Spectrum analyzer

A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal

versus frequency within the full frequency range of the instrument.
The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known
and unknown signals. The input signal that most common spectrum
analyzers measure is electrical; however, spectral compositions of
other signals, such as acoustic pressure waves and optical light waves,
can be considered through the use of an appropriate transducer.
Spectrum analyzers for other types of signals also exist, such as
A spectrum analyzer from 2005
optical spectrum analyzers which use direct optical techniques such as
a monochromator to make measurements.

By analyzing the spectra of electrical signals, dominant frequency,

power, distortion, harmonics, bandwidth, and other spectral
components of a signal can be observed that are not easily detectable
in time domain waveforms. These parameters are useful in the
characterization of electronic devices, such as wireless transmitters.

The display of a spectrum analyzer has frequency on the horizontal

axis and the amplitude displayed on the vertical axis. To the casual A modern real time spectrum
observer, a spectrum analyzer looks like an oscilloscope and, in fact, analyzer from 2019
some lab instruments can function either as an oscilloscope or a
spectrum analyzer.

Contents
History
Types
Form factor
Benchtop
Portable
Handheld
Networked
Theory of operation
Swept-tuned
FFT-based
Hybrid superheterodyne-FFT
Realtime FFT
Online realtime and offline realtime
FFT overlapping
Minimum signal detection time
Persistence
Hidden signals

Typical functionality
 Center frequency and span
Resolution bandwidth
Video bandwidth
Detector
Displayed average noise level
Radio-frequency uses
Audio-frequency uses
Optical spectrum analyzer
Vibration spectrum analyzer
See also
References
Footnotes
External links

History
The first spectrum analyzers, in the 1960s, were swept-tuned
instruments.[1]

Following the discovery of the fast Fourier transform (FFT) in 1965,

the first FFT-based analyzers were introduced in 1967.[2]

Today, there are three basic types of analyzer: the swept-tuned

spectrum analyzer, the vector signal analyzer, and the real-time
spectrum analyzer.[1] A spectrum analyzer circa 1970

Types
Spectrum analyzer types are distinguished by the methods used to
obtain the spectrum of a signal. There are swept-tuned and fast
Fourier transform (FFT) based spectrum analyzers:

A swept-tuned analyzer uses a superheterodyne receiver

to down-convert a portion of the input signal spectrum to
the center frequency of a narrow band-pass filter, whose
instantaneous output power is recorded or displayed as a
function of time. By sweeping the receiver's center- The main PCB from a 20 GHz
frequency (using a voltage-controlled oscillator) through a spectrum analyser. Showing the
range of frequencies, the output is also a function of stripline PCB filters, and modular
frequency. But while the sweep centers on any particular block construction.
frequency, it may be missing short-duration events at other
frequencies.
An FFT analyzer computes a time-sequence of periodograms. FFT refers to a particular
mathematical algorithm used in the process. This is commonly used in conjunction with a
receiver and analog-to-digital converter. As above, the receiver reduces the center-frequency of
a portion of the input signal spectrum, but the portion is not swept. The purpose of the receiver
is to reduce the sampling rate that the analyzer must contend with. With a sufficiently low
 sample-rate, FFT analyzers can process all the samples (100% duty-cycle), and are therefore
able to avoid missing short-duration events.

Form factor
Spectrum analyzers tend to fall into four form factors: benchtop, portable, handheld and networked.

Benchtop

This form factor is useful for applications where the spectrum analyzer can be plugged into AC power, which
generally means in a lab environment or production/manufacturing area. Bench top spectrum analyzers have
historically offered better performance and specifications than the portable or handheld form factor. Bench top
spectrum analyzers normally have multiple fans (with associated vents) to dissipate heat produced by the
processor. Due to their architecture, bench top spectrum analyzers typically weigh more than 30 pounds
(14 kg). Some bench top spectrum analyzers offer optional battery packs, allowing them to be used away from
AC power. This type of analyzer is often referred to as a "portable" spectrum analyzer.

Portable

This form factor is useful for any applications where the spectrum analyzer needs to be taken outside to make
measurements or simply carried while in use. Attributes that contribute to a useful portable spectrum analyzer
include:

Optional battery-powered operation to allow the user to move freely outside.

Clearly viewable display to allow the screen to be read in bright sunlight, darkness or dusty
conditions..
Light weight (usually less than 15 pounds (6.8 kg)).

Handheld

This form factor is useful for any application where the spectrum
analyzer needs to be very light and small. Handheld analyzers usually
offer a limited capability relative to larger systems. Attributes that
contribute to a useful handheld spectrum analyzer include:

Very low power consumption.

Battery-powered operation while in the field to allow the
user to move freely outside.
Very small size
Handheld spectrum analyzer by
Light weight (usually less than 2 pounds (0.9 kg)). Agilent Technologies.

Networked

This form factor does not include a display and these devices are designed to enable a new class of
geographically-distributed spectrum monitoring and analysis applications. The key attribute is the ability to
connect the analyzer to a network and monitor such devices across a network. While many spectrum analyzers
have an Ethernet port for control, they typically lack efficient data transfer mechanisms and are too bulky or
expensive to be deployed in such a distributed manner. Key applications for such devices include RF intrusion
detection systems for secure facilities where wireless signaling is prohibited. As well cellular operators are
using such analyzers to remotely monitor interference in licensed spectral bands. The distributed nature of such
devices enable geo-location of transmitters, spectrum monitoring for dynamic spectrum access and many other
such applications.

Key attributes of such devices include:

Network-efficient data transfer

Low power consumption
The ability to synchronize data captures across a network of analyzers
Low cost to enable mass deployment.

Theory of operation

Swept-tuned

As discussed above in types, a swept-tuned spectrum analyzer down-converts a portion of the input signal
spectrum to the center frequency of a band-pass filter by sweeping the voltage-controlled oscillator through a
range of frequencies, enabling the consideration of the full frequency range of the instrument.

The bandwidth of the band-pass filter dictates the resolution bandwidth, which is related to the minimum
bandwidth detectable by the instrument. As demonstrated by the animation to the right, the smaller the
bandwidth, the more spectral resolution. However, there is a trade-off between how quickly the display can
update the full frequency span under consideration and the frequency resolution, which is relevant for
distinguishing frequency components that are close together. For a swept-tuned architecture, this relation for
sweep time is useful:
Where ST is sweep time in seconds, k is proportionality constant, Span is the frequency range under
consideration in hertz, and RBW is the resolution bandwidth in Hertz.[3] Sweeping too fast, however, causes a
drop in displayed amplitude and a shift in the displayed frequency.[4]

Also, the animation contains both up- and down-converted spectra, which is due to a frequency mixer
producing both sum and difference frequencies. The local oscillator feedthrough is due to the imperfect
isolation from the IF signal path in the mixer.

For very weak signals, a pre-amplifier is used, although harmonic and intermodulation distortion may lead to
the creation of new frequency components that were not present in the original signal.

FFT-based

With an FFT based spectrum analyzer, the frequency resolution is , the inverse of the time T over
which the waveform is measured and Fourier transformed.

With Fourier transform analysis in a digital spectrum analyzer, it is necessary to sample the input signal with a
sampling frequency that is at least twice the bandwidth of the signal, due to the Nyquist limit.[5] A Fourier
transform will then produce a spectrum containing all frequencies from zero to . This can place
considerable demands on the required analog-to-digital converter and processing power for the Fourier
transform, making FFT based spectrum analyzers limited in frequency range.

Hybrid superheterodyne-FFT

Since FFT based analyzers are only capable of considering narrow

bands, one technique is to combine swept and FFT analysis for
consideration of wide and narrow spans. This technique allows for
faster sweep time.

This method is made possible by first down converting the signal,

then digitizing the intermediate frequency and using superheterodyne
or FFT techniques to acquire the spectrum.

One benefit of digitizing the intermediate frequency is the ability to

use digital filters, which have a range of advantages over analog filters
Frequency spectrum of the heating
such as near perfect shape factors and improved filter settling time. up period of a switching power
Also, for consideration of narrow spans, the FFT can be used to supply (spread spectrum) incl.
increase sweep time without distorting the displayed spectrum. spectrogram over a few minutes

Realtime FFT

A realtime spectrum analyser does not

have any blind time—up to some
maximum span, often called the "realtime
bandwidth". The analyser is able to
sample the incoming RF spectrum in the
time domain and convert the information
to the frequency domain using the FFT Illustration showing Spectrum Analyzer Blind Time
process. FFT's are processed in parallel,
gapless and overlapped so there are no
gaps in the calculated RF spectrum and
no information is missed.

Online realtime and offline realtime

In a sense, any spectrum analyzer that

has vector signal analyzer capability is a
realtime analyzer. It samples data fast Comparison between Swept Max Hold and Realtime Persistence
enough to satisfy Nyquist Sampling displays
theorem and stores the data in memory
for later processing. This kind of analyser
is only realtime for the amount of data /
capture time it can store in memory and
still produces gaps in the spectrum and
results during processing time.

FFT overlapping

Minimizing distortion of information is

important in all spectrum analyzers. The
FFT process applies windowing
techniques to improve the output
spectrum due to producing less side
lobes. The effect of windowing may also
reduce the level of a signal where it is
captured on the boundary between one
FFT and the next. For this reason FFT's Bluetooth signal hidden behind wireless LAN signal
in a Realtime spectrum analyzer are
overlapped. Overlapping rate is
approximately 80%. An analyzer that utilises a 1024-point FFT process will re-use approximately 819 samples
from the previous FFT process.[6]

Minimum signal detection time

This is related to the sampling rate of the analyser and the FFT rate. It is also important for the realtime
spectrum analyzer to give good level accuracy.

Example: for an analyser with 40 MHz of realtime bandwidth (the maximum RF span that can be processed in
realtime) approximately 50 Msample/second (complex) are needed. If the spectrum analyzer produces
250 000 FFT/s an FFT calculation is produced every 4 μs. For a 1024 point FFT a full spectrum is produced
1024 x (1/50 x 106 ), approximately every 20 μs. This also gives us our overlap rate of 80% (20 μs − 4 μs) / 20
μs = 80%.

Persistence

Realtime spectrum analyzers are able to produce much more information for users to examine the frequency
spectrum in more detail. A normal swept spectrum analyzer would produce max peak, min peak displays for
example but a realtime spectrum analyzer is able to plot all calculated FFT's over a given period of time with
the added colour-coding which represents how often a signal appears. For example, this image shows the
difference between how a spectrum is displayed in a normal swept spectrum view and using a "Persistence"
view on a realtime spectrum analyzer.

Hidden signals

Realtime spectrum analyzers are able to see signals hidden behind other signals. This is possible because no
information is missed and the display to the user is the output of FFT calculations. An example of this can be
seen on the right.

Typical functionality

Center frequency and span

In a typical spectrum analyzer there are options to set the start, stop, and center frequency. The frequency
halfway between the stop and start frequencies on a spectrum analyzer display is known as the center
frequency. This is the frequency that is in the middle of the display's frequency axis. Span specifies the range
between the start and stop frequencies. These two parameters allow for adjustment of the display within the
frequency range of the instrument to enhance visibility of the spectrum measured.

Resolution bandwidth

As discussed in the operation section, the resolution bandwidth filter or RBW filter is the bandpass filter in
the IF path. It's the bandwidth of the RF chain before the detector (power measurement device).[7] It
determines the RF noise floor and how close two signals can be and still be resolved by the analyzer into two
separate peaks.[7] Adjusting the bandwidth of this filter allows for the discrimination of signals with closely
spaced frequency components, while also changing the measured noise floor. Decreasing the bandwidth of an
RBW filter decreases the measured noise floor and vice versa. This is due to higher RBW filters passing more
frequency components through to the envelope detector than lower bandwidth RBW filters, therefore a higher
RBW causes a higher measured noise floor.

Video bandwidth

The video bandwidth filter or VBW filter is the low-pass filter directly after the envelope detector. It's the
bandwidth of the signal chain after the detector. Averaging or peak detection then refers to how the digital
storage portion of the device records samples—it takes several samples per time step and stores only one
sample, either the average of the samples or the highest one.[7] The video bandwidth determines the capability
to discriminate between two different power levels.[7] This is because a narrower VBW will remove noise in
the detector output.[7] This filter is used to "smooth" the display by removing noise from the envelope. Similar
to the RBW, the VBW affects the sweep time of the display if the VBW is less than the RBW. If VBW is less
than RBW, this relation for sweep time is useful:

Here tsweep is the sweep time, k is a dimensionless proportionality constant, f2 − f1 is the frequency range of
the sweep, RBW is the resolution bandwidth, and VBW is the video bandwidth.[8]
Detector

With the advent of digitally based displays, some modern spectrum analyzers use analog-to-digital converters
to sample spectrum amplitude after the VBW filter. Since displays have a discrete number of points, the
frequency span measured is also digitised. Detectors are used in an attempt to adequately map the correct
signal power to the appropriate frequency point on the display. There are in general three types of detectors:
sample, peak, and average

Sample detection – sample detection simply uses the midpoint of a given interval as the
display point value. While this method does represent random noise well, it does not always
capture all sinusoidal signals.
Peak detection – peak detection uses the maximum measured point within a given interval as
the display point value. This insures that the maximum sinusoid is measured within the interval;
however, smaller sinusoids within the interval may not be measured. Also, peak detection does
not give a good representation of random noise.
Average detection – average detection uses all of the data points within the interval to
consider the display point value. This is done by power (rms) averaging, voltage averaging, or
log-power averaging.

Displayed average noise level

The Displayed Average Noise Level (DANL) is just what it says it is—the average noise level displayed on
the analyzer. This can either be with a specific resolution bandwidth (e.g. −120 dBm @1 kHz RBW), or
normalized to 1 Hz (usually in dBm/Hz) e.g. −170 dBm(Hz).This is also called the sensitivity of the spectrum
analyzer. If a signal level equal to the average noise level is fed there will be a 3 dB display. To increase the
sensitivity of the spectrum analyzer a preamplifier with lower noise figure may be connected at the input of the
spectrum analyzer. co[9]

Radio-frequency uses
Spectrum analyzers are widely used to measure the frequency response, noise and distortion characteristics of
all kinds of radio-frequency (RF) circuitry, by comparing the input and output spectra. For example, in RF
mixers, spectrum analyzer is used to find the levels of third order inter-modulation products and conversion
loss. In RF oscillators, spectrum analyzer is used to find the levels of different harmonics.

In telecommunications, spectrum analyzers are used to determine occupied bandwidth and track interference
sources. For example, cell planners use this equipment to determine interference sources in the GSM
frequency bands and UMTS frequency bands.

In EMC testing, a spectrum analyzer is used for basic precompliance testing; however, it can not be used for
full testing and certification. Instead, an EMI receiver is used.

A spectrum analyzer is used to determine whether a wireless transmitter is working according to defined
standards for purity of emissions. Output signals at frequencies other than the intended communications
frequency appear as vertical lines (pips) on the display. A spectrum analyzer is also used to determine, by
direct observation, the bandwidth of a digital or analog signal.

A spectrum analyzer interface is a device that connects to a wireless receiver or a personal computer to allow
visual detection and analysis of electromagnetic signals over a defined band of frequencies. This is called
panoramic reception and it is used to determine the frequencies of sources of interference to wireless
networking equipment, such as Wi-Fi and wireless routers.
Spectrum analyzers can also be used to assess RF shielding. RF shielding is of particular importance for the
siting of a magnetic resonance imaging machine since stray RF fields would result in artifacts in an MR
image.[10]

Audio-frequency uses
Spectrum analysis can be used at audio frequencies to analyse the harmonics of an audio signal. A typical
application is to measure the distortion of a nominally sinewave signal; a very-low-distortion sinewave is used
as the input to equipment under test, and a spectrum analyser can examine the output, which will have added
distortion products, and determine the percentage distortion at each harmonic of the fundamental. Such
analysers were at one time described as "wave analysers". Analysis can be carried out by a general-purpose
digital computer with a sound card selected for suitable performance[11] and appropriate software. Instead of
using a low-distortion sinewave, the input can be subtracted from the output, attenuated and phase-corrected,
to give only the added distortion and noise, which can be analysed.[12]

An alternative technique, total harmonic distortion measurement, cancels out the fundamental with a notch
filter and measures the total remaining signal, which is total harmonic distortion plus noise; it does not give the
harmonic-by-harmonic detail of an analyser.

Spectrum analyzers are also used by audio engineers to assess their work. In these applications, the spectrum
analyzer will show volume levels of frequency bands across the typical range of human hearing, rather than
displaying a wave. In live sound applications, engineers can use them to pinpoint feedback.

Optical spectrum analyzer

An optical spectrum analyzer uses reflective or refractive techniques to separate out the wavelengths of light.
An electro-optical detector is used to measure the intensity of the light, which is then normally displayed on a
screen in a similar manner to a radio- or audio-frequency spectrum analyzer.

The input to an optical spectrum analyzer may be simply via an aperture in the instrument's case, an optical
fiber or an optical connector to which a fiber-optic cable can be attached.

Different techniques exist for separating out the wavelengths. One method is to use a monochromator, for
example a Czerny–Turner design, with an optical detector placed at the output slit. As the grating in the
monochromator moves, bands of different frequencies (colors) are 'seen' by the detector, and the resulting
signal can then be plotted on a display. More precise measurements (down to MHz in the optical spectrum) can
be made with a scanning Fabry–Pérot interferometer along with analog or digital control electronics, which
sweep the resonant frequency of an optically resonant cavity using a voltage ramp to piezoelectric motor that
varies the distance between two highly reflective mirrors. A sensitive photodiode embedded in the cavity
provides an intensity signal, which is plotted against the ramp voltage to produce a visual representation of the
optical power spectrum.[13]

The frequency response of optical spectrum analyzers tends to be relatively limited, e.g. 800–1600 nm (near-
infrared), depending on the intended purpose, although (somewhat) wider-bandwidth general purpose
instruments are available.

Vibration spectrum analyzer

A vibration spectrum analyzer allows to analyze vibration amplitudes at various component frequencies, In this
way, vibration occurring at specific frequencies can be identified and tracked. Since particular machinery
problems generate vibration at specific frequencies, machinery faults can be detected or diagnosed. Vibration
Spectrum Analyzers use the signal from different types of sensor, such as: accelerometers, velocity transducers
and proximity sensors. The uses of a vibration spectrum analyzer in machine condition monitoring allows to
detect and identify machine faults such as: rotor imbalance, shaft misalignment, mechanical looseness, bearing
defects, among others. Vibration analysis can also be used in structures to identify structural resonances or to
perform modal analysis.

See also
Electrical measurements
Electromagnetic spectrum
Measuring receiver
Radio-frequency sweep
Spectral leakage
Spectral music
Radio spectrum scope
Stationary-wave integrated Fourier-transform spectrometry

References

Footnotes
1. Take A Peek Inside Today's Spectrum Analyzers (http://electronicdesign.com/displays/take-pee
k-inside-todays-spectrum-analyzers) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170506192902/h
ttp://www.electronicdesign.com/displays/take-peek-inside-todays-spectrum-analyzers) 2017-
05-06 at the Wayback Machine; Bob Hiebert, 2005, accessed 10 April 2013.
2. The 'Real' History of Real-Time Spectrum Analyzers (http://www.sandv.com/downloads/0701de
er.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150621073829/http://www.sandv.com/downloa
ds/0701deer.pdf) 2015-06-21 at the Wayback Machine; Joe Deery, 2007, accessed 10 April
2013.
3. Keysight Spectrum Analyzer Basics (http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5952-0292.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180323154714/http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litw
eb/pdf/5952-0292.pdf) 2018-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, p. 23, August 2, 2006, accessed
July 7, 2011.
4. Keysight Spectrum Analyzer Basics (http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5952-0292.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180323154714/http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litw
eb/pdf/5952-0292.pdf) 2018-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, p. 22, Figure 2–14, August 2,
2006, accessed July 7, 2011.
5. "How do I know what is the best sampling rate to use for my measurement? - Keysight (formerly
Agilent's Electronic Measurement)" (https://www.keysight.com/main/editorial.jspx?cc=US&lc=e
ng&ckey=1775376&nid=-536900125.0.00&id=1775376&pselect=SR.GENERAL).
www.keysight.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180323154748/https://www.keysig
ht.com/main/editorial.jspx?cc=US&lc=eng&ckey=1775376&nid=-536900125.0.00&id=1775376
&pselect=SR.GENERAL) from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
6. Dr. Florian Ramian – Implementation of Real-Time Spectrum Analysis (https://www.rohde-schw
arz.com/us/applications/implementation-of-real-time-spectrum-analysis-white-paper_230854-1
5815.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180209182434/https://www.rohde-schwar
z.com/us/applications/implementation-of-real-time-spectrum-analysis-white-paper_230854-158
15.html) 2018-02-09 at the Wayback Machine, p. 6, March, 2015, accessed February 9, 2018.
 7. – [EE] TV Tuner Based Spectrum Analyzer (http://www.piclist.com/techref/postbot.asp?by=thre
ad&id=%5BEE%5D+TV+Tuner+Based+Spectrum+Analyzer&w=body&tgt=post&at=20120524
233824apiclist.com) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055149/http://www.piclist.
com/techref/postbot.asp?by=thread&id=%5BEE%5D+TV+Tuner+Based+Spectrum+Analyzer&
w=body&tgt=post&at=20120524233824apiclist.com) 2013-09-21 at the Wayback Machine,
2012-05-25
8. Keysight Spectrum Analyzer Basics (http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5952-0292.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180323154714/http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litw
eb/pdf/5952-0292.pdf) 2018-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, p. 36, August 2, 2006, accessed
July 13, 2011.
9. Keysight Spectrum Analyzer Basics (http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5952-0292.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180323154714/http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litw
eb/pdf/5952-0292.pdf) 2018-03-23 at the Wayback Machine, p. 50, August 2, 2006, accessed
March 25, 2018.
10. "Archived copy" (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_100.pdf) (PDF). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20111120045254/https://aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_100.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 2011-11-20. Retrieved 2012-04-11.
11. ClariSonus Research Report #001, PC Sound Card Evaluation,John Atwood, 2006. (http://ww
w.clarisonus.com/Research%20Reports/RR001-SoundCardEval/RR001-PCsoundCards.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110705033550/http://clarisonus.com/Research%20Re
ports/RR001-SoundCardEval/RR001-PCsoundCards.html) 2011-07-05 at the Wayback
Machine Detailed tests of various sound cards for use as D/A and A/D converters for sound
testing software on a PC
12. "Renardson audio designs: Distortion measurement" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013062506
4334/http://www.angelfire.com/ab3/mjramp/golopid6.html). angelfire.com. Archived from the
original (http://www.angelfire.com/ab3/mjramp/golopid6.html) on 25 June 2013. Retrieved
7 May 2018.
13. Final Report "Team Spectrum" (http://mason.gmu.edu/~jdilles/capstone/). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160817164232/http://mason.gmu.edu/~jdilles/capstone/) from the original
on 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2015-04-08.

External links
Sri Welaratna, "[1] (https://web.archive.org/web/20130527184028/http://www.dataphysics.com/r
esources/library-data-physics-center/30-years-of-fft-analyzers.html)", Sound and Vibration
(January 1997, 30th anniversary issue). A historical review of hardware spectrum-analyzer
devices.

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