INGLESE SPECIALISTICO:

Music is an art that expresses thru sounds. A sound is the result of regular vibrations of an elastic
body. When we have non regular vibes or non elastic body, we have a noise.
Qualities of a sound:
PITCH: it depends on frequency, that is number of vibrations in a second.
INTENSITY: it depends on amplitude of vibrations. Volume can change with the same numbers of
vibes.
TIMBRE: it depends on the material that produces the sound that is on the shape of vibrations.
In music we have sounds and rests that have the same importance.
We write music on the staff and to determine the pitch of the notes on the staff, we need a clef; we
have seven clefs divided in a G clef or treble clef, F clefs or bass and bariton clefs, C clefs or
soprano, mezzo soprano, alto and tenor clef. The names of sounds are: C D E F G A B.

An interval is the distance between two sounds and the smaller distance between two sounds is a
half-step. It can be diatonic (different names and 4 commas) o chromatic (same name and 5
commas). The larger is the chromatic interval. We measure intervals in steps and half-steps. It has a
name and a genre that can be major, minor, perfect, augmented, diminuished. An interval can be
melodic or harmonic (played at the same time). Consonant are unisson, major and minor thirds,
sixths and all the perfect ones; consonant are pleasant to the ear.
A compound interval is larger than an octave. You have a number, and the genre is given by the
interval without octave (from f to a: a major tenth). A reverse interval is a new interval where the
lower note is moved an octave higher.
Interval plus its reverse is always 9. If the interval is
major, the reverse is minor
minor becomes major
perfect remains perfect
augmented becomes diminuished
diminuished becomes augmented
The reverse of a compound interval is the same interval without the octave.

A scale is a succession of sounds, proceeding step-wise, within the range of an octave. We have
major, natural minor, harmonic minor and melodic minor. The basic patterns are C major and A
minor.
If I want to build another major scale, I have to repeat the same pattern.
The sharp raises the sound of a chromatic half-step higher. The double sharp raises the sound of 2
chromatic half-step higher. The flat lowers the sound of a chromatic half-step. The double flat
lowers the sound of 2 chromatic half-steps. The natural eliminates a previous accidental. We need
accidentals to build every possible scale, starting from every note, following the pattern of the
natural ones.

The degrees od a scale are: tonic, supertonic, mediant, subdominant, dominant, submediant, leading
note /seventh degree; to have the leading note we have to raise the seventh degree. The Bachian
scale mantains the sharps even going down.

The key is a pattern given by the relationship between the tonic and the other degrees of a scale. We
can have a key change or you can have a modulation (which is a temporary change of key,
introduced by “out of tone” notes, that are typical of the new key you are getting in.

Related keys are two keys with the opposite genre and same key signature; the interval between the
two tonics is a minor third. We have 30 keys, 30 major tones, 15 minor ones; 2 with no accidentals,
14 (7 majors – 7 minors) with flats and 14 (7 majors – 7 minors) with sharps.
6 of them are enharmonic (different names and same sounds), keys with 5 – 6 – 7 accidentals.

Modes are scales made by natural scales like:

Ionian (from c to c)
Dorian (from d to d)
Phrygian (from e to e)
Lydian (from f to f)
Mixolydian (from g to g)
Aeolian (from a to a)
Locrian (from b to b)

Note Values are referring to a specific lenght of time: Breve 8/4 Whole note 4/4 Half note
2/4 Quarter note/Crotchet ¼ Eightnote/Quarter 1/8 Sixteenth note/Semiquarter 1/16
Thirtysecond note/Demisemiquarter 1/32 Sixtyfourth note/Semidemisemiquarter 1/64
Te value of the dot is 50% of the value of the note itself. If you have more dots, each dot value is
50% of the previous one. When we have a fermata, the note lasts more than its value usually at least
50% more (the same is for the rest).
For a slur there is no breathe between the two or more notes and with the tie we have notes of the
same pitch and values are added.

Time signature indicates how many beats you have in a measure and their value, or indicates the
total value of a measure. We have two signs and fractions: C = common time or half time/cut time
Time signature is only on the first staff.
2/4: the upper number (numerator) indicates number of beats in a measure, the lower number
(denominator) indicates the value of each beat.
9/8: the numerator indicates the number of accents in a bar, divided by 3 (number of beats). The
denominator indicates the value of each accent, multiplied by 3 you have the value of each beat.

To know the speed of a piece, we need tempo signs, that indicate the speed and the mood a piece
has to be played with. They are Italian words like “adagio, allegro, etc...”, we have changin tempo
sings also, like “accel., rall., rit...”

Dynamics marks are usually letters that indicate Italian words that determine the loudness od
sounds: forte, piano, pianissimo... We also have changing dynamics that are signs or Italian words
that indicate a change in loudness.
We have other words also, like “staccato, marcato, accent marks, repeat marks (they can have
different endings), measure repat, multiple measure repeat (for silence), note repeating sing and
higher or lower octave signs.

We have two different concepts for melody and harmony. Melody is made by pitch and rhythm, is a
logical progression of tones and rhythm. It is not a random conglomeration of tones because tones
have to relate too and follow from each other, they have to make sense and follow the rules of the
key. We usually find simmetry, repetition, tension and release in a melody.
A melody the progresses in half or whole steps is called step-wise or in conjuncts motion, on the
contrary we have skip-wise o disjunct motion.

With the syncopation you have emphasis (accent) in a place it is not expected to be = accenting
something else than down-beat (up – beat).
Triplet is an irregular group, three notes that have to fit in a place that usually holds two of them.

To transpose is to perform a piece in a different key by two ways:

1. You can rewrite it with the new key signature and the intervals of the melody must be the
 same;
2. play or sing it in a different clef and key signature.
The conductor, conducts the orchestra. He can do it with bare hands, or with a stick or batòn. With
his left hand sets the tempo and with the right one the spirit, dynamics and emphasis.
The orchestra gets on the stage and has a seat; pitches, warms up and performs.

A chord is a group of at least three tones ore notes played at the same time or together or
simultaneously. The relationships between the notes (that means the interval) define the type of
chord. A chord of three notes is called triad and it's made of root, third and fifth.

ROOT THIRD FIFTH

minor perfect minor triad
major perfect major triad
minor diminuished diminuished triad
major augmented augmented triad

If we have further thirds, we have chords of seventh, nineth, eleventh, thirteenth. The most
important is the seventh on the dominant. A triad can have two inversion, where the root is not in
the bass anymore. If I write the natural major scale:

I II III IV V VI VII

major minor minor major major minor diminuished

I II III IV V VI VII
minor diminuished augmented minor major major diminuished

A cadence is a succession of chords with a specific pattern: V – I (perfect cadence), IV – I (plagal

cadence), ending on V(imperfect cadence), V – VI (deceptive cadence).

A cadenza is a virtuoso pass for solo instruments played at the end of the first movement or third
movement in a concerto or sonata.

A choir is a group of people singing together. Female voices and male voices and blank voices
(kids); the choir can have a conductor and a piece composed for a choir in called chorus.

The embellishings – Trill: is a way to extend a single note, by rapidly alternating it and the superior
one. It can have preparation or/and resolution. If we have a dotted note, the trill doesn't cover the
dot value. Grace note: is very rapid and can be downbeat or up beat.
Appoggiatura: its value is 50% of the real note, 2/3 of a dotted note; it has to be the distance
of a second form the real note. Turn: it turns around the real note with the superior and
inferior note; it can be over the note (both superior and inferior), it can be between two notes. If we
have a turn between two notes and the first is dotted, it remains between the note and the dot
(triplet). Mordent: is a rapid alternation between the real note and its superior or
inferior, it can be simple or double. Arpeggiato: is a chord played melodically, started from
the bass. Can be on downbeat or upbeat. Glissato: very rapid succession of the notes.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS: the whole study of musical instruments is the

subject of the science of organology, the study includes the entire history of human kind and all
cultural periods, it uses other sources like archaeology, literature, sculpture, painting and others.
Organology is important to develope the knowledge about music instruments and history beacuse it
analyzes instruments, technologies and great instrument makers. In ancient Greece instruments
were divided in two big groups: blown and struck (in this group we can find the all stringed
instruments) and then the strings acquired the leading role. Moreover the classification “wind,
percussion, strings” soon became popular.
In China the classification was made by religion and philosophy that's why musical instruments
were divided in 8 groups: metal, stone, clay, skin, silk, wood, gourd and bamboo. In India the model
of classification basically followes the European one: tata (string), sushira (wind), avanaja
(membranophones) and ghana (idiophones). In 1880 the Belgian Mahillon published a complex
classification of the all musical instruments of the world, tirthy years later, Von Hornbostel and
Sachs focused their classification on the sound generating method: air column, string, membrane
and hard surface. The scientific classification is based on the principle of sound-generation and so
we have five groups: aerophones (by an air column), idiophones (when the material generates
sound), membranophones (by a stretched skin or other material membrane), chordophones (by a
stretched string), electrophones (by electronic means).
In Europe, the aerophones are divided in brass and woodwind, chordophones are named strings,
membranophones and idiophones are united under percussions. Kyeboards are a separate category
because they can be very different: piano, harpsichord, organ, accordion and modern keyboards.
AEROPHONES: this category includes a lot of instrument that generate their sound thanks to a
vibrating air mass. They are divided in two categories: free aerophones (appeared in the early
cultures) and aerophones proper (important for the development of musical traditions).
Wind instruments are divided into woodwinds and brass and the change of pitch is achieved by
changing the lenght of the vibrating air column in the tube thanks to the overblowing (a ingreasing
pressure of the air mass to obtain a certain tone). The pitch can also be ahanged by opening or
closing fingerholes on the tube or thanks valves, pistons ad slides. All woodwinds are wide-bored
and, very often, their tubes are straight but brass tubes are conical or cylindrical bore (or a
combination of those), the flare bell improves the sound projection and quality. The timbre or tone
of aerophones is determined by the presence of overtones (number, loudness, relation). More
overtonse, more resonant and expressive is the sound. There are instruments with medium
overtones, higher or lower overtones.
IDIOPHONES: are the most ancient musical instruments. They are divided in definite and
indefinite pitch and sounds can be generated by the percussion of human body, objects found in
nature and related to celebrations, ceremonies and dances. We can have struck idiophones when
more sonorous parts clash together or when we have beaters, shaken idiophones when small pellets
are encolsed in an object; friction idiophones when the surface is rubbed and plucked idiophones.
Usually, idiophones have some special amplifying system and the European classification combines
idiophones and membraphones in a single category.
MEMBRANOPHONES: here the sound is generated externally by the vibration of a stretched
membrane by a stick or a cord.
CHORDOPHONES: sound is produced by vibrating strings streched between fixed points and the
tone depends on leght, thickness, mass and tension. (thin and shot = higher sound; thick and long =
lower one). This tipe of instrument has a resonator and the great luthiers paid attention to this
material, size and poportion. These are divided in three different groups: plucked like harp or guitar,
struck like piano or clavichord, bowed like cello and violin.
ELECTROPHONES: the sound is generated by means of vacuum valves or semiconductor devices,
they were born in the twentieth century.

ENSEMBLES AND ORCHESTRAS: the word orchestra has Greek origins because it derives from
the ancient theatre were it indicates the space between the stage and the audience where the chorus
danced. The word was used to inticate the place for musicians in the theatre in 1678 in Hamburg.
Orchestras cover a wide range of types because the development of the art of music and its
trasformation in a mean of communication for social groups give rise to a new formations like jazz
bands, rock groups. Today we have also the academy orchestras, consorts where we have musical
instrument of the same family and cameratas.
CHAMBER ENSEMBLES AND ORCHESTRAS: a chamber ensemble is a small group of
musicians performing in small halls. They play soloistically form small groups of people (most of
them were royal or aristocratic families. This kind of music was also known in ancient Greece or
Rome were people sing to the accompaniment of the lyre or some string instrument. In the Middle
Age that tradition was continued by minnesingers, trouveur and so on. During the Renaissance
vocal forms are added and in the Baroque period the sonata became the most important and elegant
chamber genre. The sonata was composed for two high-pitched instruments and a bass instrument,
in the baroque orchestra the basso continuo might be performed by several instruments like cellos,
biola da gamba, basson, organ or harpsichord. Starting from Mozart, the two parts were of equal
importance. During the 17th and the 18th century, in France, there were 3 types of ensamble: to
perform sacred music, to play outdoors, to play in the royal chambers. The string quartet dominate
the chamber music in the time of Haydn and it still popular today.
Mozart written 27 string quartets and may composers were attracted to this type of chamber music
as well as in the 19th and 20th centuries new instruments were added to entiching the timbre.
Materpieces of chamber music were also composed by Brahms, Debussy, Ravel, Poulenc and
others.

THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRA: By the time of Mozart and Haydn, orchestras
would contain two flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassons, horns trumpets, timpani and strings but more
intruments were added like the contrabasson and the alto flute, four horns or a tuba, one or two
harps. Nowdays we also have multiple percussions, piano and saxophone.
WOODWIND SECTION has the piccolos that are very piercing, the flutes and the oboes which are
much more smooth, the clarinets, the cor anlgais, the bassons and the contrabassons.
BRASS SECTION has the trumpets with a really bright sound, the french horns, the alto and tenor
trombones and the tuba.
THE PERCUSSION this section is divided in tuned (glokenspiel, vibraphone, tubular bells and
timpani) and untuned sections (all those percussions that don't play specific notes).
THE STRINGS are similar in sound but different in pitch. The violins are the highest, the violas are
in the middle, the cellos play the bass notes like the double basses.

WOODWINDS INSTRUMENTS – FLUTE: the modern transverse flute which is side-blown, was
preceded by the end-blown flute (called recorder) used during the Renaissance period. The
transverse flute became popular in military bands, in opera and chamber orchestras. The inventor
Theobald Boehm of Munich (1784-1881) redesigned the instrument in 1848.
The flute is a cylindrical tube composed by three joints detachable.
The head joint contains the mouth hole with a curved lip plate where the air is blown and a stopper
used to tune the instrument.
On the body joints there are the soundholes and keys.On the foot joint we can find additional two or
three keys. The modern flute is made of German silver, silver o gold alloys.the flute is the most
agile and technically advances of all wind instruments. We can also have piccolo( the highest
pitched instrument in the symphony orchestra, it became part of the orchestra in the 18 th century. It
has a very bright sound), alto (used for the first time by Rimsky-Korsakov in the opera Mlada, later
in Ravel's and Debussy's orchestral works. It can be pitched in G or in F) and bass (it is the lower
flute, created in Milan in 1910 by Albizzi, it is pitched in C).
REPERTORY: it is widely used in orchestra, solo, chamber music. Bach composed 6 sonatas and a
Concerto in D minor. Vivaldi, Telemann, Haendel, Wrote for this instrument. Very famous are the
two Concertos for flute composed by Mozart: the k313 in D major and the k314 in G major; the
Debussy's Prélude à l'aprés midi d'un faune, Syrinx; Compositions by Ravel, Hindemith, Prokofiev,
John Cage.

TRANSPOSER INSTRUMENT: strumento traspositore

CHORD SHEET: only chords
LEAD SHEET: 1 staff, cords plus song
SHEET: single part for singer or instrument
SCORE: the entire score, the entire piece with all instruments
SIGHT READING: lettura a prima vista
NASHVILLE NUMBER SYSTEM: number insteads of chords
CHORD: accordo
STRING: corda o arco
MM: metronome Maelzel, the name who invented the mechanich metronome and he has been one
of Beethoven's teachers
BAR: stanghetta
DOUBLE BAR: doppia stanghetta
MEASURE: misura o battuta
SLUR: legatura di portamento
TIE: legatura di valore
PHRASE: legatura di frase
FERMATA: corona
DOTTED NOTE: nota puntata
HEAD: testa
FLAG: baffo
STEM: gambo
RATIO 2 TO 1: rapporto di 2 a 1
TIME SIGNATURE: segno di tempo
KEY SIGNATURE: armatura di chiave
REVERSE INTERVAL: rivolto
THIN: sottile
THICK: spesso
STAFF: 5 lines and 4 spaces
GROUND STAFF: for piano, organ and harp
SHARP: diesis
DOUBLE SHARP: doppio diesis
FLAT: bemolle
DOUBLE FLAT: doppio bemolle
NATURAL: bequadro
ACCIDENTALS: alterazioni