then be 30 amps and the O/L should be
set at 43 amps.
Note that when we run at 70 Hz, we expect the motor to draw
69 amps and when operating at 50 Hz we expect only 38 amps.
The change in frequency does not have any direct bearing on

the motor running current.
The reason the amperage is lowered is only because we are
reducing the load on the motor at slower speeds.
So a VSD application is not a constant amperage operation.
We know that the VSD puts out a constant volts-to-hertz
ratio. This is a requirement of the design.
What happens to the motor?
Remember that we have 5000 feet of #2 cable running between
the drive and the motor. We also tapped the step-up
transformer to give us 3136 volts at our 70 Hz design point.
This means that if the frequency is reduced to 50 Hz, the
output from the transformer will be:
Surface voltage = 3136 x (50 ÷ 70) = 2240 volts
Let's look at our voltage drop in the cable at 50 Hz since
we will only draw 38 amps.
- 30 -
Chapter 8
At 50 Hz, we will only have about 12 volts lost per 1000

feet or a total voltage drop in the cable of only 60 volts.
Since the surface voltage from the drive is 2240 V that must
mean that the motor is getting 2180 volts.
Well a 2598 (60 Hz rating) motor at 50 Hz should get 5/6ths
of that or 2165 volts. We are not too far off in this case.
 The point to remember here is that even though a VSD is
designed to give us a constant volts-to-hertz ratio, in
practice we can never achieve this if power cable is
involved.
The reason is that the current does vary with the change in
speed due to changing pump BHP requirements and this changes
the amount of load we place on the motor which, in turn,
affects the voltage drop in the cable.
If the cable is very long or is undersized, this may become

significant. It may be necessary to re-tap the transformer
to a lower voltage if operation at the lower frequency will
be for an extended period of time.
 VSD's come in a Nema 1 configuration which is the smallest
unit for any particular size. They are not weatherproof and
must be placed inside a protective structure such as a
control room on an offshore platform.
The Nema 3R version is in a weatherproof enclosure and can
be placed on a pad at the well site. Even though it is
weather proof, an additional sun shade or some type of
screen is helpful in extremely hot environments.
 Drives can even be provided in a sealed walk-in enclosure
with air conditioning.
- 31 -
Chapter 8
These are useful in harsh environments such as the desert or

jungles. One advantage of this type of drive is that it can
be worked on even if it is raining outside.
8.2.8. VSD design example 2
Say we have a well which is producing 50% oil (total
fluid gravity is 0.95) and we want to use a VSD because we are
expecting the water cut to increase over the next couple of
years.
Our objective is to stay within the operating range of whatever
pump we select.
We will have 50 Hz 380V primary power and 4500 feet of #4 AWG
cable.
We are told we need to design for 4600 feet of TDH at 6000 bpd
and that we may want to produce as low as 3000 bpd and the TDH
at 3000 will be 2900 feet.
What should we do?
 The first thing to do is select a likely pump. Choosing a
pump for a VSD application is not as direct as sizing one
for a single speed application but, with a little practice,
we can get pretty good at guessing.
In this case, we should try out two pumps -- first let's
size a GN4000 and then we will size a GN5600 to compare the
two.
So what do we do with the GN4000?
- 32 -
Chapter 8
It looks like we will not fall in the operating range

anywhere.
What if we increase the frequency above 70 Hz?
Just by extrapolation, it looks like we can get there at
about 75 Hz so let's try that as our design point.
What will be the head per stage at 6000 bpd and 75 Hz?
We first need to start from some point we know. We need to
correct 6000 bpd back to our 50 Hz curve to get the
equivalent 50 Hz flow (we could actually convert back to any
one of the drawn curves).
We can now read the head per stage at 4000 bpd.
Flow50 = 6000 x (50 ÷ 75) = 4000 bpd
It looks like the head per stage is about 18.4 feet and we
are just inside the operating range which was our objective.
We now need to correct this head back to 75 Hz.
Head75 = 18.4 x (75 ÷ 50)2 = 41.4 ft/stg
Since the TDH is 4600 feet, we need 111 stages.
No. of stages = 4600 ÷ 41.4 = 111 stgs
 Sizing the pump was pretty easy, now we need to size the
motor. In order to do this we first need to determine the
BHP of the pump. Since we already know the BHP per stage at
60 Hz, let's just use that value again.
What size motor will we need?
- 33 -
Chapter 8
BHP75 = 1.45 x 0.95 x 111 x (75 ÷ 60)3 = 299 hp

The motor must output 299 Hp at 75 Hz but we need to convert
this back to a 50 Hz nameplate rating.
MHP50 = 299 X (50 ÷ 75) = 200 hp
So we need a motor with at least 200 Hp 50 Hz rating.
From the catalog, we will be using two 100 Hp's in tandem

for a total of 200 Hp, 2250 Volts and 58.5 Amps (50 Hz
Rating)
This will be 200 Hp, 2250V, 58.5 A. Remember that we need
to add the voltages for tandem motors.
We now need to determine the KVA at the maximum frequency of
75 Hz.
 We need to calculate the motor voltage at the 75 Hz speed.
volts75 = 2250 x (75 ÷ 50) = 3375 volts
The motor terminal voltage will be 3375 volts.
 From the voltage drop chart, we should get a value of about
27V/1000' loss. This will give us a total voltage drop of
about 124 volts.
- 34 -
Chapter 8
Voltage drop = 27x 4.7 = 124 volts

Surface voltage = 3375 + 124 = 3499 volts
 What will be the "wellhead" KVA?
KVA at the wellhead will be:
KVA = 3499 x 58.5 x 1.732 ÷ 1000 = 354
Choose a VSD of 390 KVA.
SPEEDSTAR 2000 NEMA 3
KVA Output Amperage
66 79
83 100
111 133
130 156
163 196
200 241
260 313
325 391
390 469
454 546
518 624
600 722
700 843
815 981
932 1122
1000 1203
1200 1445
Unfortunately in our excitement we forgot about transformer
losses. If we add 4% for the transformer we would need a
transformer of at least 368 KVA.
This is still OK -- can we use the 390 KVA
We can never forget that the 390 KVA is a 480 Volt rating.
A VSD is limited by the maximum amount of voltage which can
pass through it as well as the maximum amount of current.
The product of the voltage and the current gives the KVA
rating.
The 390 KVA rating is based on 480V input/output and 469 A
maximum amperage.
When we go down to 50 Hz, the I/O of the drive is 380V but
the maximum amperage does not change.
This means that we must "de-rate" the drive for 380 V
operation so a 390 drive now becomes a 309 KVA drive
(390*380/480).
In order to be able to use 390 KVA VSD and meet our 368 KVA
requirement we will need to provide 480 V input to the VSD
- 35 -
Chapter 8
instead 380 V, even using 50 Hz frequency or use a 480 V

gen-set.
So we will pick the 390 KVA, assuming that we will be able
to get 480 V input VSD for our application.
 Where should we set the O/L and U/L for the 75 Hz operation?
(assume in this case that the O/L will be set at 115% and
the U/L will be at 80%).
The correct O/L would be 67.3 Amps and the U/L should be set
at 46.8 Amps.
O/L = 58.5 x 1.15 = 67.3 Amps
U/L = 58.5 x 0.8 = 46.8 Amps
What about our lower flow rate point? Where will it occur
and what will the O/L and U/L be and what will be our KVA at
that point?
 Our low flow point was 3000 BPD and the TDH was 2900 feet.
What frequency will we need to set the VSD to in order to
achieve this target?
If the TDH is 2900 feet and we are using 111 stages, this
would give us 26 feet per stage at that point.
We can look at the pump curve to determine the frequency.
Head per stage = 2900 ÷ 111 = 26 feet/ stg
- 36 -
Chapter 8
Lining up the head per stage and the flow, it looks like
this will match at about 50 Hz.
 What is the BHP at 50 Hz?
The total brake horsepower will be about 88 Hp.
BHP50 = 1.45 x 0.95 x 111 x (50 ÷ 60)3 = 88 hp
We already know our motor is 200 Hp because that is the 50
Hz nameplate rating.
This gives us 44% of nameplate load. From the motor
performance curve, we estimate that the motor will draw
about 50% of nameplate amps (58.5) at this point so our
current will be 29.3 Amps.
% Load = 88 ÷ 200 = 44 %
Running Amps = 58.5 x 0.5 = 29.3 Amps
Our surface voltage will simply be 3499 x (50/75) or 2333
volts so the KVA at the wellhead is 118 (2333 x 29.3 x 1.732
= 118).
Why did we use the surface voltage at 75 Hz and convert
directly to 50 Hz by the ratio rather than calculate the
surface voltage from the motor voltage at 50 Hz and adding
cable loss based on our new running amps like we did before?
This has assumed that the drive was running at 75 Hz and the
frequency was turned down to 50 Hz.
Since the drive maintains a constant volts-to-hertz ratio on
its output, the step-up transformer will also maintain a
constant volts-to-hertz ratio. If it was putting out 3499
volts at 75 Hz, then it will output 50/75 ths of that at 50
Hz or 2333 Volts.
 Where should we set the O/L and U/L?
The correct O/L at this point is 33.7 Amps
O/L = 29.3 x 1.15 = 33.7 Amps
U/L = 29.3 x 0.8 = 23.4 Amps
The U/L should be set to 23.4 Amps.
 Now that we have sized the GN4000, let's size the GN5600 the
same way. We need to pick an upper operating point.
From the curve it looks like we have quite a choice of
operating frequencies. We need to be a little careful
because as we go higher in frequency we are moving further
left on the operating range (for a constant flow).
If we are too far left at the top frequency, we may be well
out of the range at the lower flow/frequency point.
- 37 -
Chapter 8
This is what makes sizing VSD applications by computer so

convenient. You can do many variations in a short amount of
time to "optimize" the equipment configuration.
We can do the same thing by hand but it just takes a lot of
time. For this example, let's assume our maximum frequency
will be 60 Hz.
 How many stages will we need?
- 38 -
Chapter 8
It looks like the head per stage is about 28.2 feet so we

would need 163 stages to meet the 4600 foot TDH requirement.
# Stages = 4600 ÷ 28.2 = 163 stgs
 How much BHP will this take?
Since we are using 60 Hz, it makes it pretty easy to just
read the BHP directly from the curve. It looks like it is
about 1.8 BHP per stage.
BHP60 = 1.8 x .95 x 163 = 279 hp
 What size motor will we need to give us 279 Hp at 60 Hz?
Remember the VSD is what is supplying the 60 Hz, we are
still using 50 Hz power.
We know we need 279 Hp so 280 Hp (60 Hz rating) will work.

We can use the ratings right out of the catalog. Two 140 Hp
motors at 60 Hz will give us 280 Hp.
So we will use the 117 Hp (50 Hz nameplate rating) motors.
We will pick tandem 117 Hp's with a 1083V, 69.5 A winding.
The motor will be 233 Hp (117 Hp per section) 2166V, 69.5 A.
Remember that since this is a 50 Hz application, we will
have a 50 Hz nameplate.
 What will our KVA be?
The motor voltage will be 2600 V at 60 Hz and we would
expect about 30V/1000' loss in the cable. This gives us a
surface voltage of 2738 for a wellhead KVA of 330.
Surface voltage = 2600 + (30*4.6) = 2738 volts
KVA = (2738 x 69.5 x 1.732) ÷ 1000 = 330
If we add 4% for the transformer, we would end up with a 343
KVA requirement.
- 39 -
Chapter 8
Do not forget to de-rate the drive. A 390 KVA drive will not
work for this 343 KVA with the standard voltage for 50Hz
(380V) requirement because the 390 KVA rating is based on 60
Hz, 480 V power.
If we want to use the 390 KVA, again we will need to provide
480V input to the VSD. Also we need make sure the tap in the
VSD is in the 480V input position if we use 480V.
 What will the proper O/L (115%) and U/L (80%) be in this
case?
Again we are very close to full load on the motor so we can
assume nameplate current draw.
This would give us an O/L of 79.9 Amps and an U/L of 55.6
Amps.
O/L = 69.5 x 1.15 = 79.9 Amps
U/L = 69.5 x 0.8 = 55.6 Amps
Let's compare our two sizings for the moment
Pump # of Motor hp @ 50hz Maximum
Type stages KVA
GN4000 1 11 200 3 79
GN5600 1 63 233 3 43
Why does the GN4000 take more KVA?
Well obviously it should because we are running at a higher
frequency.
Actually frequency has nothing to do with it. In the
greater scheme of things, the well does not care what kind
of electricity it is getting.
The reason the GN5600 takes less KVA is because it is simply
a more efficient pump at 6000 bpd and 60 Hz than is the
GN4000 at 75 Hz.
Remember the GN4000 was to the far right of the operating
range at that point and the GN5600 was almost in the middle.
- 40 -
Chapter 8
The difference in KVA is more or less coincidental. The

lesson to be learned here is that sizing the pump, at
whatever frequency, near the middle of the operating range
will reduce the KVA requirement and the electric bill
because the pump efficiency is greatest here.
Let's look at the equipment size itself.
Notice the unit running at 75 Hz is much smaller (number of
pump stages and motor horsepower) than the 60 Hz unit.
Pump # of Motor hp @ 50hz Maximum
Type stages KVA
GN4000 1 11 200 3 79
GN5600 1 63 233 3 43
In general, the higher the maximum frequency of the design,
the smaller the unit. This makes the purchase price of the
equipment much lower. There is a direct financial benefit
to designing for very high frequencies.
The only possible exception to this would be if two
different size units under consideration happened to fall
near a KVA rating of a drive.
For example, say a slightly larger pump and motor required
374 KVA (due to better pump efficiency at the design point)
and the smaller unit required 398 KVA.
The smaller unit would require a 454 KVA drive which is more
expensive so the increased cost of the drive may more than
offset the savings on the downhole unit.
These are simply things which must be evaluated when
considering cost.
Remember that our tendency to reduce cost by using a smaller
unit and running it faster will result in a shorter run life
due to increased motor heating.
Additionally, faster pump speed may be very detrimental in
an abrasive environment since the sand will impact the
impellers with much more energy causing faster erosion.
 Just for the fun of it, what will be the lower frequency
operating point for the GN5600?
We have a 163 stage pump and we need 2900 feet of TDH at
3000 bpd.
This comes out to 17.8 feet per stage.
Head per stage = 2900 ÷ 163 = 17.8 feet/stg
Let's look at this point on the curve.
The problem is that it is not on the curve. So what
frequency will we have to turn the pump with to get to this
point?
- 41 -
Chapter 8
We will just have to guess. Take a look at the curve and

estimate the frequency.
It looks like it is around 43 or 44 hertz.
Let's calculate to be sure.
What is the first thing we need to do?
The first thing is to get back to something we know. We need
to refer back to a known curve.
We will try a first guess of 43 hertz and correct back to
the 50 Hz curve.
Flow50 = 3000 x (50/43) = 3488 bpd
The head per stage on the 50 Hz curve at 3488 bpd is about
23 feet per stage. We can now correct this known head back
to 43 Hz.
We are just a little low of our 17.8 foot mark. Let's try
44 hertz:
Head43 = 23 x (43/50)2 = 17 ft
Correcting for 44 Hz we get a 50 Hz flow of 3409 bpd.
Flow50 = 3000 x (50/44) = 3409 bpd
The head per stage on the 50 Hz curve at 3409 bpd is about
23.5 feet per stage. We can now correct this known head
back to 44 Hz.
- 42 -
Chapter 8
Head44 = 23.5 x (44/50)2 = 18.2 ft

This is slightly high. We made a pretty good guess after
all.
This pump will meet our lower flow and TDH requirements
somewhere between 43 and 44 hertz.
 Getting back to our sizings -- have we made any mistakes?
Quite possibly we have.
Remember in our original problem statement we were using a
50% oil gravity of 0.95 but we were told that the water cut
would increase.
In both cases we sized the motors at very near 100% load.
If the water cut does increase, we will overload these
motors forcing us to reduce the frequency and lose
production.
In reality increasing water cut may increase our TDH
requirement and we might need to consider increasing the
pump size if the difference is too great.
As a bare minimum we would probably want to "oversize" the
motor. This would allow us to handle a higher gravity fluid.
It could also, depending on how much we oversized it, allow
us to raise the frequency further to increase the TDH output
of the pump to meet the well's increasing requirements over
time.
By the way, it might be a good idea to check to see that we
do not exceed the shaft horsepower limit. Let's look at the
GN4000 since it is designed to operate at 75 Hz.
We previously calculated that the BHP at 75 Hz would be 299.
If we look in the technical data on the pump catalog page,
we can see that a standard shaft is good for 313 Hp.
Well our 299 is getting pretty close -- or is it? Look at
the technical data for this pump on the 60 Hz page. The
shaft horsepower limit is 375 Hp instead of 313 Hp.
Remember that the shaft hp limit changes with the speed.
Higher speeds will increase the horsepower limit.
The shaft horsepower at any speed (frequency) can be easily
calculated.
HP LimitHZ = HP Limit50 x (HZ ÷ 50)
or, in this case:
HP Limit50 = 313 x (75 ÷ 50) = 391 hp
Well we are clearly below the horsepower limit so we should
be okay. We were able to calculate the maximum frequency
- 43 -
Chapter 8
allowable by the motor -- can we also calculate the maximum

frequency the pump shaft will take?
Yes we can and the calculation is very much like that for
the motor.
SHP means shaft horsepower limit. We are interested in
knowing exactly where:
SHPHZ = BHPHZ
So we can use the following equations and simply set them
equal.
SHPHZ = SHP50 X (HZ ÷ 50)
BHPHZ = BHP50 X (HZ ÷ 50)3
We know the shaft limit at 50 Hz is 313 Hp and that the pump
BHP at 50 Hz will be 88 Hp so we need to solve for
frequency.
SHP50 =BHP50 x (HZ ÷ 50)2
Rearranging gives:
If we plug in our values, we can see that we would not

exceed the shaft horsepower below 94 hertz.
- 44 -
Chapter 9
ESP Design Examples
10.1. Introduction
In order to design ESP system, the following
procedures have to be followed:
1. Collect data (well, production, fluid, electrical).
2. Determine the production capacity of the well.
3. Determine tubing size.
4. Calculate Total Dynamic Head (TDH).
5. Select pump stage type.
6. Calculate the number of pump stages required.
7. Check pump shaft loading and pump housing pressure.
8. Calculate motor horsepower requirements and select a
suitable motor.
9. Calculate the protector thrust bearing load and select a
suitable protector.
10. Determine the correct cable size and select a suitable
cable type.
11. Calculate the surface voltage and KVA requirements
and select a suitable switchboard and transformer.
In current stage, we will calculate only the number of
stages; the other calculations will be involved in the next
chapters.
To calculate the number of stages, we have to calculate
first the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) that the pump has to
deal with.
The TDH is the sum of three basic components:
1. The Net Vertical Lift or net distance which the fluid
must be lifted (Dynamic Fluid Level, DFL).
2. The friction loss in the tubing string.
3. The wellhead pressure which the unit must pump against.
See the drawings below.
1
Chapter 9
TDH = Net vertical lift in ft + friction loss in ft + WHP

in ft
Pump setting depth does not affect net vertical lift
2
Chapter 9
Direction angle of the well does not affect the net vertical
lift
10.2. Example 1: (water well)

Casing size: 5.5 inch
Perforation depth: 6000 ft.
S.G. of produced fluid: 1.0
Tubing sizes available: 2 3/8 inch
Pump setting depth: 5500 ft
Static Fluid Level: 1820 ft
Productivity Index: 0.9 bpd/psi
Bottom Hole Temperature: 260 deg F
Wellhead Pressure required: 100 psi
Desired Flow rate: 1300 bpd
Hz: 60
Viscosity: 1 cp
Solution:
1. Determine the production capacity of the well
Flowing fluid level (DFL) = Static fluid level +
Drawdown
Max Drawdown possible = 6000 ft – 1820 = 4180 ft.
Max Drawdown (psi) = 4180 x 0.433 psi/ft = 1810 psi
Max possible flow (drawing fluid right down to the
perforations = 1810 psi x 0.9 BPD/psi = 1629 BPD
2. Calculate TDH @ 1300 bpd
Flowing Fluid Level @ 1300 BPD = SFL + DD
Draw Down (psi) = 1300 BPD/ 0.9 BPD/psi = 1444 psi
Draw Down (feet) = 1444 psi/ 0.433 psi/ft = 3335 ft.
Flowing Fluid Level = 1820 ft + 3335 ft = 5155 ft
3
Chapter 9
Friction Loss (refer to Chapter 2) = 171 ft

WHP = 100 psi / 0.433 psi/ft = 231 ft.
Total Dynamic Head = DFL + WHP + Friction loss
TDH = 5155 + 231 + 285 = 5671 Ft
3. Select pump stages type
Select a pump suitable for installation in 5.5 inch
casing and also capable of producing 1300 BPD, Select
for example Centrilift pump type FC1200 (from the
manufacturer catalogue)
4. Calculate the number of stsges

At 1300 bpd the FC1200 generates 22.5 ft per stage
Number of stages required = TDH / Head per stage
Number of stages required = 5671 ft/ 22.5 ft per stage
= 252 stages
From the table of the pump housings of the
manufacturer, see below; select the suitable housing/s
which contains number of stages greater than the
calculated ones.
Select either housing 15 (262 stages) or hosing 12 (209
stages) + housing 3 (51 stages) of total 260 stages.
4
Chapter 9
5. Check shaft loading and Housing Pressure limitations

Pump Hp = 0.36 HP/stage x 260 x 1.0 (SG) = 93.6 HP
Maximum shaft HP rating = 125 HP (see Catalog)
Therefore the standard shaft is O.K.
Maximum head in operating range =31.2 X 260 = 8112'.
Maximum pressure in range = 8112 ft x 0.433 = 3513 psi
Housing pressure rating = 5000 psi (see Catalogue)
Therefore the housing is O.K
6. Select Motor
Motor hp required = 94 hp
Select a motor suitable for installation in 5.5 inch
well. Therefore select a 450 series motor (4.50 inch
O.D.)
Select a 450 series 100 HP, 2080 volt, 31 amp
Note: Remember BHT = 260 deg F
7. Calculate Protector thrust bearing load and choose
protector type
Maximum pressure in operating range = 3513 psi
Cross sectional area of Pump shaft = 0.371 sq. in.
TB load for floater pumps = 3321 psi x 0.371 sq. in =
1232 lbs
Select Solid Shoe Bearing (standard) rated at 1427 lbs
(information in protector section of catalog)
5
Chapter 9
FMB 450 SERIES MOTORS

450 SERIES MOTOR MODEL FMB
4.50 INCH (114.3 MM) O.D.
SIZE HP VOLT/AMPS LENGTH* WEIGHT
60 50
60 HZ 50 HZ FT. M. LBS. KG.
HZ HZ
60 50 735/51 612/51 17 5.2 843 383
60 50 840/44 700/44 17 5.2 843 383
60 50 945/40 787/40 17 5.2 843 383
60 50 1270/30 1058/30 17 5.2 843 383
75 62.5 644/77 537/77 21 6.3 1030 467
75 62.5 924/52 770/52 21 6.3 1030 467
75 62.5 1129/43 941/43 21 6.3 1030 467
85 71 1290/43 1075/43 23 7.1 1161 527
85 71 2080/27 1733/27 23 7.1 1161 527
100 83 1000/64 833/64 27 8.3 1353 614
100 83 1150/56 958/56 27 8.3 1353 614
100 83 2080/31 1733/31 27 8.3 1353 614
120 100 1200/64 1000/64 32 9.8 1605 728
120 100 2080/37 1733/37 32 9.8 1605 728
8. Determine Cable size and voltage drop in cable

Motor is rated 100 HP, 60 HZ. , 31 Amp
Pump Load is 87 HP
Motor operating current = 94/100 x 31= 29 amp.
Choose No 4 AWG cable
6
Chapter 9
Voltage drop at 29 amps = 13 volts/1000 ft

VD corrected @ 260 DF = 13 x 1.4 = 18.2 volts
Voltage drop = 5.6 x 18.2 = 102 volts
9. Calculate Surface voltage and size switchboard and
transformer
Surface Voltage required = 2080 (motor) +102 = 2182 v.
Switchboard
MODEL KVA VOLTS AMPS
1500-SSC 415 1500 160

2400-SSC 664 2400 160
3300-SSC 913 3300 160
4800-SSC 1660 4800 200
33MR-SSC 913 3300 160
Therefore use a 2400 volt rated Switchboard.
Therefore use a 125 KVA 3 phase dual wound transformer

with Multi tapped secondary
10.3. Example 2: (oil well)

• Casing size: 7.0 inch
• Perforation depth: 6800 ft.
• Tubing sizes available: 3.5 inch OD EUE, 9.3 lb.
7
Chapter 9
• Pump setting depth: 5500 ft

• Static Bottom Hole Pressure: 3000 psi
• Oil Cut: 25 %
• Water S.G.: 1.085
• Gas S.G: 0.70
• Oil API Gravity: 32 (0.866)
• GOR: 300 scf/bbl
• Productivity Index: 1.42 bpd/psi
• Bottom Hole Temperature: 160 deg F
• Wellhead Temperature: 100 deg F
• Wellhead Pressure require: 100 psi
• Desired Flow rate: 2300 STbfpd
• Viscosity of oil @ WHT: 15 cp
• Viscosity of oil @ BHT: 5 cp
• Viscosity of water @ WHT: 0.9 cp
• Viscosity of water @ BHT: 0.6 cp
• Hz: 50
• Casing is unvented, i.e., string has unvented paker.
Solution:
1. Calculate the average specific gravity
Ave S.G. = (0.75 x 1.085 + 0.25 x 0.866) = 1.03

2. Calculate the fluid gradient
Fluid Gradient = 0.433*1.03 = 0.446 psi/ft

3. Calculate the Static Fluid Level (SFL)
SFL = 6800-3000/0.446 = 73 ft
4. Calculate bottom hole flowing pressure at mid-
perforations
Pwf @ Mid Perfs = 3000 – 2300 / 1.42 = 1380 psi

5. Calculate bottom hole flowing pressure at Pump Setting
Depth (PSD), which is pump intake pressure (PIP).
Pwf @ PSD (PIP) = 1380 –(6800-5500)*0.446 = 800 psi
6. Calculate the drawdown
Drawdown = 2300/1.42 = 1620 psi
8
Chapter 9
Drawdown in ft = 1620 / 0.446 = 3632 ft

7. Calculate Dynamic Fluid Level (DFL)
DFL = SFL +DD = 73 + 3632 = 3705 FT
Or Drawdown = 6800 – 1380 / 0.446 = 3705 ft
Fluid column above the pump = 800 / 0.446 = 1794 ft
8. Calculate Rs @ PIP or get it from PVT data of the
reservoir
Where:
Rs = Gas in solution
= Gas Specific gravity (0.7)
PIP = Pump Intake Pressure (800 psi)
BHT = Bottom Hole Temperature (160 OF)
Rs = 0.7x[(800/18)*(100.0125*32 /100.00091*160)]1.2048 = 137
scf/bbl
9. Calculate the total produced gas (QGT)
QGT = GOR*(1-wc)* Q = 300*(1-0.75)*2300/1000 = 172.5 mscf
10. Calculate the total gas in solution @ PIP (QGIS) in mscf
QGIS @ PIP = 137*(1-0.75)*2300 /1000 = 78.8 mscf
11. Calculate Total free gas @ PIP (QGF) in mscf
QGF = QGT - QGIS = 172.5–78.8 = 94 mscf (Casing is
Unvented)
12. Calculate  g (gas formation volume factor) @ PIP or get
it from PVT data of the reservoir:
Where Z is the gas compressibility factor

If Z is not available, it can be calculated from the
following equations:
g = 5.04*0.886 *(160 +460)/(800+14.7) = 3.4 bbl/mscf
9
Chapter 9
13. Calculate the volume of free gas under reservoir

condition (QRG), this will enter the pump as the system
in unvented.
QRG = QGF x g = 94*3.4 = 319 bbl/day
14. Calculate  o (oil formation volume factor) @ PIP or get
it from PVT data of the reservoir:
As Rs < GOR, so,

F = 137 x (0.7/0.866)0.5 + 1.25 x 160 = 323
o = 0.972 + 0.000147 x (323)1.175 = 1.1 Rbbl/STbbl
15. Calculate the volume of oil at reservoir condition
(QRO).
QRO = QO x o = 1.1*(1-0.75)*2300 = 634 Rbblpd
QRW = volume of water (w~1) = 0.75 * 2300 = 1725 Rbblpd
16. Calculate the total volume of fluid entering the pump
under reservoir condition (QRT).
QRT = QRO + QRW + QRG = 634+1725+319 = 2678 Rbblpd
17. Calculate free gas % at the pump intake
% of free gas = 319 / 2678 *100 = 11.9 %
18. In order to recalculate the real average specific
gravity including gas and accordingly, the real fluid
gradient, we have to calculate the Total Weight of the
Fluid
Oil Mass = Qo x OSG x 62.4 #/cuft x 5.6146 cuft/bbl =
2300 x 0.25 x 0.866 x 62.4 x 5.6146 = 174,457 Lb
Water Mass = Qw x WSG x 62.4 #/cuft x 5.6146 cuft/bbl =
2300 x 0.75 x 1.085 x 62.4 x 5.6146 = 655,726 Lb
Gas Mass = Qo x GOR x GSG x 0.0752 #/cuft x 5.6146 cuft/
bbl = 2300 * 0.25 * 0.7 * 0.0752 = 9,080 Lb
Total Mass = 174,457 + 655,726 + 9,080 = 839263 Lb
19. Calculate the density, specific gravity and gradient
Density = Mass Lb/ volume cuft = 839263 / (2678 *
5.6146) = 55.82 lb / cuft
10
Chapter 9
S.G = 55.82 / 62.4 = 0.8945

Gradient (G) = 0.8945 * 0.433 = 0.3872 psi/ft
20. Recalculate the TDH based on the new gradient
Dynamic fluid level = PSD–PIP/G = 5500–800/0.3872 = 3434
ft
Friction loss in 3-1/2” Tubing based on average
viscosity of 10 cp and rate 2678 Rbpd (refer to section
2.20) = 166’
WHP in ft = 100 / 0.3872 = 258 ft
TDH = 3434 + 166 + 258 = 3858 ft
21. Select a pump suitable for installation in 7” casing and
also capable of producing 3678 Rbfpd
Select SN2600 of Reda
Head per stage = 46 ft/stage

22. Calculate the number of stages required for TDH and
motor HP
# of stages = TDH /ft per stage = 3858/46 = 84 stages
From pump SN2600 catalog select Hsg # 70 (88 stages)
Note
The average viscosity of the fluid does not have serious
effect on either head or rate of the pump. That why we
do not take into consideration.
HP required = # of stages * hp per stage * fluid SG
HP required = 88 * 1.32 * 0.8945 = 104 hp
11
Chapter 9
From motors catalog select Series 540, 117 hp motor,

1751 V, 40.5 A
Series 540 Motors - MK Type

HP VOLTS
60 50 60
HZ HZ HZ 50 HZ AMPS Type
80 67 S
1235 1029 40 UT
S
2241 1868 22 UT
100 83 S
1305 1088 51.5 UT
S
2313 1928 27 UT
120 100 S
UT
1105 921 69.5 CT
S
2270 1892 32.5 UT
140 117 S
UT
1022 852 85 CT
S
UT
1299 1083 69.5 CT
S
UT
2101 1751 40.5 CT
12
Chapter 9
23. Check shaft loading and Housing Pressure limitations

Check pump shaft hp (Monel, 256 hp) with motor hp, if
the motor hp is more than pump shaft hp, ask for high
strength shaft (inconel, 410 hp)
Pump head at shut in condition = 58’ * 88 = 5104‘
Pump discharge pressure at shut in = 5104 * 0.3872 =
1976 psi
Housing pressure rating = 5000 psi (from catalog)
Therefore the housing is O.K
24. Calculate Protector thrust bearing load
Maximum pressure in operating range = 1976 psi
Cross sectional area of Pump shaft = 0.601 sq.in
TB load for floater pumps = 1976 * 0.601 = 1188 lb
Select Solid Shoe Bearing (standard) rated at 2637 lbs
(information in protector section of catalog)
25. Cable Size Selection and voltage drop in cable
Motor is rated 120 hp, 60 HZ. 2270 v, 32.5 Amp Pump Load
is 104 hp
Motor operating current = (104/ 117) * 40.5 = 36 amp.
Choose AWG #6 cable
Voltage drop at 40.5 amps = 24 volts/1000 ft
Correct for Temp. [(160+100)/2]= 130 Deg F) = 24 * 1.12
= 26.88 volts
Voltage drop = 5.6 * 26.88 = 151 volts
26. Calculate Surface voltage
Surface Voltage required = 1751(motor) +151= 1902 v.
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Chapter 9
27. Calculate Size of Switchboard and Transformer

Surface KVA = (1.732 * Volt * Amps) / 1000
KVA = (1.732 * 2902 * 40.5) / 1000 = 134 KVA
Therefore Selecta SB 1512, 182 KVA, 70 A
Select Transformer with minimum 200 KVA, 3 φ, and multi
tapped secondary
MDFH 1500 V Maximum

Amp Load KVA
14 To 20 36 To 52
20 To 45 52 To 117
45 To 90 117 To 234
90 To 160 234 To 416
1512 3900 V Maximum, 1900 V Minimum
35 To 70 91 To 182
70 To 115 182 To 299
115 To 165 299 To 429
10.4. Example 3 (viscosity correction)

In this example will take the same data and some
results of example 2 except the average viscosity of the oil
is 140 cs @ average temperature (140oF).
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Chapter 9
Average water viscosity = (0.9 + 0.6) / 2 = 0.75 CS

Average fluid = WC x W + (1-WC) x O
Average fluid = 0.25 x 0.75 + 300 x 0.75 = 105 cs
So, the required fluid rate is 2678 downhole bfpd (78.12 US
gpm) with viscosity 225 cs.
At QW = 2678 bpd the head per stage HW = 46 ft (from pump
curve as water) and W = 68 %
Pseudocapacity (P)=1.95 x 0.5 x [0.04739 x H0.25746 x Q0.5]-0.5
P = 1.95*105^0.5*(0.04739*46^0.25746*78.12^0.5)^-0.5 = 18.86
CH1Q=1.0045-0.002664*18.86-0.00068292*18.86^2
+0.000049706*18.86^3-0.0000016522*18.86^4
+0.000000019172*18.86^5 = 0.8815
CQ=0.9873+0.009019*18.86-0.0016233*18.86^2
+0.000077233*18.86^3-0.0000020528*18.86^4
+0.000000021009*18.86^5 = 0.88851
C=1.0522-0.03512*18.86-0.00090394*18.86^2
+0.00022218*18.86^3-0.000011986*18.86^4
+0.00000019895*18.86^5 = 0.517
HVis = 46 x 0.8815 = 40.6 ft
Qvis = 2678 x 0.88851 = 2380 bfpd (downhole) = 69.4 gpm
vis = 68%*0.517 = 35.2 %
BHPvis = 60 * 40.6 * 0.943 / (3960 x 0.352) = 1.65 hp/stg
(compared with 1.32 hp/stg of example 2)
The friction loss at 108 cs and 2380 bfpd = 236 ft
New TDH = 3434 + 166 + 236 = 3838 ft
Required No of stages = 3838 / 40.6 = 95 stages (compared
with 84 stgs of example 2)
Required HP = 95 x 1.65 = 157 hp (compared with 104 hp of
example 2)
t = 2678/2300 = 1.164 (as per example 2)
New STBPD = 2380/1.164 = 2045 STBPD
Conclusion
In case if the viscosity of the oil becomes 140 cs:
Production rate will be 2045 bpd instead of 2300 bpd.
The number of stages will be 95 instead of 84 stages.
The horsepower required will be 157 hp instead of 104 hp.
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Chapter 9
16
Chapter 10
Recommended Practice for ESP

Dismantle, Inspection & Failure
Analysis (DIFA)
Table of Content
1.0 Purpose 2
2.0 Post Failure 3
3.0 Pre-Pulled Requirements 3
4.0 Pulling the ESP 4
4.1 Critical Pull Observation 4
4.2 Disassembly of the ESP at well site 5
5.0 Dismantle, Inspection, & Failure
Analysis (Difa) 10
5.1 Preparation 10
5.2 Cable 11
5.3 Pumps 11
5.4 BOI/GS 16
5.5 Protector(s) 17
5.6 Motor(s) 21
5.7 Downhole Monitoring Device (Sensor) 26
6.0 Root Cause Analysis (RCA) 26
7.0 Difa Report Format 28
7.1 Cover 28
7.2 Table of Contents 29
7.3 Distribution 29
7.4 Well Information 29
7.5 Trend Analysis 29
7.6 ESP Identification information 30
7.7 Dismantle Inspection Findings 30
7.8 Summary of Results 30
7.9 Recommendations 30
7.10 Photograph Gallery 30
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Chapter 10
Recommended Practice for ESP

Dismantle, Inspection & Failure
Analysis (DIFA)
Introduction
This document outlines the “standard” for
dismantle inspection and failure analysis (DIFA) of electric
submersible pumps (ESPs). The local engineering manager shall
authorize a DIFA for any pulled ESP equipment. The electric
submersible pump vendor is responsible for conducting and
producing the DIFA and DIFA report, respectively. However,
significant portions of the required data must be provided by
customer. Customer, and its affiliates, shall be a partner in
reviewing and approving the DIFA and DIFA report.
11.1. Purpose
The purpose of this standard is to determine the root cause
of an ESP failure. Identification of this root cause should
lead to operational and/or equipment modifications which
ultimately result in improved runlife performance. It is
imperative that the analysis commence prior to the pulling of
the failed equipment. It is equally important that the DIFA
recommended changes be implemented by customer, its affiliates
and the vendor. All too often, maximizing run life is not
accomplished because ESP failures are not properly identified.
Many factors must be investigated and documented to determine
the ultimate cause of failure. The first flaw discovered in
the failure of an ESP system is often times given full
responsibility for the failure. This identified method of
analysis can result in a much shorter average run life in a
given well and/or field. Maximizing run life of ESP's can be
accomplished through proper analysis of failure modes and
investigating all aspects of the ESP system. This process can
take many hours and/or weeks, particularly if the field is
being analyzed for the first time. It is important to note
that when investigating a single failure, one must also take
into account the entire field operation and procedures along
with the complete history of ESP performance in that field.
Customer personnel shall be responsible for the administration
of this standard in the respective business units. Each
manufacturer shall have a specific “DIFA Procedure” that
meets, or exceeds, the requirements as outlined in this
standard. Any variation from this standard must be approved by
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Chapter 10
a customer representative prior to commencing a failure

analysis program.
11.2. Post Failure

When the ESP equipment has failed, it is important that all
relative information be captured. The following items, if
available, shall be captured and quarantined for inclusion
into the DIFA.
 All motor controller/VSD operational data.
 Amp charts, or amperage data.
 Downhole monitoring data.
 SCADA or life of well system, data (e.g. LOWIS, ESP Watcher,
Wellview, Xspoc, etc.). This data shall include any surface
processing equipment data that may be relevant.
 Histories of choke settings inclusive of choke setting at
time of failure.
 Production data (oil, gas & water).
 History of actions taken prior and after the shutdown (e.g.
number of restart attempts, etc.)
 Well ESP failure history (if available), inclusive of
previous DIFA reports from the same well.
 Chemical treatment history.
 Initial sizing and design reports
 Installation reports
 Any daily field reports that may detail sequence of events
or equivalent
11.3. Pre-Pull Requirements

Prior to pulling the equipment, all parties should be advised
that the pulling of the failed equipment is an integral part
of determining the cause of failure. Any unusual events, or
items, should be captured as part of the pull report. All key
electrical readings should be checked and recorded prior to
commencing pulling operations. In addition to the standard
items supplied by the service company for pulling ESP
equipment, the following items are required to be available
during pulling operations:
12 each, 1 pint, wide mouth, plastic sample bottles.
24 each, 1 quart, plastic bags (zip-lock type).
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Chapter 10
36 each 2” x 6” cards to be used as identification markers

in photographs.
Permanent markers.
Grease sticks (yellow or white) to circle/identify critical
items.
Digital camera to take pictures of any/all unique items.
Pressure monitoring equipment (5-25 psi capability) – to
check protector/seal shaft seals and ascertain if any
pressure is between motor and lower protector/seal chamber
while pulling. Fittings to be specified by vendor.
New shipping caps and shipping caps gaskets (plastic and
steel). Used shipping caps may be used if in a “like-new”
condition.
The most recent downhole schematic (including the completion
profile); wellbore profile to include pump setting depths
(MD & TVD), etc.
The most recent ESP run report
Any/all well intervention history (inclusive of critical
well file information, installation report, etc.)
Approved pull procedure detailing responsibilities
throughout the ESP retrieval process
Note:
Prior to commencing the pull, the company representative shall
review how the protector/seal will be pressure checked in the
field. This item cannot be captured after the protector/seal
has been disconnected from the motor interface.
11.4. Pulling the ESP

4.1. Critical Pull Observations
The following items should be monitored throughout the
pulling of the equipment.
Wellhead feed through mandrel (mechanical and electrical
condition)
Monitor cable for mechanical damage
Monitor cable for any electrical „blowouts‟
Monitor cable for out-gassing. If this is considered a
possibility, the maximum pulling speed should not exceed 6-10
stands per hour.
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Chapter 10
Confirm number of retrieved cable bands are the same as

during the installation
Condition of any/all splices in the cable, inclusive of the
motor lead extension (MLE) to cable splice.
If any splice is suspected of being a problem, the point of
the splice should be noted on the pull of the report.
If the MLE to cable splice is noted as problematic, the cable
shall be cut approximately 2‟-4‟ (~ 1 meter) above, and
below, the splice and retrieved for further evaluation.
Condition of Pothead Entry Point. NOTE: The pothead should
NEVER be disconnected in the field. The MLE should be cut 1-3
feet (~ 0.5-1 meter) above the pothead connection.
Discoloration of any pump or motor housing which would
evidence extreme temperature. Items noteworthy include:
o Blue/black coloring
o Paint blistering
o Melted lead from the MLE
Plugged intake with debris or collapsed intake screen. (Take
samples if debris is found)
Corrosion of cable and/or equipment
Obvious signs of impact to housings or cable
Obvious signs that the housings are bent
Note and/all electrical arcing damage and exact location.
Signs of MLE cutting into housings due to vibration.
Condition of cable and protectorlizers (or cable clamps).
Any obvious signs of tubing damage (corrosion, holes, collar
splits, etc.).
4.2. Disassembly of the ESP at the Well site
It is critical that valuable data be captured during the
disassembly of the ESP. Customer shall have the right to
approve/disapprove the evaluation process of any samples taken
during pulling the ESP, inclusive of the evaluation company
(laboratory, etc.).
4.2.1 Cable/Feedthroughs/Pigtails
Examine the well file prior to pulling the ESP and
determine the number of splices (if any) in the ESP cable and
the number of bands/cable clamps installed during the
installation of the ESP.
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Chapter 10
 Conduct a megger test through the feedthrough prior to

disconnecting from the lower pigtail. Note the readings on
the pull report.
 Record the serial number of all penetrators and penetrator
connectors. Quarantine the penetrators and penetrator
connectors for possible further examination.
 Examine the feedthrough on the lower side of the tubing
hanger. Inspect for any signs of possible mechanical damage.
 Examine the lower pigtail to feedthrough connection. Insure
the feedthrough and pigtail were properly connected (it will
be necessary to refer the appropriate feedthrough
manufacturer for the proper make up procedure).
 Disconnect the feedthrough from the lower pigtail and conduct
a megger test. Note the readings on the pull report. Make
note if any fluid is found in the connector when
disconnected.
 Give particular attention to any unusual signs of tension on
the feedthrough and pigtail. Confirm there was some amount of
slack left for thermal expansion; note in the pull report.
 Closely inspect the splice from the lower pigtail to ESP
cable. Examine the splice for signs of excessive heat,
mechanical damage, etc.
 Inspect the ESP cable for mechanical damage while pulling the
ESP.
 If the location of the splices are known, or become visible
(typically, splice locations are easily identifiable),
closely inspect the splice for any signs of damage or
potential failure.
 Items to note as the ESP is pulled:
o Is the cable “out-gassing”?
o Loss of bands or cable clamps.
o Excessive swelling of the cable.
o The condition of the cable armor
 Heavily corroded?
 Is the armor broken?
 Is the armor parted from longitude type stress?
 When the cable has been disconnected from the motor, complete
a megger test and note results on the pull report.
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4.2.2 Check-Valve & Tubing Drain Valve

If a check-valve and tubing drain valve were installed;
note the distance from the pump to the valves on the pull
report. Indicate the type of check & drain valves that were
installed. Take digital photographs of the valves, if
warranted.
Items to evaluate.
 Did the tubing pull wet?
 Was the check valve plugged or fully operational?
 Retrieve any debris samples from the top of the check valve
and/or drain valve, if present.
 Quarantine the valves for future examination.
4.2.3 Pump(s)/Discharge Head
Key items to observe during the disassembly of the
pump(s) (take photographs of any unusual items):
Debris in the head/intake of the pump? If debris is present –
collect samples, place in a plastic bag and label.
Debris between pump sections (if more than one pump section
was installed).
Discoloration of the pump housing(s)?
Shaft(s) rotation observations
o Check shaft rotation from top end of the top pump before
disassembling.
o Check shaft rotation of each pump section from the bottom
end as each pump section is removed (with pump in a
horizontal position).
o Check shaft side play (radial stability) at each end of
each pump section.
o Does the shaft rotate freely?
Does the pump or pump trim show demonstrate evidence of
corrosion? (Trim is defined as the nuts, bolts washers,
etc.).
If the equipment was flame spray coated for corrosion
protection, is the coating showing signs of degradation or
damage from installation/pulling?
If the pump(s) were shimmed with loose shims in the
couplings (some compression type pumps), place the shims in
a plastic bag and label appropriately. DO NOT tamper with
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Chapter 10
shaft extension screws or captive shims. Note on pull

report.
Was the o‟ring heat set? Insure that the o‟ring remains with
the discharge head for future examination.
Place new or cleaned shipping caps on the pump(s). Use new
o‟rings or gaskets as needed.
4.2.4 Intake/Gas Separator
Key items to observe during the disassembly of the intake
or gas separator:
Check for excessive side play at both ends of the shaft.
Is the shaft setting height correct?
Did the shaft fall out of the intake?
Were the intake ports plugged? If so, take a sample of the
debris.
Did the intake have a screen? If so, observe the condition
of the screen. Was it collapsed? Was debris plugged into the
screen? If so, take a sample and place in a plastic bag,
identifying appropriately.
Was the o‟ring heat set? Insure that the o‟ring remains with
the intake/gas separator for future examination.
4.2.5 Protector(s)/Seal(s)
It is critical that the shaft seals be checked prior to
disassembly of the protector/seal to motor interface.
Using the pressure checking equipment as required for the
type of equipment being utilized – check to confirm if any
pressure is contained between the protector (seal)/motor
interface point. Pressure checking equipment consists of the
proper tool to connect to a drain/fill location at or near
the head of the motor/seal interface. The check shall be
read on a pressure gauge (0-50 psi).
If a seal is found to be leaking, capture the leak with a
photograph.
Capture fluid samples while disassembling the protector/seal
from the motor. Observe for well fluid contamination and
note on the pull report.
Captured well fluid samples shall be returned to the
vendor‟s service center for further examination during the
equipment teardown.
When disconnected from the intake, observe if there is any
material in the head of the protector/seal.
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Chapter 10
Check the shaft for radial stability.

Note:
Drain all labyrinth chambers prior to laying down the
seal/protector. Consult with the manufacturer‟s field service
technician.
Place new or cleaned steel shipping caps on the protector/seal
and place in a shipping box or on a proper supporting surface
on a trailer.
4.2.6 Motor(s)
Key items to observe during the disassembly of the
motor(s) (take photographs of any unusual items):
NOTE: Do NOT disconnect the pothead from the motor. If at all
possible, cut the MLE at least 3 feet (~1 meter) above the
pothead or above the upper most thrust bearing in the
protector/seal. This will allow examination of the cable
condition where it passes by the thrust bearing in the
protector/seal.
Discoloration of the motor housing(s)?
Electrical readings of the motor.
Attempt to “smell” the motor oil and note if the oil has a
“burnt” smell.
Capture fluid samples from the motor head & base as well as
any connection points (if tandem motors). Observe for well
fluid contamination and note on the pull report.
Captured well fluid samples shall be returned to the
vendor‟s service center for further examination during the
equipment teardown.
If tandem motors; observe the connection point between the
motors. Make note of any unusual events such as bent
connection points, cracked insulators, etc.
If a sensor/gauge was installed, give particular attention
to the connection and observe for any signs of leaks or
mechanical damage. DO NOT disconnect the gauge from the base
of the motor. The motor should be returned with the gauge
still connected.
Observe rotation of the shafts and make note on the pull
report how the shaft turns.
Place new, or cleaned, shipping caps on the motor(s) (only
steel shipping-caps to be used on motors; plastic shipping-
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Chapter 10
caps are not acceptable). Place the motor in a shipping box or

on a proper supporting surface on a trailer.
4.2.7. Downhole Monitoring Devices (Sensors)
DO NOT disconnect the gauge from the motor if at all
possible. If the gauge must be disconnected at the well site,
proceed with the following steps. Key items to observe during
the disassembly of the gauge from the motor (take photographs
of any unusual items):
Note any impact loading on the bottom of the gauge.
Observe the connection point when disassembled from the
motor.
Observe for well fluid contamination.
Place new or cleaned shipping caps on the device. Use new
gaskets or o‟rings as needed.
5.0 Dismantle, Inspection & Failure Analysis (DIFA)

5.1. Preparation
The dismantling of the ESP shall be conducted in a
controlled environment where extensive observations can be
completed. It may not be necessary to dismantle all pieces of
the ESP. Each component shall be evaluated for bench testing
prior to commencing the dismantling of the respective
component. Customer shall determine if a component shall, or
shall not, be dismantled based upon test data and data
supplied by the manufacturer. Customer shall have the right to
approve/disapprove the evaluation process of any samples,
inclusive of the evaluation company (laboratory, etc.). Prior
to commencing dismantle operations, identification cards shall
be prepared. These cards shall contain the following
information for each component and should be visible in any
photographs taken of the component:
Well Identification
Component Identification
Serial Number
Date of dismantle
In addition to the standard tooling to disassemble the ESP,
the following tools/items shall be available:
Original sizing data (hard copy to be present at dismantle
if available)
Pull & Run Report.
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Chapter 10
Field service reports (if any) during the period of

operation.
Operational data captured immediately upon failure of the
ESP (inclusive of all relevant well file information)
Any/all samples taken during the pull of the ESP
Magnifying glass with high intensity lamp.
Calipers to measure bearings/bushings/pump stages, etc.
Long jaw calipers
Shore “A” hardness tester
Drop gauge
Hole Mics
Metal ruler and tape measure
Magnet
Multiple flashlights with high intensity beams
12 each, 1 pint, plastic sample bottles.
24 each, 1 quart, plastic bags (zip-lock type).
36 each 3” x 6” cards (blue or white preferred) to be used
as identification markers in photographs.
Permanent markers.
Dry air source or nitrogen (avoid using compressed air that
is not properly dried).
Round plastic containers for storing items such as shaft
seals, etc.
Digital Camera.
5.2 Cable
In many cases, the cable is examined and tested separately
from the ESP equipment dismantle. Customer shall reserve the
right to witness any testing and repair that may be done to
the cable.
5.3 Pump(s)
The following provides the minimum requirements for
dismantling the pump section(s) of an ESP. Required reference
documents, or information from vendor:
 Stage compression details
 All major wear surfaces dimensions and tolerances as follows:
11
Chapter 10
Balance Ring
Vane
Ring Groove
Mixed flow impeller

12
Chapter 10
Radial flow impeller

 Skirt
 Bore
 Hubs
 Sleeves
 Bushings
Shaft settings
Pump Test Report (new)
Prior to disassembling the pump section, the shaft shall be
checked for rotation. If the shaft rotates, customer shall
determine if the pump shall be placed on a pump test bench and
tested prior to dismantle. If possible, flush the pump prior
to testing and collect any samples that may be flushed from
the pump. Also, prior to disassembly, ask that a new pump
stage be provided for comparison purposes. The new stage will
allow a visual comparison in key areas of the pump stage.
Pump Dismantle
Verify the pump serial number on the nameplate.
Inspect the condition of the pump housing
o Check for scale buildup, collect samples if present.
o Inspect the housing for corrosion and/or holes in the
housing. If holes are present, note the location relative
to the bottom end of the pump.
o Check for mechanical damage (dents, vibration from the
cable, scratching and bends).
o Visually inspect the housing for straightness (flop test).
o If the pump(s) have a flame spray corrosion coating,
visually inspect the coating and note any areas where the
coating is not intact.
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Chapter 10
o Check for any signs of heat that would result from spinning
diffusers.
Shaft Settings & Inspection
o Check the shaft for ease of rotation (typical nomenclature
is: free, rough, hard or stuck).
o Confirm the shaft is rotating at the opposite end of the
pump.
o Take the appropriate head and base measurement for the
shaft settings. Compare these to the manufacturer‟s factory
settings.
o Push the shaft to the down position and take measurements;
repeat in the up position. This will determine the shaft’s
axial movement. Compare to the manufacturer‟s factory
settings.
o If applicable attach a dial indicator on the inside of the
shaft spline, or on a coupling, to measure run-out when the
shaft is rotated. Repeat this procedure on either-end of
the pump. Compare to the manufacturer‟s factory settings.
Head & Base Inspection
o Remove the head and inspect the bushing for wear, plugging,
corrosion, erosion. Inspect the condition of the threads on
the head.
o If the pump has a threaded bearing support, measure the
distance from the end of the housing to the top of the
bearing support to determine the gap between the head and
support.
o Inspect the bearing support for wear with particular
attention to corrosion and erosion.
o If it is a compression type pump remove the compression per
the manufacturer‟s instructions. Thereafter, remove the
base and complete a similar inspection as was conducted on
the pump head.
o Pull/push the impeller and diffuser stack from the housing.
Note: insure that the snap rings and 2-piece rings are in
place (consult with the manufacturer for each pump‟s
specific design).
o Note on the dismantle report if the impeller and diffuser
stack are difficult to pull from the housing.
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Chapter 10
O-rings
o Check all o-rings for damage such as extrusion, feathering,
explosive decompression, compression set, etc. Observe for
any signs of leak past the o-ring.
o Give particular attention to any o-rings on the OD of the
diffuser. Observe the o-ring for swelling and hardness (due
to heat, etc).
Impeller & Diffuser, Bearing Sections Inspection
o Wipe off the OD of the diffuser stack and number the stages
from bottom (stage #1) to top (stage #X).
o Remove the stages and shaft from the housing. Slide all
stages off the shaft with sleeves and spacers.
o Note any diffusers that show signs of spinning on the
exterior.
o Inspect the o-rings that are in the pump stages (diffuser
OD).
o Inspect all impellers for any signs of thrust, abrasive
wear and/or radial wear. Give particular attention to the
pads, bores and hubs. Check for one-sided wear.
o Observe all components for discoloration that would
indicate wellbore fluid damage or possible heat damage.
o Randomly remove some of the thrust washers and check for
thickness and brittleness. Note the type of thrust washers
and compare with a new thrust washer. Confirm the same type
of thrust washers were used throughout the pump.
o If any foreign material is found in the pump, collect a
sample for further analysis and testing. Label on the
collection bag the location of the material.
o With the pump components laid out from base to head, take
key measurements in the top five stages, middle five stages
and bottom five stages. All wear surfaces should be
measured (e.g. skirts, bores, hubs, sleeves, bushings
etc.). This information will be used later to plot a trend
analysis. Note, the manufacturer‟s dimensions and
tolerances of all components will be required. The
manufacturer should supply this information in advance or
at the time of the dismantle.
o Inspect the bushings and sleeves between the stages for
wear, cracks or abrasive indications. Note the material
type of the bushings and sleeves and the spacing of any
abrasion resistant (AR) bearings.
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Chapter 10
o Note and record the spacing of any/all stage bearings.

Shaft Inspection
o Visually inspect the shaft spline on both ends. Observe the
splines for straightness and coupling engagement. If a
coupling is only partially engaged damage may be noted at
the upper end of the spline. Refer to the manufacturer‟s
guidelines for checking shaft straightness.
o Place the shaft on a bench with the keyway facing up.
Observe the shaft for straightness or twisting.
o If the shaft utilizes shim nuts – remove and measure with a
caliper.
o Inspect the shaft surface of any obvious issues such as
pitting, galling, erosion beneath the shaft sleeves, one-
sided wear, etc.
5.4 Intakes/Gas Separators
The intake/gas separator and discharge head should be
dismantled in conjunction with the pump.
Required reference documents, or information from vendor:
Head/base bushing dimensions & tolerances
Visual Inspection
o Inspect the O.D. of the housing for corrosion, pitting,
burns, mechanical damage, scale, holes, etc.
o A note should be made if the O.D. has a corrosion resistant
coating, and whether or not the gas separator has shipping
caps.
o After the respective internal parts are removed, the
condition of the I.D. as well as internal parts should be
examined noting any erosion, corrosion, or other
abnormalities.
Bearings and Bushings
o Inspect all bearings, bushings and sleeves noting wear
(one-sided or concentric), presence of foreign materials
and general condition. Collect samples of any foreign
materials.
Shaft
o Turn the shaft and note whether it turns free, hard, rough
or stuck. Note condition of shaft and splines, including
wear or twisting, corrosion or other mechanical damage.
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Chapter 10
Intake Screen
o Observe condition of intake screen, noting presence of
foreign materials or screen collapse. Note if an intake
screen was not present. If the intake screen is not present
– was it noted on the installation report?
5.5. Protector(s)/Seal(s)
dismantling the protector/seal section(s) of an ESP. Required
reference documents, or information from vendor:
Manufacturer‟s specific dismantle procedure for the
appropriate protector/seal to be dismantled.
Shaft settings & dimensions, tolerances
Head & base bushing dimensions and tolerances
Specification for bag material hardness (Shore “A”)
Seal Test Report (new)
Reference vendor documents for testing bag type and labyrinth
protectors/seals.
Standard for testing dielectric breakdown of insulating
liquids. (Reference ASTM D-877-Standard Test Methods for
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage for Insulation Liquids using
disk electrodes).
Protector/Seal Dismantle (while is it necessary to follow the
dismantle guidelines of the specific manufacturer, it is
imperative that the following items be inspected, at a
minimum. Compare the two documents to insure that all of the
following steps are met.)
Verify the protector/seal serial number on the nameplate.
Inspect the condition of the protector/seal housing
o Check for scale buildup, collect samples if present.
housing.
o Check for mechanical damage (dents, vibration from the
cable, scratching and bends).
o Visually inspect the housing for straightness.
o If the protector/seal has a flame spray corrosion coating,
visually inspect the coating and note any areas where the
coating is not intact.
o Inspect the vent holes for plugging or debris.
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Chapter 10
o Visually inspect the drain and fill valve locations for any
extruded lead gaskets.
Coupling(s)
o Inspect the coupling closely with a flashlight.
o Look for any stress damage in the splines.
o If debris is found, collect a sample.
Perform a housing leak test at the various vent ports (this
will be manufacturer specific; refer to the appropriate
manufacturer for the exact locations and pressure sequence).
The goal of this step is to test each housing connection
point to verify integrity. Use soapy water to inspect for
leaks. Give particular attention to lock plates and/or joint
welds (if utilized).
Cut lock plates/joint welds if required.
Disassembly of the protector/seal (Note: it is imperative to
refer to the specific manufacturer guidelines for
protector/seal disassembly. Each protector/seal type will
vary depending on the manufacturer and type of protector/seal
utilized.)
o Check the shaft for ease of rotation (typical nomenclature
is: free, rough, hard or stuck).
protector/seal.
o Push the shaft to the down position and take measurements;
repeat in the up position. This will determine the shaft‟s
axial movement. Compare to the manufacturer‟s factory
settings.
o Attach a dial indicator on the inside of the shaft spline,
or on a coupling, to measure run-out when the shaft is
rotated. Repeat this procedure on either-end of the unit.
Compare to the manufacturer‟s factory settings.
o The protector/seal is to be positioned at a minimum 45
degree angle to insure the mechanical seal is covered with
oil.
o Starting at the head of the protector/seal, apply 5 psi of
air pressure through the appropriate vent hole and rotate
the shaft in both directions. If no bubbles are observed,
the mechanical seal is good. Air pressure is to be applied
for minimum of (2) minutes
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Chapter 10
o Before checking. If the mechanical seal leaks, replace the

shipping cap and repeat the test, soaping the joints to
observe for leaks.
o Continue disassembling the protector/seal from the head
down. Repeat the process of checking each mechanical seal
as it is reached. Each time, insure the protector/seal is
at, or near, a 45 degree angle prior to checking the
mechanical seal.
o As valves are removed from the protector/seal, inspect the
integrity of the lead gaskets. Give attention to any areas
where the lead gasket was not properly deformed
(compressed) for a possible leak path or where the lead
gasket may have been fully extruded due to being over-
tightened. Note findings on the report.
any signs of leak past the o-ring.
Inspection of Mechanical (Shaft) Seals
o Remove the snap ring that holds the mechanical seal and
slide the mechanical seal from the shaft.
o Remove and inspect the runner surface.
o Inspect the mechanical seal bellows, spring, runner and
seat for wear, scoring, chipping or broken face. Check the
elastomer for pliability ‫مرونة‬, stiffness, hardness. Parts
should be labeled and sealed for further inspection at a
later date, if required.
Inspection of Chambers & Bags
o Inspect each chamber for corrosion, condition of threads
contamination, etc. Fluid samples shall be taken from each
chamber and identified appropriately for future examination
if appropriate.
o Inspect each bag, bag clamps and general condition. Note
the amount and type of fluid in the bag and on the outside
of the bag. Obtain samples in all sections. Insure samples
are labeled as collected from the different chambers,
inside the bags, etc.
o Inspect the external condition of any/all bags. Give
particular attention to the area of the bag clamps and
along the seam of the bag.
o Where applicable, remove the bag frame assembly (once
again, refer to the specific manufacturer guidelines and
procedures). After sealing the bag frame, inflate with air
19
Chapter 10
and submerse the bag frame into water and look for air
bubbles.
o Locate the markings on the bag and identify the material
(the manufacturer may utilize a specific code). Check the
bag for splits, bubbles, evidence of decompression, etc.
o Where applicable, remove the bag from the guide/frame and
inspect for well fluid or other foreign material. If any
foreign material is found, collect a sample for further
evaluation. Once again, collect fluid samples from inside
the bag and identify appropriately. Additionally, collect a
sample of the bag material and place in a plastic bag for
possible future laboratory examination.
Thrust Bearing Inspection
o Remove the thrust bearing from the thrust chamber per the
manufacturer‟s recommended procedure.
o Inspect the base bushing for any wear such as scoring, one-
side wear or galling.
o Inspect the thrust bearings and both sides of the runner
for any signs of operating in water, up thrust, down
thrust, uneven wear, deflected thrust runner, scoring,
excessive heat, fretting, etc.
o Fretting (or fretting corrosion) - The ASM Handbook on
Fatigue and Fracture defines fretting as: "A special wear
process that occurs at the contact area between two
materials under load and subject to minute relative motion
by vibration or some other force."
Head & Base Bushing & Shaft Inspection
o For the head and base locations, examine for bushing wear,
scoring, leak tracks, o‟ring groove condition and
internal/external corrosion.
o Examine the shaft at the bushing and seal surfaces and note
any unusual wear (e.g. one-sided), scoring, etc.
o Visually inspect the shaft spline on both ends. Observe the
splines for straightness and coupling engagement. If a
coupling is only partially engaged damage may be noted with
damage at the upper end of the spline.
o Observe the shaft for any “frosting” that may occur.
“Frosting” is defined as the transfer of base bushing
material on to the motor shaft.
o Place the shaft on a bench and observe the shaft for
straightness or twisting.
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Chapter 10
o If the shaft utilizes shim nuts – remove and measure with a

caliper.
o Inspect the shaft surface of any obvious issues such as
pitting, galling, one-sided wear, etc.
5.6. Motor(s) (Includes the MLE & Pothead)
dismantling the motor(s) section of an ESP.
Required reference documents, or information from vendor:
Shaft settings
Shaft settings & dimensions, tolerances
Head & base bushing dimensions and tolerances
Rotor, rotor bearing dimensions, tolerances
Any other relevant dimensions as required by the specific
manufacturer
Motor Test Report (new) (include the vibration data if
available)
Motor pit test (if applicable).
Motor Winding Information (to include details regarding
magnet wire splicing during original manufacture).
Standard for testing dielectric breakdown of insulating
liquids. (Reference ASTM D-877-Standard Test Methods for
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage for Insulation Liquids using
disk electrodes).
Review the electrical readings from the pull report and
reconfirm. Complete an electrical check on the motor prior to
removing the MLE connection at the pothead if possible. At a
minimum, the motor should be:
► Megger test
► Resistance readings taken
► KV (dielectric) test on an oil sample taken from the base of
the motor
Refer the specific manufacturer for minimum acceptable
readings. Prior to removing the MLE/Pothead or removing a
gauge (if attached)
► Perform a pressure test on the motor housing. Connect an air
hose (be sure to use either a dry air source or nitrogen) to
the drain/fill valve and apply 10 psi. Hold for a minimum of
1 minute, monitoring to confirm the motor holds pressure. If
the pressure drops below 10 psi, spray soapy water at the
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Chapter 10
pothead, head/base joints to ascertain the location of the

leak.
If the motor passes the initial electrical inspection, the
motor should be tested per the manufacturer‟s recommended
guidelines. If a recommended guideline does not exist, the
motor can be raised to a vertical position and flushed with
appropriate new motor oil. Use a new piece of filter paper to
drain the oil from the motor to collect any solids that may be
present. Refill the motor with new motor oil and repeat the
process, using a second piece of filter paper. After the
second refill, place the motor on the motor test bench and
complete a full slant idle motor test. The motor vibration
should be recorded during the slant idle test. Compare the
vibration data to the original motor test data. Any solids
removed from the motor should be evaluated as to their origin
(i.e. brass shavings, sludge, etc.). If the motor passes the
slant idle motor test, prepare to hi-pot the motor. If the
motor fails the slant idle motor test, proceed to dismantle.
Complete a final KV (dielectric) test on an oil sample taken
from the base of the motor.
Motor Dismantle
Verify the motor(s) serial number on the nameplate.
Inspect the condition of the motor(s) housing o Check for
scale buildup, collect samples if present.
housing.
o Check for mechanical and electrical damage.
o Visually inspect the housing for straightness.
o If the motor has a flame spray corrosion coating, visually
inspect the coating and note any areas where the coating is
not intact.
Remove Shipping Caps
o Inspect the shipping caps for any signs of debris, solids
or water since being pulled from the well.
Remove the remaining MLE & Pothead
o Inspect and test the pothead for any signs of possible
damage such as:
► Look for signs of heat
► Confirm the age of the MLE/Pothead – was it reused?
► O‟ring damage
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Chapter 10
► Surface damage to the sealing areas

► Elastomer integrity
► Check the pothole for evidence of fluid tracking.
o If a sample was collected and tested during the slant idle
test, the following “3” steps are not required.
► Drain the motor oil from the motor; collect a sample for
dielectric testing. This sample should be compared to the
sample collected when pulling the equipment from the well.
► Check the condition of the motor oil and note on the
report (standard nomenclature is: clear, dark, emulsified,
metal/brass shavings).
► After completing the dielectric test on the motor oil,
observe the motor oil for well fluid by letting it set for
a period of time to ascertain if anything settles out on
bottom, or top, of the motor oil.
o Complete an electrical check of the motor without the
pothead connected.
o If tandem motors, complete individual electrical tests of
each motor.
Shaft Settings & Inspection o Check the shaft for ease of
rotation (typical nomenclature is: free, rough, hard or
stuck). Rotate the shaft by using a motor coupling and an
insert tool to turn the shaft.
motor.
o Measure the shaft axial/lateral movement. Compare to the
manufacturer‟s factory settings.
o Use a dial indicator to check run-out at the head and base
of the shaft. Compare to the manufacturer‟s factory
settings.
Thrust Bearing & Runner
o Remove the thrust bearing and runner, inspect same.
o Check the condition of the runner face and surface.
o Check the thrust bearing for scoring, smearing,‫ملوث‬
galling.
Remove the Motor Head & Rotor String
o After removing the motor head, inspect the head bushing for
any abnormal wear. Check the o‟ring sealing area for any
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Chapter 10
signs of damage and a resulting leak path. Typically, leak

paths will have be manifested in a discolored area.
o Check the threads on the motor head for any signs of
galling.
o Check the lead cables for physical or electrical damage.
o Check the condition of the end coils for obvious and
visible signs of a burn.
o If the stator is grounded, look for carbon trails, copper
balls to lead to the location of a burn.
o If necessary, insert a scope into the stator and inspect.
o Check all o‟rings for damage such as extrusion, feathering,
any signs of leaks past the o-ring.
o If the rotor string was difficult to remove, check for any
areas where heat may have affected the string resulting in
warping. Check for straightness.
o Inspect each rotor for discoloration and rotor strike.
Typically, the rotors will be gray in color with copper
colored end rings.
o Note any discoloration of the copper. Give particular
attention if the copper appears black as this is an
indication of H2S.
o Inspect the rotor bearings for spinning (if non-locking
type rotor bearings). If the manufacturer used a locking
rotor bearing – inspect/confirm the rotor bearing locked
correctly. This may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
o After removal of the rotor string, inspect the slot liner
to determine if it is in its proper position. Determine if
it has “shrunk” into the slots.
Perform Electrical Check on the Stator
o Check the stator for phase to phase balance. If the motor
section is an upper tandem or center tandem motor, it will
be necessary to connect the phases together at the base of
the motor. The sequence for checking the stator should be:
A-B; B-C, C-A. Under normal conditions, the stator should
be balanced phase to phase within 5%. Refer to the
appropriate manufacturer‟s guidelines. Compare the readings
to the original readings taken at time of manufacture or
the most recent available readings (e.g. readings taken
prior to installation).
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Chapter 10
o After checking the stator phase to phase, remove the jumper

at the base of the motor and check for resistance to
ground. Use a minimum of a 1000 VDC megger (a 5000 VDC
megger is preferred if available). Typically, the reading
on each phase should read 2000+ meg ohms. Be sure to
discharge the phase after testing to ground.
o Note: if the stator tests grounded and the burn is not
easily visible, destructive testing may be required.
Destructive testing requires the stator to be cut in
sections to expose suspected areas of a possible failure.
Rotor, Thrust Washer, Rotor Bearing & Sleeve Removal
o Check the condition of the thrust washers. If the thrust
washers have been exposed to excessive heat they will be
brittle. Also inspect the thrust washers for abnormal wear.
o Inspect the rotors for wear, any signs of possible rotor
strike against the stator and any residue buildup on the
OD/ID of the surfaces.
o Dimensionally check the rotors and rotor bearings.
o Inspect the rotor bearings for any signs of spinning
(assumes a non-locking rotor bearing).
o Inspect locking rotor bearings for engagement.
o Inspect all components for discoloration due to heat or
exposure to well fluid.
Base Inspection
any signs of leaks past the o-ring.
o Check the base bushing for abnormal wear, grooving or one
sided wear.
o Check all connection points for arcing or burns.
o Check the end coils for burns.
Final Shaft Inspection (after removal of rotors)
o Inspect the shaft for signs of heat or any abnormal wear.
o Check the head and base bushing areas for polishing,
scoring or excessive wear.
o Check the sleeve surfaces for discoloration, wear and
scoring.
o Inspect the oil holes for plugging.
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Chapter 10
5.7 Downhole Monitoring Devices (Sensors)

If a downhole monitoring (i.e. sensor, gauge, etc.) is
installed conduct an evaluation of the component.
o Complete an inspection of the housing for corrosion,
erosion and mechanical damage.
o Follow the manufacturer‟s guidelines and complete an
electrical/electronic integrity test.
o Inspect the connection point between the motor and the
monitoring device. Note any unusual damage.
o For a motor oil sensor, document the length of the lead to
the thermocouple.
6.0 Root Cause Analysis (RCA) & “The Why Analysis”
The purpose of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is to enable an
investigation (in this case – failure analysis) to produce
sufficient learning to prevent recurrence, or to have an
excellent chance of preventing recurrence, of whatever
undesired event or issue is being investigated. In order to
have sufficient learning, a Root Cause Analysis shall identify
the physical, human and latent cause(s), of the undesired
event or issue. If we do not identify and correct the
physical, human and latent cause(s), the undesired event or
issue may repeat if the same cause triggers similar undesired
events or issues in the same or other equipment, systems,
processes, etc.
There are generally two types of application of root cause
analysis: a) significant sporadic events, or b) significant
chronic issues.
Sporadic:‫ متقطع‬Significant sporadic events are low-frequency,
high impact events that are typically very visible and
severe.
Chronic:‫ مزمن‬Chronic issues are typically high-frequency, low
impact (per occurrence) issues that may not be very visible,
but over time, usually exceed the cost of sporadic events
when the multiple impacts are accumulated. A focus on chronic
issues will typically have the most impact.
o What is deemed to be “chronic” can be relative. For
example, suppose an offshore platform shuts in twice within
a six-month period of time for the same reason, resulting
each time in a significant loss of production. That could
be considered chronic even though it is neither “high
frequency” nor “low impact” per occurrence.
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Evidence Gathering
o While this recommended practice is concerned primarily with
analysis of evidence, it should be understood that evidence
gathering itself, is an essential part of a quality
investigation. The people who gather evidence must
understand what evidence should be gathered and how to
gather that evidence. They must be able to interpret the
information, and they must have the ability to accurately
convey that information. Anyone designated to gather
evidence should have received proper training or be under
the direct supervision of someone who has been so trained.
Root Cause Analysis Determination
o As stated earlier in this section, a Root Cause Analysis
shall identify the physical, human and latent cause(s), of
the undesired event or issue. If the physical, human and
latent cause(s) are not identified and corrected, then the
undesired event or issue may repeat if the same cause
triggers similar undesired events or issues in the same or
other equipment, systems, processes, etc.
o Undesired events begin with a physical cause. For example,
the shaft broke (undesired event) because it failed in
fatigue as a result of rotating bending stresses (physical
cause). This is where many investigations stop. The root
cause analysis shall not stop at this point. Identification
of the true physical cause is not a mere formality - it is
critical that the physical cause is accurately determined.
Going further to identify human and latent causes for an
incorrectly identified physical cause will not necessarily
prevent recurrence.
o People do things, or don‟t do things, that enable or
trigger physical causes, and these are the human causes;
for example, the mechanic misaligned the motor and the
pump. In the case of human error, there are only two
categories: 1) knew, but didn‟t do, or 2) didn‟t know, and
therefore couldn‟t do.
The Why Analysis
o The “Why Analysis” is conducted by repeatedly asking the
question "Why". Using this technique you can peel away the
layers of symptoms which can lead to the root cause of a
problem. Very often the apparent reason for a problem will
lead you to another question. To complete the why analysis
ask “Why?” the immediate cause occurred and write that
answer down. If the answer doesn't identify the root cause
of the problem, ask “Why?” again and write that answer
27
Chapter 10
down. Continue this process until a root cause is

identified. Writing the answers to the why question allows
you to start documenting the sequence of events that lead
up to the incident. Use the criteria below to identify when
a root cause is found.
Benefits of using the Why Analysis
o A very simple tool to use
o Helps to identify the real root cause(s) of the incident
o Determines the relationship between different root causes
of a problem by establishing the sequence of events
o Allows creation of solutions that remove the underlying
root causes
o Not only identifies causes and solutions to eliminate the
reoccurrence of the immediate event, but eliminates the
occurrence of similar events that could occur if the root
cause(s) are not removed.
7.0 DIFA Report Format
The format shall be consistent for all reports. The
reports shall have a designated numbering format, preferably
sequentially numbered. The report shall contain a header and
footer that contain consistent information throughout the
report. The header shall contain:
o Company Name
o Title
o Reference Report number
o Well Name
The footer shall contain:
o Issue/revision number
o Page “x of y” numbering format.
The completed DIFA Report shall be submitted to the local
customer Engineering Manager/Supervisor/Engineer, as
designated by the local business unit. The local business unit
shall submit a report to the Artificial Lift team leader.
Electronic copies are acceptable.
7.1 Cover
The cover shall reference a specific DIFA report number;
identify the appropriate business unit and well name/number.
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7.2 Table of Contents

The table of contents shall detail each major area in the
report and an associated page number.
7.3 Distribution List
The distribution list page shall identify all parties that
the report is distributed to (inclusive of Customer personnel
as well vendor personnel). This page shall also identify the
person that conducted the dismantle inspection as well as the
person(s) which wrote the report.
7.4 Well Information
This page shall be considered the executive summary. This
section shall contain the following information:
o Business Unit Identification
o Well Identification
o Run Date
o Failure Date
o Pull Date
o Run Life (in days)
o Reason for Pull
o Dismantle Date
o Report Date
The written portion of this page shall state the following,
under individual headings:
o Objective – a short description of the objective of the
DIFA.
o Well History – a brief overview of major incidents in the
life of the well from the run date to pull date. All
unusual events should be highlighted in this paragraph.
o Pull Report – a brief description of observations during
the pulling of the unit.
o Summary – a short paragraph detailing the failure and
evaluated cause of failure.
7.5 Trend Analysis
This section should contain graphs/charts from available
well monitoring packages such as LOWIS, SCADA or Well view.
Customer shall make this information available to the vendor‟s
application engineer.
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7.6 Electric Submersible Pump Identification Information

This section shall give complete descriptions of the
failed ESP in a table format. The table shall consist of
Equipment Description, Serial Number and Part Number.
7.7 Dismantle Inspection Findings
This section consists of multiple pages. The order of this
section shall be from top to bottom on the ESP (i.e. pump,
intake, seal/equalizer/protector, and motor). Each component
section shall contain the following:
o Header section identifying the component and it‟s proper
description; serial number; part number
o Exterior Inspection
o Head/Base Condition
o Shaft Condition
o Component(s) Condition with extensive descriptions
o Summary of finding for the specific component
7.8 Summary of Results & Statement of Root Cause
This section shall contain 3-6 paragraphs summarizing the
findings of the DIFA. The statement of the root cause of
failure shall be made in this section.
7.9 Recommendations
This section shall contain 1-4 paragraphs recommending
future changes or highlighting key areas to monitor.
7.10 Photograph Gallery
This section shall consist of multiple pages of important
photographs that contribute to the issues discovered in the
DIFA. The page shall have 2 photographs per page, maximum. The
photographs shall be of consistent size and shall have
sufficient quality to identify the item being described. A
detailed description of the photograph shall be at the bottom
of each photograph or at the bottom of the page if a single
description is sufficient for both photographs. Where
applicable, the photograph shall utilize embedded arrows and
descriptions. Finally, as appropriate, a rectangular
description card should be included in the photograph that
identifies the well, item and serial number
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Chapter 10
Pump Photographs
Coating flaking
Pump Housing Coating Flake (flame spray type coating)
Drag Marks
Drag Marks on Pump Housing
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Chapter 10
Cut o’ring & brittle
Cut O‟ring on Pump Head (Note: the o‟ring appears to be

brittle as well)
Scoring
Scored Bushing in Pump Base
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Chapter 10
Severe Bushing Wear
Tubing fallback deposits
Pump Head – likely deposits from tubing “trash”
33
Chapter 10
Spinning Diffusers; note

marks on diffuser OD
Spinning Diffuses
Typical One-Sided Pump Shaft Wear
34
Chapter 10
Twisted Pump Shaft at Spline
Twisted Shaft Along Keyway
35
Chapter 10
Scale in Pump Stage
Cracked Impeller Hub – Crack Along Keyway
36
Chapter 10
Eccentric destroy Impeller hub
Impeller hub completely destroyed
37
Chapter 10
Destroy in diffuser hub
Severe Downthrust Wear versus New Impeller
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Chapter 10
Impeller with Whipping
Upthrust on Impeller
Light Upthrust Wear on Impeller
39
Chapter 10
Heavy Upthrust Wear on Impeller
Broken Hub
Heavy Upthrust Wear with Broken Hub
40
Chapter 10
Medium Wear Area
Diffuser Bore with Medium Wear
Medium Wear Area
One Sided Radial Wear
41
Chapter 10
Severe downthrust
Severe upthrust
42
Chapter 10
Plugging with scale

BOI & GS Photographs
Collapsed Intake Screen
43
Chapter 10
Severe Erosion
Severe Intake Erosion
Plugged Gas Separator from Asphaltines
44
Chapter 10
Broken Inducer
Damaged Gas Separator Inducer
Erosion in BOI exit ports
45
Chapter 10
Erosion in GS against axial impeller
Severe erosion in GS against axial impeller
46
Chapter 10
Erosion in BOI inlet ports
Hole in GS (Corrosion)
47
Chapter 10
Scoring in zirconium bearing

Protector/Seal Photographs
Corrosion in the Lockplate Area
48
Chapter 10
MLE vibration marks on the seal/protector housing
Water in a Seal/Protector
Water in the Chamber of a Seal/Protector
49
Chapter 10
Scale Deposits on Mechanical Seal
Damage to elastomer of seal

due to heat
Damage to Seal Bellows Due to Heat
50
Chapter 10
Severe Corrosion on the Seal/Protector Tube
Severe Deposits on the Exterior of the Seal/Protector Bag (All

Deposits Should be Collected and Examined by a Laboratory)
51
Chapter 10
Bubbles in the bag can be

caused be defects, chemicals,
heat, etc.
Bubbles in the Seal/Protector Bag
Damage to a Seal/Protector Bag
52
Chapter 10
Damage to a bag from the

application of a clamp
Damage to a Seal/Protector Bag at the Clamp Area
New thrust bearing (Solid shoe)
53
Chapter 10
New Thrust runner
New thrust bearing (high load 9 pads)
54
Chapter 10
New Thrust runner (High Load)
Sever thrust load
55
Chapter 10
Heavy Smearing of Standard Thrust Bearing
Heavy down thrust damage

– note the pad stuck to the
runner
Severe Damage to Thrust Bearing due to Down Thrust
56
Chapter 10
Note the damage on the

shaft where the bushing is
located
Damage to Seal/Protector Shaft at the Bushing Surface
Broken Seal/Protector Shaft (Note: never try to put the ends

of the shaft back together. The ends should be examined under
a microscope.)
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Chapter 10
Frontal View of Broken Shaft
Shaft Break – often a shaft break will occur at, or near, the
spline area of the shaft as this is the weakest area.
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Chapter 10
Motor Photographs
Inspect o’ring area for

damage
Motor Pothead Hole
Burn on motor head
Motor Head Burn (Flat Cable Area)
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Chapter 10
Failed Pothead at MLE/Pothead Interface
Blowout of Pothead
Massive Pothead Burn
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Chapter 10
Rotor subjected to light heating effect
Rotor subjected to medium to high heating effect
Rotor subjected to high heating effect
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Dielectric oil contaminated

with well fluid
Failure in protector(s)/seal(s)
Rotor Strike
Rotor Strike
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Rotor Strike Area of

“Sectioned” Motor
Rotor Strike on Motor Laminations
Lead burn (from end-

turn on motor)
Burn on Lead from End-Turn
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Burn between end-

coils – classified as a
“coil-to-coil” burn
Coil to Coil Burn
64
Chapter 11
Economics
Table of Content
1 Simple and compound interest 2
2 Present Value (PV) of Future Value (FV) 3
3 New income project 4
4 Rate Of Return (ROR) 4
Examples 5
-1-
Chapter 11
Economics
9.1. Simple and Compound Interest

Simple interest is the interest paid or received on the
original principal regardless the number of time period that
have passed. Interest rates are reported as annual percentage.
Interest = Principal x Rate x Time
Compound interest is applied to the principal at the end of
one period and added to the existing principal. The total is
then treated as principal again for the second interest period
and so on.
P = Principal : i = interest rate
P1 = Principal at end of 1st year = P[i+1]
P2 = Principal at end of 2nd year = p[i+1]+ p[i+1]*i= p[i+1]2
P3 = Principal at end of 3rd year = p[i+1]2 + p[i+1]2 * i =
p[i+1]2(i+1)=P[i+1]3
Interest = P[i+1]3-P = P([i+1]3-1)
Interest = P([i+1]n - 1)
Example
A sum of $2000 is invested in a saving account yielding an
annual interest rate of 12%. Compute the interest amount for
one year if:
a. The interest is compounded monthly
b. The interest is compounded quarterly
c. The interest is compounded annually
d. The interest is compounded semiannually
Solution
a. i = 0.12 ÷ 12 = 0.01 monthly compounding
Interest = 2000*([0.01+1]12-1) = $253.65
b. i = 0.12 ÷ 4 = 0.03 quarterly compounding
Interest = 2000*([0.03+1]4-1) = $251.02
c. I = 0.12
Interest = 2000*([0.12+1]1-1) = $240.00
d. I = 0.12 ÷ 2 = 0.06
Interest = 2000*([0.06+1]2-1) = $247.20
-2-
Chapter 11
9.2. Present Value (PV) of Future Sum (FV)

FV of Principal P (PV) of
1st year = P + Pi = P(i+1)
2nd year = P(i+1)+P(i+1)i=P(i+1)(i+1)=P(i+1)2
3rd year = P(i+1)2 + P(i+1)2i = P(i+1)3
and so on ……
FV = PV (i+1)n
PV = FV ÷ (i+1)n = FV * [1 ÷ (i+1)n]
The quantity of [1 ÷ (i+1)n] (is called discount factor
PV = FV * discount factor
Example
Compute PV for next 5 years of FV of $5,000 assuming interest
rate of 12% compounded. (a) Annually, (b) Semiannually
(a) PV = $5,000 ÷ (0.12+1)5 = $2,837.13
(b) i = 0.12/2 = 0.06 : n = 5 years x 2 period per year = 10
PV = $5,000 ÷ (0.06+1)10 = $2,791.97
FV = $2,837.13 x (0.12+1)5 = $5,000

PV = $2,791.97 x (0.06+1)10 = $5,000
9.3. New Income Project

Consider a typical new project in which an initial capital
outlay is required for plant. The financial history of such
project may be illustrated by the following graph where
cumulative profit, or loss is plotted vs time.
AB’ = investment time
BB’ = Total capital investment
DD’ = Final profit
B’C = Payout time
B’D’= Earning life of the project
AD’ = Life of the project
-3-
Chapter 11
9.4. Rate of Return (ROR)

To see how rate of return is defined, consider this graph.
As discount rate i increases the point D will approach D’ and
for some value R of the discount rate point D will coincide
with D’. This value R is defined as rate of return of the
project.
-4-
Chapter 11
To put another way, if the capital for a certain project is

borrowed from a bank and if profits from the venture are used
to reduce the outstanding debit, then the rate of return of
the project will equal the rate of interest the bank charges
on the outstanding loan if the final profit made at the end of
earning life is just sufficient to cover the final payment to
the bank.
Example 1
The capital cost of a certain project is $31,000, the earning
life of the project is 6 years, the income in these six years
are $5,000, $12,000, $13,000, $12,000, $12,000, and $8,000
respectively. calculate:
a. The undiscounted % profit
b. Discounted value based on discount rate of 10%/year
c. Payout time
d. Rate of return
Solution
a. Undiscounted % profit
Total income = $5,000+$12,000+$13,000+$12,000+$12,000+$8,000 =
$62,000
Undiscounted profit = $62,000-$31,000 = $31,000
Undiscounted % profit = $31,000 ÷ $31,000 = 100%
b. The discounted profit
PV = FV x discount factor (1 ÷ [i + 1]n)
i = discount rate per year
Discounted profit = $46,560 - $31,000 = $15,560

Discounted % profit = $15,554 ÷ $31,000 = 50.2%
-5-
Chapter 11
-6-
Chapter 11
What does ROR = 23% mean?

It means that the, if the interest of the bank on the borrowed
money is equal 27.6%, the net profit of the project will be
0%. So, the interest of the bank must be much less than this
ROR.
Example 2
An oil well has reserve of 346,750 STB the life of the well is
5 years. The reserve is distributed among the five years as
following (i.e, cumulative production per year):
The 1st year will produce 109,500 STB
The 2nd year will produce 73,000 STB
The 3rd year will produce 54,750 STB
The 4th year will produce 54,750 STB
The 5th year will produce 54,750 STB
The expected average oil price is $80/bbl
The capital & operating cost during these 5 years are
$7,000,000 calculate Rate of return.
Capital & Operating cost = $7,000,000 DISCOUNT RATE

Undiscounted 20%
Reserve
Month
STB Undiscounted Cumulative Discounted Discounted Cumulative Discounted
Undiscounted
net income U.D.N.I. factor net income D.N.I. profit
profit
0 ($7,000,000)
n
=1 ÷ (i+1)
109,500 1 8,760,000 8,760,000 1,760,000 0.8333333 7,300,000 7,300,000 300,000
73,000 2 5,840,000 14,600,000 7,600,000 0.6944444 4,055,556 11,355,556 4,355,556
54,750 3 4,380,000 18,980,000 11,980,000 0.5787037 2,534,722 13,890,278 6,890,278
54,750 4 4,380,000 23,360,000 16,360,000 0.4822531 2,112,269 16,002,546 9,002,546
54,750 5 4,380,000 27,740,000 20,740,000 0.4018776 1,760,224 17,762,770 10,762,770
-7-
Chapter 11
Undiscounted 40%
Reserve
Month Undiscounted Cumulative Discounted Discounted Cumulative Discounted
STB Undiscounted
profit
0 ($7,000,000) =1 ÷ (i+1)
109,500 1 8,760,000 8,760,000 1,760,000 0.71428571 6,257,143 6,257,143 -742,857
73,000 2 5,840,000 14,600,000 7,600,000 0.5102041 2,979,592 9,236,735 2,236,735
54,750 3 4,380,000 18,980,000 11,980,000 0.3644315 1,596,210 10,832,945 3,832,945
54,750 4 4,380,000 23,360,000 16,360,000 0.2603082 1,140,150 11,973,095 4,973,095
54,750 5 4,380,000 27,740,000 20,740,000 0.1859344 814,393 12,787,487 5,787,487
Undiscounted 60%
Reserve
STB Undiscounted
profit
0 ($7,000,000) =1 ÷ (i+1)
109,500 1 8,760,000 8,760,000 1,760,000 0.62500000 5,475,000 5,475,000 -1,525,000
73,000 2 5,840,000 14,600,000 7,600,000 0.390625 2,281,250 7,756,250 756,250
54,750 3 4,380,000 18,980,000 11,980,000 0.2441406 1,069,336 8,825,586 1,825,586
54,750 4 4,380,000 23,360,000 16,360,000 0.1525879 668,335 9,493,921 2,493,921
54,750 5 4,380,000 27,740,000 20,740,000 0.0953674 417,709 9,911,630 2,911,630
Undiscounted 80%
Reserve
STB Undiscounted
profit
0 ($7,000,000)
109,500 1 8,760,000 8,760,000 1,760,000 0.5555556 4,866,667 4,866,667 -2,133,333
73,000 2 5,840,000 14,600,000 7,600,000 0.308642 1,802,469 6,669,136 -330,864
54,750 3 4,380,000 18,980,000 11,980,000 0.1714678 751,029 7,420,165 420,165
54,750 4 4,380,000 23,360,000 16,360,000 0.0952599 417,238 7,837,403 837,403
54,750 5 4,380,000 27,740,000 20,740,000 0.0529222 231,799 8,069,202 1,069,202
Undiscounted 100%
Reserve
STB Undiscounted
profit
0 ($7,000,000)
109,500 1 8,760,000 8,760,000 1,760,000 0.5 4,380,000 4,380,000 -2,620,000
73,000 2 5,840,000 14,600,000 7,600,000 0.25 1,460,000 5,840,000 -1,160,000
54,750 3 4,380,000 18,980,000 11,980,000 0.125 547,500 6,387,500 -612,500
54,750 4 4,380,000 23,360,000 16,360,000 0.0625 273,750 6,661,250 -338,750
54,750 5 4,380,000 27,740,000 20,740,000 0.03125 136,875 6,798,125 -201,875
-8-
Chapter 11
-9-

ESP - Electric Submersible Pumps Design, Mohamed Dewidar, 2013

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Electric Submersible Pumps Mohamed Dewidar 2013

Selection of Artificial Lift Types

Selection of Artificial Lift Types

1.1. Introduction and selection criteria

1.2. The need for artificial lift

Fig (1.1) the well is unable to initiate natural flow

It can be readily seen that the same production rate will

1.3. Review of artificial lift techniques

(b) Flow through a venturi or jet, creating a low pressure area

Fig (1.4) the most popular types of artificial lift

1.4. Selection of artificial lift criteria

There are many factors that influence selection of

Fig (1.5) Influence of fluid in flow performance on production

 A remote location with minimal availability of support

Good operating cost data for the different artificial lift

1.5. Implementation of Artificial lift Selection

considered. Wax & formation solids present greater

1.6. Long Term Reservoir Performance and Facility

used to solve the problem of artificial lift selection and

applications where a particular form of artificial lift has

Fig (1.6) typical application areas of artificial lift techniques

20 Fluid viscosity effect on centrifugal pumps 64

Fig (2.1) Impeller

Fig (2.2) Diffuser

if a hole is bored in the ball, water will be thrown out.

2.2.2. Peripheral Velocity & Head

The equation that describes the relationship of velocity,

it in detail a little later. As a finale to this section,

2.2.3. Specific Gravity

to a liquid‟s specific gravity.

2.3. General Concept

these three forms of energy must be able to live in harmony

remain constant if there are no losses. In our example

2.5. Energy equation for an ideal flow

The second term (dynamic head) is usually smaller than the

The rate of discharge of a pump is also called its delivery

and, taking into account Eq. (2.1).

This is the equation used in choosing pump drives.

2.7. The basic equations for centrifugal pumps

Fig (2.8) Flow pattern through centrifugal pump impeller

The motion of the fluid through the passages between the

Hence, the absolute velocity C of the fluid can be found as

1. The power equation, it means that the power supplied to

From Esq. (2.5) and (2.6) the head developed by an idealized

This is the basic equation not only for centrifugal pumps

Where U2 = ωr2 = peripheral velocity at vane exit;

Equation (2.8) shows that for centrifugal pump to deliver

2.8. Characteristics of ideal pump and degree of

C2m = projection of absolute exit velocity on radius i.e.

(Fig 2.9) Velocity triangle at impeller exit

Where b2 = width of vane slot at exit, hence,

Substitution of this expression into equation (2.9) yields

Substituting the obtained expression (2.11) for the

This equation can be used to plot the theoretical

Fig (2.10) Ideal centrifugal pump characteristics

Fig (2.11) Vane design and velocity parallelograms

It thus follows that the optimum head is produced by a

Or introducing another notation,

Expressing the velocities v1 and v2 in terms of their radial

Assuming the intake and exit areas of the impeller to be

Taking this expression into account, we can now find from

Using Eq. (2.8), the latter expression can be written as

Whence finally, after substituting for C2u from Eq. (2.9),