UNIT 2- LESSON 2

Welcome to lecture two for meteorology and invitation to the atmosphere, energy warming, the earth and the
atmosphere. How do we one the earth? How do we won the atmosphere? The obvious answer is the sun, but what are
the processes involved in warming the earth and the Atmos. We are going to study temperature and heat transfer the
energy balance, focusing on absorption, emission, and equilibrium.

And incoming solar, radiation, insulation,

and heat, not the same thing. Kinetic energy is the energy associated with molecular motion. Now that is throughout all
science, kinetic energy is referring to energy associated with molecular motion. Temperature is a measure. Of average
kinetic energy. So temperature is a human construct. I will say that many times in this class, something that we created,
we needed to understand.

We constructed something. We call the temperature. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
molecules. So temperature is a measure of the average speed of molecules, where faster average speeds correspond
with higher temperatures in the illustration cold air. And warm air. Now let's look at what we see here.

We see a bunch of little molecules. There's all. Diatomic meaning there's two molecules tool to green greenstock
together, the little red stock together on both sides and then switches, not Nike switches, but just switches, uh, behind
the molecule as well. The two molecules represent either nitrogen or oxygen, nitrogen and oxygen are always diatomic
in the atmosphere.

I mean, there's always two of them together. It's always Oh, two or into. And the switches represent how fast they're
moving in the cold air. This switches are short and the warm air, the switches are long. So in the cold air, and they're
moving more slowly in the warm air. They're moving more quickly and you'll notice that in cold air, the same number of
molecules.

Take up less space in a warm air and the same number of molecules that take up more space. So if we consider that red
globe or that orange globe to be a parcel, a parcel of air, that's a parcel of air. Now there's no such thing as a parcel of air
in the real atmosphere. This is again, another human construct.

We're going to call that a parcel of air, the cold air with the same number of molecules. Compared to the warm air with
the same number of molecules takes up less volume. If you have the same mass and less volume, then the air is more
dense. It is more dense. Whereas with the warm air you have the same mass in more volume.

The air is less dense, less dense air will rise. Warm air will rise as the temperature inside the jar decreases the water
vapor molecules. Move more slowly. And as the temperature increases, the water vapor molecules, move more quickly.
Density and temperature, warm air molecules move faster and further apart the same mass, more volume, less dense.

So again, we talked about density in chapter one row density was mass divided by volume, cold air molecules, move
slower and closer together. The same. Mass and less volume density equals mass over volume. It's more dense. So
what's changing in our mathematical equation. D equals M over V. Well, mass is not changing.

It's remaining the same, but if volume increases in the warm air, then density by mathematical calculation is lower. It's
less dense in warm air rises. If mass remains the same, but density. Of I'm sorry, volume goes down. It's less volume than
that. Lower volume number goes into the same mass number more times, density is higher.

It's more dense, cold air sinks, warm air rises. If you have an environment or the atmosphere with a cold parcel, it will
sink and a warm parcel will rise. Temperatures Gail's again, a human construct. You have Celsius and Fahrenheit and
Kelvin all named after scientists who set these scales in place the monitors on the right show you those scales with
Celsius in the middle Celsius, probably making more sense, setting zero at the freezing point or melting point of water at
sea level.

100 being the boiling point of pure water at sea level. That's the Celsius scale. Nice 10 unit divisions, much like the
metric system makes a little bit more sense, but of course in this country, we still use Fahrenheit where 32 is the freezing
point or the Melton point, depending on which way you're moving.

And 212 is a boiling point. Now Calvin is a whole different thing. Kelvin zero is absolute zero. At absolute zero, you are
the lowest temperature possible and molecular emotion ceases. We talk about absolute zero. We are talking about no
molecular motion. Remember temperature is a measure of molecular motion, the speed of molecules.

So absolute zero or zero degrees. Calvin is absolute zero, zero molecular motion.

temperature and heat temperature is the measure of the average speed of molecules heat. Is energy being transferred
from one object to another because of the temperature differences between objects and heat moves from higher
temperatures to lower temperatures. So temperature and heat are not the same thing.

The temperature is the average speed of molecules. Heat is energy being transferred from one object to another, right.
Because of the temperature differences between those objects, heat always moves from higher temperature to lower
temperature. So place your hand on the desk or the table in front of you.

And you know that it's cold and you know that your body is 98 degrees or somewhere around that range. And that a
desk feels cold and that's because heat is moving from your hand into the desk, it's moving from a higher temperature
to a lower temperature. And you feel it as being cold because it's pulling the heat out of your body.

If you grabbed a very hot object, you'd feel it as being hot because that hot object is moving energy into your body. It's
going from hot to cold into your body. So you feel the heat, temperature and heat are not the same thing.

How is heat transferred? Well, it's transferred through conduction. Convection and radiation. And this first slide
illustrates conduction and we've got a neat little picture show movie going on there where the first molecule on the
lower left-hand side is heated. And how is the rest of the object or how is the rest of that substance heated up?

It's heated through conduction transfer of heat from molecule to molecule the first. Molecule begins to move more
quickly. If it's a solid, it may just be vibrating or rotating more quickly. If it's a liquid and maybe moving to the liquid more
quickly, if it's a gas, it may be zipping around in the atmosphere more quickly.

How does it heat the other molecules by conduction to physical contact, the faster motion, the faster wiggling then
causes the other molecules to wiggle. So. In order to heat by conduction, there has to be contact, which means this
happens best in the solid, not so bad in the liquid and not so good at all.

And a gas, energy absorbed by heat sources causes molecules to vibrate more quickly, which in turn causes a joining
molecules to vibrate faster, faster emotion equals higher temperature.

He transfer, how is he transferred in different objects? Well, it's transferred differently in different objects and the
degree to which it's transferred is known as heat conductivity. There's a table on heat, conductivity of different objects,
and you can see that still air or would transferred seat very poorly were granted iron and silver transfer heat very, very
easily, very, very quickly.
So let's. Let's take an illustration. Let's say you have a wooden pole and you stick one end of it in a fire. Let's say it's six
feet long. Will you ever feel the heat? Not the end that you're holding. If one goes in the fire, you're holding the other
end, will you ever feel that heat? Will he ever be conducted up that wooden pole?

No, it may catch fire and burn, but the heat's not going to be conducted. Whereas if you had the same pole made of iron
or silver and you stuck that in the fire yes. In the case of iron, eventually the heat would conduct up the pole and in case
of silver, it happened actually much, much more quickly as well.

Going back to wood. Go to the convenience store and you buy a can of a frosty cold beverage. The convenience store
clerk may place that beverage in a paper bag, a small paper bag. Are they doing that? So no one around you can see
what's in that bag. No, they're doing that. So the thermal conductivity, the low thermal conductivity of paper, remember
paper is made of wood will help keep that frosty cold beverage cold.

You put call beverage and a paper bag. To help keep it cold, rapid in a napkin to help keep it cold. And then other objects
in between dry soil and water and snow and ice. They all conduct temperature friendly

heat transfer by convection. Convection is the transfer heat by mass movement. Meaning you, you heat up a mass.
Liquid or gas, you heat up that mass and then you transfer it to a different place. And that's convection convection in the
atmosphere and in liquids refers to the up and down movement of heat transfer by mass motion.

So conduction occurs in liquids and gases because they flow freely in the atmosphere. Convection is thermally driven,
vertical motion up and down, both upward and downward. Advection not convection advection is the horizontal motion
of air. Uh, and, uh, and that, you know, that's basically the wind conservation of mass.

What are we talking about here? And our picture on the left-hand side, we see that, that, that air, that massive air, the
surface is heated up at two o'clock in the afternoon by the hot sun, as it becomes less dense. It heats up. The motion
becomes faster, faster mode. Molecular motion takes up more space, more space, same mass, less dense, less dense.

It begins to rise. As it begins to rise that mass is moved away. Well, nature does not like a vacuum whenever you
evacuate mass from one spot to another nature wants to replace that mass nature. Abhors a vacuum nature does not
like a vacuum. So we've taken that. Warm massive air at two, o'clock lifted it up.

We've evacuated it upward vertical motion. So nature, the atmosphere wants to replace it and replaces it horizontally
from the side that cool air comes in from the side. That is the advection. As that warmer continues to rise, it eventually
will cool higher in the atmosphere and also begin to sink down.

And that's where you get you a complete convection cell up and down. And there's your convection cell hot surface in
the middle air is rising. It goes up it cools winds, move it away and it begins to sink it sinks cause it's cooler. So it's going
down. That's also a convection, the downward motion of the cooler air, and then it moves into the surface.

At the surface and that's the advection or the wind. So convection up and down hot air goes up. And then as it sinks out
on either side, it moves and word that is the wind, the wind doesn't move in in word it's the cold and the hot, the
difference between the two causing it to move in where that's the wind blowing.

And, um, that's your convection cell. He transferred by radiation quite a bit more complicated. So we'll talk a little bit
more about that. Radiation is the transfer of energy from one object to another by radiant energy, without the space. In
between being heated. All right. So radiation, all objects emit radiation, you and I are emitting thermal radiation.

We also having radiation reflected off of us in the form of visible light, the colors that we see for our clothes and our skin
and our hair in our eyes. So all objects emit radiation and radiation is the transfer of that energy from one object to
another, without the space between being heated. So if I have an hot object on one side of the room, and I feel the heat
of that object to my side of the room, the air in between is not being heated.

I'm feeling the radiant energy that is, is being absorbed by my body. Radiation travels in waves that release energy when
they are absorbed by an object. So with the case of the sun, we know. That space is very, very cold, right? Spaces,
freezing cold astronauts have to be protected, but the sun emits radiation that warms the earth in a significant manner.

But the space in between is not warm that's because the sun's energy is being transferred by radiation. And the space in
between is not. It's not warm until the earth actually absorbs the radiation, the sun. It does not warm up once. It does
warm up at warms the atmosphere around it. And we have a warm day sunny day, but the space in between is not
warmed.

The waves of radiation have both electrical and magnetic properties. So they're called electromagnetic waves. Radiation
is an electromagnetic wave. The E M spectrum. Yeah, electromagnetic, electromagnetic and those different, probably a
conversation for your physics class, electromagnetic waves do not need a medium to propagate and they move
propagate.

They move at light speed. The speed of light. All matter, emits and absorbs radiation. Now let me go back up to the
bullet point above waves. Do not need a medium to propagate theoretically. There is nothing in space. It's complete
vacuum or void. Yes. There's some dust. There's some gas, but the molecules are so far apart that essentially it's a
vacuum.

So the electromagnetic radiation of the sun does not need a medium to move. It moves through space. It moves through
a vacuum. And when we absorb it, Here on earth. That's when we warm up all matter. As I said, admits and absorbs
radiation, the wavelength of the waves, all these ways of talking about these electromagnetic waves, they look like a
sine wave, just a typical way of up and down.

The wavelength is the distance along the way from one crest to the next. And the wavelength of radiation is going to
become very important to us where. Short wavelengths represent high radiation and higher temperatures and a longer
wavelengths represent lower amounts of radiation. Radiation with longer wavelengths carries less energy than
radiation.

With shorter wavelengths, short wavelengths carry a great deal of energy long wavelengths carry much, much less
energy. The sun's radiation comes in very short wavelengths, the sun. The sun's radiation carrying lots of energy.

So here's an illustration of that fact. We start with am radio waves and we've worked our way down through infrared
and ultimately down to x-rays remember the x-ray gun and the science fiction movies. Okay. The old science fiction
movies. That's where all the energy is carried. That's why they're so dangerous.

Very, very short waves. Carry much higher amounts of energy, visible light. The white light of the sun carries more
energy than infrared. Now infrared refers to temperature. Think about infrared goggles. They see temperature at night,
visible light carries more energy ultra violet, even more than the visible.

So when you put your sunscreen on what are you protecting yourself from? Are you protecting yourself from the.
Warmth of the sun or the white light of the sun? No, you're protecting yourself from the ultraviolet waves or rays of the
sun because those shorter wavelengths carry more energy. Now some complicated equations, not equations that you'll
have to memorize or have to be able to solve, but they talk about two different concepts of radiation that you do need
to understand.

The wavelength of maximum emission of any body is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature. Thus. The
higher, the temperature, the shorter, the wavelength of maximum emission. This phenomenon is also called Wiens law.
The following equation describes that law, the wavelength of maximum emission is equal to a constant divided by the
temperature.

So as the temperature goes up, The wavelength of maximum emission goes down. It's a shorter wavelength. As a
temperature goes down cooler temperatures. The wavelength of maximum emission, uh, will, will then go up longer.
Wavelengths carry lower temperatures. So what is the wavelength of maximum emission?

All bodies, all objects emit radiation, but they emit different types of radiation. The sun, it will emit. Short wave
radiation, some long wave radiation in a whole lot in between it emits gamma rays and x-rays, but it also emits radio
waves and also emits infrared radiation and white light. But where does it emit the most radiation at what wavelength
does it have?

Its maximum emission. So any bodies. Any objects, maximum emission comes at a specific wavelength and that
wavelength can be determined by this equation where temperature and the wavelength of maximum emission are in
VR, inversely proportional, the higher, the temperature, the shorter, the wavelength, the higher, the temperature, the
shorter, the wavelength.

The sun is very hot as a very short wavelength of maximum emission, where earth is much cooler and they're happy.
Therefore it has a much longer wavelength of maximum emissions. The amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a body is directly related. Now here's the second aspect. The amount of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body is
directly related to its temperature.

So not the wavelength of maximum emission, but here are the second aspect is the amount, how much electromagnetic
radiation is admitted by a body it's directly related to that. Body's temperature. If a body is a perfect admitter a black
body. Uh, the amount of radiation given off is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature.

As measured in Kelvin units. This natural phenomenon is described by the Stephan Boltzmann law, Stephan and
Boltzmann being two scientists. The following simple equation describes this law II. The energy, the amount of energy is
equal to Sigma, which is just a constant. Times the temperature raised the fourth power.

So as that temperature goes up, the amount of radiation that's admitted, goes up to the fourth power. It goes up in a
massive amounts. So as temperature goes up, the amount. Uh, radiation, the amount of energy given off by an object
goes up very, very rapidly. So again, the earth is cool compared to the sun.

So the earth gives off a small amount of radiation where the sun gives off a tremendous amount of radiation. So what do
you need to remember what you need to write down? Absolutely. Both the wavelength of maximum emission and the
amount of electromagnetic, radiation of energy. Are proportional to the temperature of the object, the wavelength of
maximum emission inversely proportional in the amount of energy directly proportion.

No

Gene's law tells us the sun is hot, about 6,000 degrees Kelvin than the wavelength of its admitted. Radiation will be short
and lies within the visible spectrum of this. Of the electromagnetic spectrum. Solar radiation is referred to as short wave
radiation or incoming shortwave radiation, and sometimes insulation.

So Wiens law. The first law tells us that if the scientists hot 6,000 degrees Kelvin, then the wavelength it's admitted,
radiation will be short. Right there in the visible spectrum. Solar radiation is approach to a short wave radiation or
incoming short wave radiation. Sometimes insulation I'll refer to it a lot is installation.
So look at the, uh, look at the graph here. Uh, the Y axis radiation intensity, how much? Okay. And the X axis is the
wavelength. So, uh, when you look at the sun's radiation, um, it goes up very, very high. The amount goes up very, very
high. In that visible light spectrum 0.4 to 0.7 micrometres. That is the visible spectrum.

That's the spectrum of visible light, starting with the purples, very close to ultra violet, going through your blues, your
greens, your yellows, oranges, and your red to the infrared spectrum. So that's where you get those two words,
ultraviolet, infrared, the sons, maximum wavelength and the maximum emission.

Uh, where, where he admits most of its, uh, its wavelength of radiation. Isn't that visible spectrum? 44% than 37% in
near infrared, 11% in foreign for red, less than 1% for all those others that are much longer and about 7% in that ultra
violet spectrum. So that is the sun's short shortwave, radiation insulation, incoming shortwave radiation.

Conversely Wayne's law also tells us since the earth is cool than the wavelength of its limited, radiation will be long in
lies within the inbred spectrum. So this is the, the earth compared to the sun on the left is the sun 0.4 to 0.7. That's
where our wavelength maximum is with that 6,000 degrees Kelvin, where the Earth's.

Radiation is mainly between five to 15 micrometres. So the sun's radiation is short wave radiation and the Earth's
radiation is long wave radiation. Earth's radiation is referred to as terrestrial long wave radiation, or sometimes outgoing
Longwave radiation. Bottom line is the sun emits short wave radiation, the earth emits.

Long wave radiation. This will become very important as we talk about the greenhouse. Perfect. So let's talk about it. An
object that perfectly absorbs and admits radiation. It was referred to as a black body in both the earth and the sun are
black bodies and really most objects in substances are black bodies.

Not all because you're going to find out some don't absorb and admit perfectly. Um, and those are called selective
absorbers. So the atmosphere is not a black body. It is not a black body. It absorbs some wavelengths in the infrared
range, but it's transparent to other wavelengths in the visible range.

Gases in the atmosphere are selective absorbers. They only absorb, and then re-emits at certain wavelengths. So take a
look at that, that figure. Now we have one, two, three, four, five, six graphs. Um, the top five are separate gases in the
bottom one. Is a combination of all the gases. So nitrous oxide, uh, it absorbs and only in the longest wavelengths.

Okay. Okay. So five to 10, all the visible light of the sun and the infrared energy, the sun passes right through nitrous. It
never absorbed it. Methane is also not absorbed by the visible or infrared radiation of the sun. Now we start talking
about molecular oxygen, both Oh two and Oh three. They are somewhat better absorbers.

Of incoming solar radiation. Um, then you look at water vapor. It doesn't, it doesn't absorb any that comes in, but it is
absorbs a lot that goes out this longer waves, uh, and same thing with carbon dioxide, nothing that comes in as
absorbed by carbon dioxide, but a great deal more is absorbed by the outgoing terrestrial radiation.

So the bottom graph is a combination of all that and what that tells us that, where the sun emits most of its radiation
and that visible wavelength. And in the infrared wavelengths, very little of that radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere,
but as the earth, readmits the longer wavelengths, a great deal of that longer wave radiation.

The infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and that's what keeps our atmosphere warm. And that is the
greenhouse effect. So bullet point for the suns incoming shortwave radiation insulation passes through the atmosphere
and is absorbed by the earth. The earth of course, is a black body. So it absorbs all the radiation and then readmits all
that radiation.
And it readmits it as a short I'm sorry, as a long wave radiation, again, remember lower temperature. Longer wave
radiation. The, the earth emits long wave infrared radiation that is absorbed by gases. Those selective absorbers, those
gases are then warmed and they warm the air around them by conduction.

And they also readmit long wave radiation to be absorbed by other gases and the earth. So most of the suns incoming
short wave radiation. Goes right to the atmosphere and is not absorbed by the atmosphere. It is absorbed by the earth
and the earth warms up. As the earth warms up. It readmits much longer wave radiation.

And that longer wave radiation is absorbed by nitrous methane Oh two and Oh three water vapor and carbon dioxide.
Those gases in the atmosphere, they warm up. They warm gases around them through conduction and convection. And
they also readmit their long wave radiation to other gasses around them. And back down to the earth, the selective
absorbers are nitrous or methane or Oh two or Oh three, our water vapor and our carbon dioxide of which water vapor
and carbon dioxide are particularly effective in water vapor because of its abundance is the most important greenhouse
gas.

Those selective absorbers are the greenhouse gases as selective. Absorbers absorb and radiate infrared radiation. They
are actually acting as an insulating layer around the earth.

Well, the scientists here at Roederer have discovered is that this part of Antarctica, the Antarctic peninsula is warming
more rapidly than anywhere else on the planet. And often years of study, they think the answer to that, no, he's done.
Any ice on the ground,

I'm climbing no I'm into a crevasse and it's by getting down into the ice and drilling into it, the scientists are able to build
up a picture of the greenhouse gases that have been building up in our atmosphere. They find bubbles like this. Trapped
in the ice and analyze the air inside them is his air from many years ago.

And in fact, they now have a record of the atmosphere stretching back 800,000 years. So this cave made you, you and I
like a fantastic place of beauty, but the climate scientists, it's a treasure trove. Of key information. The ice reveals that
the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide is now at unprecedented levels and all around of the signs of melting.

Some of the glycine is getting steeper or it's reaching back away from the se uh, having to, uh, some guy says you can
actually walk along beaches. And what have you at the base of the glaciers where in the past they were, I slept falling
into the seat. So we do know that, uh, Yeah, the topography is changing most likely as a result of its warmer.

Temperatures, tough work for the scientists out gathering samples of the ice, but they say that for the first time, their
research has established a direct link between manmade, greenhouse gases and the warming of this distant land.

So, how does that look? The picture on the left is no atmosphere. The picture on the right is the atmosphere as it is now
on the left. The sun's incoming shortwave radiation is observed absorbed by the, uh, the earth. And then it's. Reradiated
as outgoing infrared radiation without the greenhouse gases. The average temperature of the earth is calculated to be
about 18 degrees below zero Celsius or zero degrees Fahrenheit.

So well below freezing no liquid water that's without these selective absorbers of the atmosphere with the selective
absorbers of the atmosphere, the carbon dioxide, the methane, the nitrous. The oxygen and the ozone and the water
vapor, the water vapor being the most important with those selective absorbers, the suns incoming shortwave radiation
passes through the atmosphere is absorbed by the earth.

Earth warms up and radiates away. It's long wave radiation. That long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere,
warms the atmosphere and readmits radiation out to both the atmosphere on the earth. And that keeps the Earth's
temperature at an average of about 59 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit and warm enough for liquid water.
So that is the greenhouse effect, and that is our energy balance. If absorbed insulation at admitted terrestrial radiation
or imbalance in the earth. Is reached, what's called radiative equilibrium, about 255 degrees Kelvin. The difference
between the two 55 Calvin zero degrees Fahrenheit and the two 88 degrees, Calvin 59 degrees Fahrenheit.

That is the actual temperature of the earth is because of the selective absorbers. And that is the greenhouse effect.

Warming from below the Earth's atmosphere is warm from below. The atmosphere does not readily absorb shortwave
radiation, and the atmosphere is a window to the short wave radiation of the sun, the incoming solar radiation, the
insulation insulation passes through the atmosphere to strike the earth surface, warming the surface.

So the sun. The suns and coming solar radiation insulation passes through the atmosphere, strikes the earth. The earth
warms up air molecules, and the first few centimeters are warm by conduction. So literally one to three centimeters of
air close to the earth are warm by conduction as warm air rises and becomes less dense as it becomes less dense than
rises.

He transferred by convection also warms the air above it. And then of course, radiation radiates long wave radiation of
the earth to be absorbed by those selective absorbers. So the atmosphere it's not heated from above, it's literally
heated from below first, the earth, hat's a heat up. And then the atmosphere heats up the first few centimeters by
conduction, then the rest of the atmosphere by convection and radiation.

So that's why a cloudy day is a cooler day. The sun's. Shortwave radiation can't reach the earth for the earth to heat up
and a bright sunny day. Of course, you know, it's going to be hot. So what happens to incoming solar radiation? This is
that energy balance. 51% of the sun's incoming solar radiation gets to the surface and is absorbed by the earth.

About 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere in clouds. So a little bit of the short wave radiation is absorbed. That's what's
absorbed. Some of the radiations actually scattered. And the rest of that radiation is reflected. Scattered radiation
means radiant energy strikes an object and is deflected in all directions.

So you can see in the picture, the two molecules there diatomic nitrogen or oxygen, the incoming solar radiation, that
white light that's coming in when it strikes that. Molecule. Um, some of it is absorbed tiny mountain, uh, 19%. The rest
of it goes through that molecule, right to the earth to 51%, but a small amount of it is scattered radiant energy strikes an
object and is deflected in all directions.

And you can see, uh, the, uh, the molecule visits about this, the right size sort of breaks up that white light into its
component colors. And because mostly it scatters the, uh, the, the blues and the greens. That is a reason why. The sky is
blue. Uh, some of that energy, however, is also reflected reflection is when radiant energy is turned backwards.

So straight back from the object. So reflection just like reflection in the mirror. So incoming solar radiation enters the
atmosphere. 51% of it passes right through the molecules and is absorbed by the earth. About 19% is absorbed by the
atmosphere in the clouds. Some of it's scattered and some of it's reflected the size of air molecules favors the scattering
of those shorter wavelengths, violet green and blue.

And that is why the, uh, the sky is blue.

So if you're standing directly under the Noonday sun, that white light travels, literally through a short distance of the
atmosphere. So very little blue light is scattered and the sun and the sky appears much wider. Now as the sun. So as it's
coming up in the afternoon in the morning, a sunrise or sunset, you can see that the white light of the sun literally
passes through a greater distance to the atmosphere.
So, uh, as it's closer to noon time, Nine 10, 11 o'clock in the morning. One, two, three, four, o'clock in the afternoon, you
get the blue because mostly the blues are scattered out, but early in the morning, and then late in the afternoon, closer
to the sunrise, the blues are scattered out and then the yellows and the reds begin to be scattered out.

And that is why your sunrise and your sunset. I tend to look reddish, uh, because more of the white light of the sun is
being scattered by the atmosphere. All right. That reflection reflection in the atmosphere is known as is the percentage
of radiation returned from an object compared to the amount of radiation striking the object.

Different substances have more and less albedo fresh snow freshly fallen, crisp white snow reflects up to 95%. Of the
earths of the suns that is incoming solar radiation. So it's cold to have snow, but if you have fresh snow, it makes it even
colder because most of the sunlight is reflected back, uh, back to space.

And again, that's another reason why you have to wear sunscreen when you're doing some spring time scheme, because
all that reflected light can give you a sunburn that clouds reflect a great deal of radiation as well. There are clouds less,
and you can see different substances in different planets reflect more or less.

Of the, of the sun's radiation that's known as Al Beto, the amount that's reflected back. So here's your solar energy
balance. 51% absorbed at the surface 19 absorbed by atmosphere and clouds about 30% is reflected in scattered 4%,
maybe reflected back 20% reflected in scattered by clouds and about 6% reflected and scattered by the actual
atmosphere.

All right. Let's talk about the parcel theory. We talked about a parcel of air earlier. Let's talk about what happens to a
parcel as it moves up and down in the atmosphere. The parcel theory tells us that as air rises, it cools as air sinks. It
warms, you know that because if you're at the base of a mountain, it's nice and sunny and warm, but as you go up the
mountain side, it gets cooler.

At the surface air has the same temperature and pressure as the parcel is lifted. Air pressure outside the parcel
decreases. Remember that from lecture one, as you go up in the atmosphere, there's less pressure in order to maintain
equilibrium air molecules, then push out on the partial and it expands.

So look at our picture. The warm air on the left is a small little parcel as it goes up the mountain side, it literally expands.
Why is it expanding? Because the pressure is lower, lower pressure allows a parcel to expand as the partial expands. It
requires some of the molecules energy to do the expansion causing the molecules to slow down.

Well, slower moving molecules have a lower temperature. Remember temperature is simply the measure of molecular
motion. So as a parcel of air rises, it expands and it cools as a partial of air is then forced to sink. Outside pressure
increases. Remember the pressure is highest at the surface about a thousand millibars outside pressure increases.

So the partial is made to be smaller. It, it it's compressed. And as that parcel compresses the molecules inside the parcel
tend to speed up and they warm up. So as the air parcel sinks, the outside pressure increases the parcel contracts, it
compresses causing the molecules to speed up and one the parcel.

Rising air cools sinking here. Worms rising air cools by expansion and seeking air warms by compression. Two very
important concepts. You'll see over and over again. Rising air cools by expansion sinking air, warm by compression.

Here's the parcel of theory in play air that is forced to rise. We'll cool by expansion air that is forced to sink will warm by
compression. This is known as an 80 a static process. The air inside that parcel cools up, going up the mountain side, but
no temperature changes occurring and there's no heat being added as attracted, going up the mountain side.
There's not a tray of ice sitting underneath that parcel. That's cooling it off. It's cooling off. Simply by expansion. It's an
80 aback process. As the parcel comes down the mountain side at warms by compressing compression, there is no heat
being added. There is no fire underneath that parcel, warming up that parcel it's warming without heat transfer.

It's warming 80 ABAG sickly by compression,

back to the annual energy budget of the planet. It tends to be imbalanced over time. The amount of energy gained and
lost is not equal. However, at different points in the planet had higher latitudes. You lose more energy than our gain and
low latitudes receive more energy than they lose. The balance is kept by a transfer of heat by weather systems.

So look at the picture on the right. It's literally a picture from your book turned on its side, because I wanted to give you
an idea of the earth because right there in the middle of zero degrees latitude, or the equator. At the equator, there is
more incoming solar radiation reviving, uh, arriving each day than outgoing terrestrial, radiation leaving.

There's more sunlight coming in than outgoing Longwave radiation going out. And so there's a surplus above 38 degrees
North. Then below 38 degrees South, there is less incoming solar radiation than what's going out. And there's a deficit. If
there were no changes, if there was no movement or transfer of heat by weather systems that the equator would just
continue to warm up and the poles are just continue to get colder.

That doesn't happen because he is transferred North and South by weather systems.

How does this affect the change of the seasons? The seasons are, are regulated by the amount of installation received at
the earth surface. This is largely determined by the angle at which the sunlight strikes the surface installation striking the
earth directly is more intense than insulation striking the earth at an angle at an angle light is spread out over a larger
surface area.

Also at an angle. The insulation must move or penetrate through a thicker layer of the atmosphere. And that radiation is
attenuated simply it's scattered or it's absorbed or it's reflected back. And so not as much of it reaches the earth. So
number one to remember the seasons are regulated by the amount of sunlight that arrives at the earth surface.

The seasons are not regulated by the distance from the sun. The seasons are not regulated by anything other than how
much sun gets the surface. How much sun gets the surface is largely determined by the angle at which the sun strikes
the surface. You can see it for the bottom, right picture, closer to the equator.

The sun comes in at much higher angles. It's a much more direct angle at the equator and in the lower latitudes, more
sunlight strikes the earth. It's warmer in the low latitudes. We know that it's warmer to the South and they're higher
latitudes, less sunlight, which is the earth surface. And therefore it's colder and you can see illustrations of how direct
sunlight makes more, uh, installation arrive, uh, with the flashlight and how they low sun angle.

The sunlight has to pass through a greater amount of the Earth's atmosphere and is therefore attenuated or scattered at
a high sun angle. There's less atmosphere to travel through and more of that sunlight reaches the earth surface. So how
is the earth surface one? What makes it warmer or colder at the Earth's surface?

It's simply a question of how much insulation has arrived at the surface. How much sunlight has arrived at the surface?
The second factor regulating the seasons is the length of the time. The sun shines every day called the photo period. You
know, that it's longer in the summertime and less in the winter time.

And that's because of the angle. Of the earth, uh, the tilt on the axis in the wintertime, we're tilted away from the sun.
As you can see in the left side of the picture and our days are shorter in the summertime. We're tilted toward the sun
and our days are longer. Not only are days long, we're in the summertime, but because we're tilted toward the sun, we
have a higher angle of sunlight arriving at the earth, higher angle, a sunlight and a longer day.
It means more solar radiation at the Earth's surface in the summertime, in the Northern hemisphere and warmer
conditions. The second factor regulating the season is the length of time. The sun shines every day of the photo period.
Summer days are longer and the noon sun is higher in the sky due to the earth inclination of 23 and a half degrees in
perpendicular and always points in the same direction.

That's kind of a, by the way, that the sun always points in the same direction. Well, look at the axis in this picture, always
pointing up into the left. Where is it pointing? It's pointing toward Polaris, the North star. Now, does it point toward
Polaris because Polaris is special? No, that just happens to be where it's pointing at this time will always point toward
Polaris.

Well, actually it won't. The Earth's tilt changes gradually over many, many thousands of years. Uh, and it also spins like a
top. It spins around like a top. So no, we want always be pointing to the exact same point, uh, in the, uh, in the universe.
But of course that change happens over many thousands of years.

The seasons are caused by the earth being tilted on its axis, as it revolves around the sun. During the summer, the
Northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun longer days and more direct sunlight produce warm summer weather. We
can see in the lower figure that at 40 degrees North latitude on June the 21st called the summer solstice, the sun rises in
the Northeast, reaches its highest position at noon, then sets in the Northwest on each successive day.

Past the summer solstice. The noon sun is a little lower in the sky and daylight hours are a bit shorter on September the
22nd. The Automall Equinox. Days and nights are of equal length. As the sun rises in the East and sets in the West

on December the 21st called the winter solstice. The Northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun. This marks the
day with the shortest daylight hours in the Northern hemisphere, shorter days, and the lowest noon sun of the entire
year produced cold winter weather. On each day, pass the winter solstice, daylight hours increase.

And the noon sun is a bit higher in the sky. When March the 20th, the Vernal Equinox days and nights are of equal
length. And in another three months, once again, it's summer as the Northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun.

The last impact, lowest impact on the seasons is the distance from the sun. Now look at this in January, we're 147
million kilometers and in July we're 152 million kilometers. So we're literally closer to the sun in our winter time. So this
is a very good example of that. No, the distance from the sun does not contribute to the seasons.

Does the distance from the sun regulate the seasons? No, it does not. When the earth is that it's a pair of helium in
January and it's app helium in June, the angle of the sun and the photo period are still the primary regulators of the
seasons, by the way, all other celestial bodies also travel in ellipses and have perky Liams and appealing.

Yeah. And this is an example of how that works. Where at the North pole? Uh, the sun is either right at the horizon or,
uh, in the winter time or slightly above the horizon in the summertime. And the further South, you go into the middle
attitudes and then eventually to the equator, you can see how the sun is much, much higher in the sky.

So in December, when at the North pole, the sun is right at the horizon and you have six months of winter at that same
time of year at the equator, you can see how the sun is much, much higher. Uh, and the sky and we have much more
direct light, and therefore it's warmer.

Here's some of those photo periods for different times of year of the year, uh, at different latitudes. And of course, uh,
in, uh, December, uh, and in June we call those solstices and then in autumn, and in spring, we call those equinoxes. So
the Vernal Equinox, the spring Equinox arrived sometime around March 20th, not always exactly the same date it's
within about 24 36 hours.
The summer solstice around June 21st, the longest day of the year, the tunnel Equinox again in Equinox, because as you
can see from the chart, the days are 12 hours long and the nights are 12 hours long. That's about September 21st and
the winter solstice the shortest day of the year, uh, that is going to be around December 21st.

All right. Let's move on to States of matter. And this becomes very important because we're also going to talk about how
the change in state either releases or absorbs heat. So the three States of matter are solid liquid and gas. A gas is a
substance that it can expand to fill any empty container atoms or molecules of gas or in high-speed motion and move in
random directions.

A liquid is a substance that flows freely and responds to unbalanced forces, but has a free upper surface. Think about a
glass of wine. Water is always an upper surface. Otherwise it takes the shape of the container, but there is yeah, is going
to be an upper surface, atoms or molecules of liquid and move freely past one, another as individuals or small groups,
liquids compress only slightly under pressure.

Of course, solids don't compress it all under pressure gases. And liquids are both classified as fluids. So both gases and
liquids are classified as fluids. That's why the atmosphere is a study of fluids because both gases and liquids are classified
as fluids because both substances flow easily, a solid is a substance that resists change of shape or volume.

A solid can typically withstand stress without yielding, permanently a solid usually break. Suddenly on earth. Water can
occur in all three States, gas, liquid, and solid.

What is it important to us in the weather and, um, understanding atmospheric sciences is what happens when water
specifically changes from one state or one phase to another. So latent heat, the release of latent heat or the absorption
of latent heat. A change of state or a phase change that is that transition between solid liquid and gas.

All right. And that change of state or that change of phase typically occurs due to a change in temperature or pressure in
the atmosphere. Mainly we're going to talk about temperature, but pressure can change, uh, the state of, uh, of, uh, of
water as well. You can get a vaporous water, water vapor turning into.

Uh, liquid water droplets because of a change in pressure that happens in the center of tornadoes, where the pressure is
extremely low. You get condensation as one of the reasons why you can see the tornado funnel. All right, latent heat,
latent heat is the heat energy you required to change the phase of substance, the amount of energy released, or the
amount of energy absorbed by a substance during a change of state.

Without changing its temperature. Meaning when water goes from a gas to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid, that phase
change happens and the water does not change temperature, either releases heat, or it absorbs heat. During that phase
change, sensible heat is heat that we can actually feel or measure the latent heat of condensation is a warming process.

The heat released when water vapor condenses to form liquid and the latent heat of evaporation is a cooling process.
The heat used to change liquid water into a vapor. So those are going to be the two important ones in the atmosphere.
The latent heat of condensation is a warming process. When water vapor condenses to form of liquid heat is released.

The latent heat of evaporation is a cooling process. He is used to change liquid water into a vapor to break liquid water
molecules apart into vaporous water. You use heat and it's a cooling process. The opposite occurs when condensation
occurs. When vapor condenses into a liquid that same heat is then released.

All right. This is how it looks on a temperature scale. The X axis is going to be a heat and calories per gram for every gram
of water, quite so many calories. And on the Y axis, we have temperature from 40 below to about one 40 for water to
evaporate. Heat must be added to the water and the liquid state.
After water reaches about 100 degrees Celsius input of 540 calories per gram is required to break the hydrogen bond
and allow evaporation. So you heat up water to about a hundred degrees Celsius. And at that point, without the water
changing temperature, in order for the water to go from a liquid to a gas.

You have to put about 540 calories per gram. That's a lot of energy to get it to evaporate. Well, the opposite is also true
for that water vapor to then condense into a liquid, you're going to release 540 calories per gram. That is the latent heat
of condensation. That's the heat that's released when condensation occurs, the amount of energy required to break the
bond is termed the latent heat of vaporization.

When you're taking liquid water and you're breaking it down. To create water vapor, the amount of energy required to
break the bond is termed the latent heat of vaporization water has the highest latent heat of vaporization of any known
substance. So here there's another way to look at late and heat on this picture.

You have ice on the left liquid water in the middle and vapor on the right to get water, to go from a solid state ice to a
liquid, and they get that liquid to go from a liquid state to a gaseous state or water vapor. From ice to liquid, you require
80 calories from liquid to gas. You require 540 calories.

Both of those processes are cooling processes. You take calories out of the atmosphere and put them into the substance
to get the phase change to occur. You literally take 80 calories per gram out of the environment. Put it into the ice to get
the ice to go and turn into liquid water melting is a cooling process.

One does once it has liquid water in order to get liquid water, to evaporate into a gas, you take about 540 calories a
whole bunch more and put it into the, uh, the water molecule to get the liquid water, to turn into vaporous water, water
vapor. And so evaporation is a cooling process, condensation and freezing, or the opposite.

You have to remove 540 calories. A program of water to get water vapor, to go into becoming a liquid. So you release
that energy to the atmosphere. So condensation is a warming process and believe it or not, even though it's a little
counterintuitive, freezing is also a warning process, but 80 calories per gram, the term latent heat applies to the heat
input that does not change the temperature, but produces a change of state, the energy input or output associated with
water.

And the three States of matter, we must add 80 calories of heat to change a gram of ice. To liquid water after the ISIS
melted about one calorie. If heat is needed to raise each gram of water by one degree Celsius, but 540 calories must be
added to each gram of water to vaporize it, to boil it away. The process is in reverse for condensation and freeze.

Here's just one more chart of that. He transferred that's taking place. Heat. Energy is being taken from the environment
is a cooling process to melt or vaporize. Water heat energy is released to the environment to condense or freeze water.

This is a detailed description of latent heat water molecules can move by rotation and vibration. Ice is not very free to
move. Ice can vibrate, but ice remains rigid. Liquid water moves freely, but since the molecules are still very close
together, they do not move. As freely as water vapor, solid water ice is the most ordered state of water.

While gas is the least ordered state. In order for ice to go from ice to a liquid state energy must be added to cause the
ice to change from a higher state to a lower ordered state. When I smelled or water evaporates energy must be taken
from the environment in order for the ice or liquid to move to a less ordered state energy is needed to weaken the
individual hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

When water in any of the three phases moves from a higher to a lower ordered state, the air surrounding the water will
have heat subtracted from it. The three processes that subtract heat from this running air or evaporation melting and
sublimation, the phase changed and solid to gas. When water in any of the three phases moves from the lower to a
higher ordered state, the air surrounding the water will have energy added to it.
This is called a release of latent heat. When he is attracted from liquid water or the individual water molecule was slow
down, they eventually slowed down to a point at which the hydrogen bonds do not allow the liquid to rotate anymore.
Ice now develops the energy. The water molecules once had to rotate has been given up to the surrounding air.

The three processes that add heat to this running air or condensation, freezing and deposition gas to a solid important.
The process of evaporation and condensation take about seven and a half times as much energy as melting or freezing.
All right. This concludes lecture, two energy warming, the earth and the atmosphere.

Our next lecture on chapter three from the introduction to meteorology textbook is going to be on air temperature, and
we'll see you then.