Point-Mass Dynamics and

Aerodynamic/Thrust Forces!
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, !
MAE 331, 2016
Learning Objectives
•! Properties of atmosphere and dynamic pressure
•! Frames of reference for position and motion
•! Velocity and momentum in inertial frame
•! Newton

s three laws of motion and “flat-earth” gravitation
•! Longitudinal and lateral-directional axes of airplane
•! Lift and drag expressed using non-dimensional coefficients
•! Simplified equations for longitudinal motion
•! Aircraft powerplants and thrust
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Introduction, 1-27!
The Earth’s Atmosphere, 29-34!
Kinematic Equations, 38-53!
Forces and Moments, 59-65!
Introduction to Thrust, 103-107!

Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html 1
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Assignment #2"
due: End of day, Sept 30, 2016!

•! Compute the trajectory of a balsa glider!

•! Simulate equations of motion!
•! Compare to the actual flight of the glider
(Assignment #1)!
•! Similar to flight of paper airplane!
•! 2-person team assignment !
2
The Atmosphere!

Properties of the
Lower Atmosphere*

Stratosphere

Tropopause
Troposphere

•! Air density and pressure decay

exponentially with altitude
•! Air temperature and speed of sound are
piecewise-linear functions of altitude 4
* 1976 US Standard Atmosphere
 Air Density, Dynamic Pressure,
and Mach Number
! = Air density, function of height
= ! sealevel e" # h = ! sealevel e# z
! sealevel = 1.225 kg/m 3; " = 1 / 9, 042 m
1/2 1/2
Vair = !"vx2 + vy2 + vz2 #$ = !"v T v #$ = Airspeed
air air

1
Dynamic pressure = q = ! ( h )Vair2 ! "qbar"
2
Vair
Mach number = ; a = speed of sound, m/s
a (h)
5

Contours of Constant
Dynamic Pressure, q
1 2
•! In steady, cruising flight, Weight = Lift = C L !Vair S = C L qS
2

True airspeed must increase as altitude increases

to maintain constant dynamic pressure 6
 Wind: Motion of the Atmosphere
Zero wind at Earth


s surface = Rotating air mass
Wind measured with respect to Earth

s rotating surface

Wind Velocity Profiles vary over Time

Airspeed = Airplane

s speed with respect to air mass

Earth-relative velocity = Wind velocity ± True airspeed [vector]
7

!is"rical Fac"ids
•! Henri Pitot: Pitot tube (1732) Sir George Cayley
•! Sketched "modern" airplane
configuration (1799)
•! Hand-launched glider (1804)

•! Papers on applied aerodynamics

(1809-1810)
•! Triplane glider carrying 10-yr-old boy
(1849)
•! Benjamin Robins: Whirling •! Monoplane glider carrying coachman
 (1742)
arm "wind tunnel (1853)
–! Cayley's coachman had a steering oar
with cruciform blades

8
 Equations of Motion
for a Particle
(Point Mass)!

Newtonian Frame of Reference

!! Newtonian (Inertial) Frame of
Reference
!! Unaccelerated Cartesian frame:
origin referenced to inertial (non-
moving) frame
!! Right-hand rule
!! Origin can translate at constant
linear velocity
!! Frame cannot rotate with respect
to inertial origin
! x $
!! Position: 3 dimensions # &
!! What is a non-moving frame? r=# y &
#" z &%

Translation changes the position of an object

10
 Velocity and Momentum
!! Velocity of a particle

! x! $ ! vx $
dx # & # &
v= = x! = # y! & = # vy &
dt
#" z! &% # v &
#" z %&
!! Linear momentum of a particle

! vx $
# &
p = mv = m # vy &
# v &
#" z &%
where m = mass of particle
11

Inertial Velocity Expressed in

Polar Coordinates
Polar Coordinates Projected on a Sphere

! : Vertical Flight Path Angle, rad or deg

" : Horizontal Flight Path Angle (Heading Angle), rad or deg
12
 Newton


s Laws of Motion:!
Dynamics of a Particle

!! First Law: If no force acts on a particle,

!! it remains at rest or
!! continues to move in a straight line at
constant velocity, as observed in an inertial
reference frame
!! Momentum is conserved

d
( mv ) = 0 ; mv t1 = mv t2
dt
13

Newton


s Laws of Motion: !
Dynamics of a Particle
!! Second Law: A particle of fixed mass acted upon
by a force
!! changes velocity with acceleration proportional to
and in the direction of the force, as observed in an
inertial frame;
!! The ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of the
particle:
! fx $
F = ma d dv #
( mv ) = m = F ; F = # fy &
&
dt dt # &
#" fz &%

" 1/ m 0 0 % " fx %
dv 1 1 $ '$ '
! = F = I 3F = $ 0 1/ m 0 ' $ fy '
dt m m
$# 0 0 1 / m '& $ f ' 14
$# z '&
 Newton


s Laws of Motion: !
Dynamics of a Particle
!! Third Law
!! For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction

Force on Rocket = Force on Exhaust Gasses

15

Equations of Motion for a Particle:

Position and Velocity
Force vector ! fx $
# &
FI = # fy & = !" Fgravity + Faerodynamics + Fthrust $%
I
# f &
#" z &% I
Rate of change
of velocity ! v!x $ ! 1/ m 0 0 $ ! fx $
dv # & 1 # &# &
= v! = # v!y & = F = # 0 1 / m 0 & # f &
dt m
y
# v! & #" 0 0 1/ m &% # fz &
#" z &% I #" &% I

! x! $ ! vx $
Rate of change dr # & # &
of position = r! = # y! & = v = # vy &
dt # v &
#" z! &%
I #" z &% I 16
 Integration for Velocity with
Constant Force
Differential equation
! fx m $ ! a $
dv ( t ) 1 # & # x &
= v! ( t ) = F = # fy m & = # ay &
dt m # f m & # &
#" z &% #" az &%

Integral
T dv ( t ) T 1 T
v (T ) = ! dt + v ( 0 ) = ! F dt + v ( 0 ) = ! a dt + v ( 0 )
0 dt 0 m 0

! v (T ) $ ! fx m $ ! v (0) $ ! ax $ ! v (0) $
# x & T# & # x
& T# & # x &
# vy ( T ) & = ' # fy m & dt + # vy ( 0 ) & = ' # ay & dt + # vy ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # & 0# & # &
#" vz (T ) &% #" f z m &% v
#" z ( 0 ) &% #" a z &% #" vz ( 0 ) &%
17

Integration for Position with

Varying Velocity
Differential equation

! x! ( t ) $ ! v (t ) $
dr ( t ) # & # x &
= r! ( t ) = v ( t ) = # y! ( t ) & = # vy ( t ) &
dt # & # &
#" z! ( t ) &% #" vz ( t ) &%

Integral
T dr ( t ) T
r (T ) = ! dt + r ( 0 ) = ! v ( t ) dt + r ( 0 )
0 dt 0

! x (T ) $ ! v (t ) $ ! x (0) $
x
# & T# & # &
# y (T ) & = ' # vy ( t ) & dt + # y ( 0 ) &
# & 0# & # &
#" z (T ) &% #" vz ( t ) &% #" z ( 0 ) &%
18
 Gravitational Force:!
Flat-Earth Approximation
!! Approximation !! g is gravitational
!! Flat earth reference assumed to acceleration
be inertial frame, e.g.,
!! North, East, Down
!! mg is gravitational force
!! Range, Crossrange, Altitude (–) !! Independent of position
!! z measured down

! 0 $
(F ) = (F
gravity I )
gravity E
#
= mg E = m # 0 &
&
#" go &%
E

go ! 9.807 m/s 2 at earth's surface 19

Flight Path Dynamics, Constant

Gravity, No Aerodynamics
Integral
v x ( T ) = v x0
v x ( 0 ) = v x0
T
vz ( 0 ) = vz0 vz (T ) = vz0 ! " g dt = vz0 ! gT
x ( 0 ) = x0 0

x ( T ) = x 0 + v x0 T
z ( 0 ) = z0
T

Differential equation z (T ) = z0 + vz0 T ! " gt dt = z0 + vz0 T ! gT 2 2

v!x ( t ) = 0 0

v!z ( t ) = !g ( z positive up )
x! ( t ) = vx ( t )
z! ( t ) = vz ( t )

20
 MATLAB Scripts for Flat-Earth
Trajectory, No Aerodynamics
Analytical Solution Numerical Solution
Calling Routine
g = 9.8;
t = 0:0.1:40; tspan = 40;
xo = [10;100;0;0];
vx0 = 10;
[t1,x1] = ode45('FlatEarth',tspan,xo);
vz0 = 100;
x0 = 0; Equations of Motion
z0 = 0;
f u n c t i o n x d o t = F l a t E a r t h( t , x )
vx1 = vx0; % x(1) = vx
vz1 = vz0 – g*t; % x(2) = vz
x1 = x0 + vx0*t; % x(3) = x
z1 = z0 + vz0*t - 0.5*g*t.* t; % x(4) = z
g = 9.8;
x d o t( 1 ) = 0;
x d o t( 2 ) = -g;
x d o t( 3 ) = x(1);
x d o t( 4 ) = x(2);
xdot = x d o t' ;
end 21

Flight Path with Constant

Gravity and No Aerodynamics

22
 Aerodynamic Force
on an Airplane

Earth-Reference Frame Body-Axis Frame Wind-Axis Frame

! X $ ! CX $
# & 1
FI = # Y & = # CY & 'Vair S
2

& 2
# &
#" Z &% E # CZ ! CX $ ! CD $
" %E # & # &
FB = # CY & qS FV = # CY &q S
! CX $ # C & # C &
# & " Z %B
" L %
= # CY & qS
# C &
" Z %E
Referenced to the Earth, not Aligned with the Aligned with and
the aircraft aircraft axes perpendicular to the
direction of motion
23

Non-Dimensional
Aerodynamic Coefficients
Body-Axis Frame Wind-Axis Frame

! CX $ ! axial force coefficient $ ! CD $ ! drag coefficient $

# & # & # & # &
# CY & = # side force coefficient & # CY & = # side force coefficient &
# C & # normal force coefficient & # C & # lift coefficient &
" Z %B " % " L % " %

•! Functions of flight condition, control settings, and disturbances, e.g.,

CL = CL(!, M, !E)
•! Non-dimensional coefficients allow application of sub-scale model
wind tunnel data to full-scale airplane

24
 Longitudinal Variables
u(t) : axial velocity
•!
w(t) : normal velocity
•!
V ( t ) : velocity magnitude •!
! ( t ) : angle of attack •!
" ( t ) : flight path angle •!
•!
# (t) : pitch angle
Lateral-Directional Variables
! (t) :sideslip angle •!
" (t) : yaw angle •!
# ( t ) : heading angle •!
$ ( t ) : roll angle •!
! = " # $ (with wingtips level)
along vehicle centerline
perpendicular to centerline
along net direction of flight
angle between centerline and direction of flight
angle between direction of flight and local horizontal
angle between centerline and local horizontal
25
! = " + # (with wingtips level)
angle between centerline and direction of flight
angle between centerline and local horizontal
angle between direction of flight and compass reference
(e.g., north)
angle between true vertical and body z axis
26
 !is"rical Fac"ids
Visionaries and Theorists
•!
•! 1831: Thomas Walker
–! Various glider concepts
–! Tandem-wing design
influenced Langley
Introduction to
Lift and Drag!
1843: William Henson & John
Stringfellow
–! Aerial steam carriage concept
–! Vision of commercial air
transportation (with Marriott and
Columbine, The Aerial Transit
Company)
27
28
Lift and Drag are Referenced
to Velocity Vector
1 2 % #C ( 1
Lift = C L !Vair S " 'C L0 + L $ * !Vair2 S
2 & #$ ) 2
•! Lift components sum to produce total lift
–! Perpendicular to velocity vector
–! Pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces

1 2 1
Drag = C D !Vair S " $%C D0 + # C L2 &' !Vair2 S
2 2
•! Drag components sum to produce total drag
–! Parallel and opposed to velocity vector
–! Skin friction, pressure differentials

29

2-D Aerodynamic Lift

1 2 1 2 % # CL (
Lift = C L flow
•! Fast
2
!Vairover (
S " top
C Lwing+ +slow
C L fuselage
flow )
+ Cover
Ltail
2
!Vair S "='CMean
bottom
& L0 + flow
#$
$ *+qS
)
Circulation
•! Speed difference proportional to angle of attack
•! Stagnation points at leading and trailing edges
•! Kutta condition: Aft stagnation point at sharp trailing edge

Streamlines Streaklines
Instantaneous tangent to velocity vector Locus of particles passing through points
Dye injected at fixed points

http://www.diam.unige.it/~irro/profilo_e.html 30
 3-D Lift
Inward-Outward Flow

Tip Vortices

Inward flow over upper surface

Outward flow over lower surface
Bound vorticity of wing produces tip vortices 31

32
 2-D vs. 3-D Lift
Identical Chord Sections
Infinite vs. Finite Span

Finite aspect ratio

reduces lift slope

What is
aspect ratio?

Talay, NASA-SP-367 33

Aerodynamic Drag
1 1
Drag = C D
2
( )
!Vair2 S " C Dp + C Dw + C Di !Vair2 S " $%C D0 + # C L 2 &' qS
2
•! Drag components
–! Parasite drag (friction, interference, base pressure
differential)
–! Wave drag (shock-induced pressure differential)
–! Induced drag (drag due to lift generation)

•! In steady, subsonic flight

–! Parasite (form) drag
increases as V2
–! Induced drag(due to lift)
proportional to 1/V2
–! Total drag minimized at
one particular airspeed

34
 !is"rical Fac"ids
•! 1868: Jean Marie Le Bris
•! 1891-96: Hang-glider flights
–! Artificial Albatross glides a short distance
–! Otto Lilienthal
–! Chanute, Pilcher, ...

•! 1874: Felix du Temple's hot-air engine

manned monoplane •! 1890: Clement Ader
–! Flies down a ramp –! Steam-powered Eole hops

•! 1884: Alexander Mozhaisky's •! 1894: Sir Hiram Maxim

steam-powered manned airplane –! Steam-powered biplane hops
–! brief hop off the ground –! Vertical gyro/servo control of the
elevator

35

2-D Equations of Motion with

Aerodynamics and Thrust!

36
2-D Equations of Motion
for a Point Mass
•! Motions restricted to vertical plane
•! Inertial frame, wind = 0
•! z positive down, flat-earth assumption
•! Point-mass location coincides with aircraft’s center of mass

! x! $ ! vx $
1
# & # & q= ! ( z ) ( vx2 + vz2 )
# z! & = # vz & 2
# v!x & # fx / m &
# & CT = Thrust coefficient
#
#" v!z && # fz / m & ! = Pitch angle
% " %
! 0 0 1 0 $! x $ ! 0 0 $
#
0 0 0 1
&#
&#
z
& #
&+# 0 0
&!
&#
(
CT cos' + C XI qS ) $
&
=#
vx
# 0 0 0 0 &#
&% #
& # 1/ m
&
0
&% #"
( )
& # (CT sin ' + CZ qS + mgo &
&%
#" 0 0 0 0 vz & " 0 1 / m
# I

#" % 37

Transform Velocity
from Cartesian to
Polar Coordinates
Inertial axes -> wind axes and back
! $ ! vx2 + vz2
$
x! 2 + z!2
! x! $ ! vx $ ! V cos ' $ ! V $ # & # &
# &=# &=# & ) # &=# (1 * z
!- &=# *v - &
" z! % #" vz &% #" (V sin ' &% #" ' %& # ( sin , / & # ( sin (1 , z / &
#" + V. &% #" +V. &%

Rates of change of velocity and flight path angle

" d %
v 2 + vz 2 '
" V! % $ dt x
$ '=$ '
$# !! '& $ ( d sin (1 ) vz , '
$ dt +* .- '
# V & 38
Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion
x : range
! = vx = V (t)cos ! (t)
x(t) z : –height (altitude)
z!(t) = vz = "V (t)sin ! (t) V : velocity
! : flight path angle

(CT cos # " CD ) 12 $ ( z )V 2 (t)S " mgo sin ! (t)

V! (t) =
m
(CT sin # + CL ) 12 $ ( z )V 2 (t)S " mgo cos ! (t)
!! (t) =
mV (t)
39

Steady, Level (i.e., Cruising) Flight

In steady, level flight with cos " ~ 1, sin " ~ 0
Thrust = Drag, Lift = Weight

! = vx = Vcruise
x(t)
z!(t) = vz = 0

(CT ! CD ) 12 " ( z )Vcruise

2
S
0=
m
1
CL " ( z )Vcruise
2
S ! mg ( z )
0= 2
mVcruise
40
 Introduction to
Aeronautical Propulsion!

41

Internal Combustion
Reciprocating Engine
Linear motion of pistons converted to
rotary motion to drive propeller

42
 Early Reciprocating Engines
•! Rotary Engine:
–! Air-cooled
–! Crankshaft fixed Sopwith Triplane
–! Cylinders turn with propeller
–! On/off control: No throttle

•! V-8 Engine:
–! Water-cooled
–! Crankshaft turns with propeller
SPAD S.VII

43

Turbojet Engines (1930s)

Thrust produced directly by exhaust gas

Axial-flow Turbojet (von Ohain, Germany)

Centrifugal-flow Turbojet (Whittle, UK)

44
 Birth of the Jet Airplane
Heinkel He. 178 (1939)
Gloster Meteor (1943)

Gloster E/28/39 (1941)

Bell P-59A (1942)

Messerschitt Me 262 (1942)

45

Turbojet + Afterburner (1950s)

•! Dual rotation rates, N1 and N2, typical

•! Fuel added to exhaust

•! Additional air may be introduced
46
 Fighter Aircraft and Engines
Lockheed P-38
Convair/GD F-102 MD F/A-18

Allison V-1710 P&W J57 GE F404

Turbocharged Reciprocating Engine Axial-Flow Turbojet Engine Afterburning Turbofan Engine

47

Turboprop Engines (1940s)

Exhaust gas drives propeller to produce thrust

48
 Turbofan Engine (1960s)

•! Dual or triple rotation rates

49

High Bypass Ratio Turbofan

Propfan Engine

Aft-fan Engine Geared Turbofan Engine

50
 Jet Engine Nacelles

51

Ramjet and Scramjet

Ramjet (1940s) Scramjet (1950s)

Talos X-51 Waverider

X-43
Hyper-X

52
 Thrust and Specific Impulse
Thrust m/s
I sp = " Specific Impulse, Units = = sec
m! go m/s 2
m! ! Mass flow rate of on - board propellant
go ! Gravitational acceleration at earth's surface

53

Thrust and Thrust Coefficient

1 2
Thrust ! CT "V S
2
•! Non-dimensional thrust coefficient,
CT
–! CT is a function of power/throttle
setting, fuel flow rate, blade angle,
Mach number, ...
•! Reference area, S, may be aircraft
wing area, propeller disk area, or
jet exhaust area

54
 Sensitivity of Thrust to Airspeed
1
Nominal Thrust = TN ! CTN "VN 2 S
2

(.)N = Nominal ( or reference ) value

Turbojet thrust is independent of airspeed
over wide range

55

Power
Assuming thrust is aligned with airspeed vector
1 3
Power = P = Thrust ! Velocity " CT #V S
2
Propeller–driven power is independent of airspeed
over a wide range
(reciprocating or turbine engine, with constant RPM or
variable-pitch prop)

56
 Next Time:!
Low-Speed Aerodynamics!
Reading:!
Flight Dynamics !
Aerodynamic Coefficients, 65-84!

57

Supplementar y
Material

58
 Reciprocating Engines
•! Rotary
•! In-Line

•! Radial

•! V-12 •! Opposed

59

Turbo-compound
Reciprocating Engine
•! Exhaust gas drives the turbo-compressor
•! Napier Nomad II shown (1949)

60
Propeller-Driven Aircraft of the 1950s
Reciprocating Engines Turboprop Engines

Vickers Viscount
Douglas DC-6

Bristol Britannia

Douglas DC-7

Lockheed Electra
Lockheed Starliner
(Constellation) 1649

61

Pulsejet
Flapper-valved motor (1940s) Dynajet Red Head (1950s)

Pulse Detonation Engine

V-1 Motor on Long EZ (1981)

http://airplanesandrockets.com/motors/dynajet-engine.htm 62
Jet Transports of the 2000s
Airbus A380
Boeing 787

Embraer 195 Boeing 747-8F

63

SR-71: P&W J58

Variable-Cycle
Engine (Late 1950s)

Hybrid Turbojet/
Ramjet

64