Gordan, N., & Reber, S. (2020).

Federal Aid to School Districts during the COVID-19

Recession. National Tax Journal. 73(3). DOI: 10.17310/ntj.2020.3.07, 781-804.

Introduction
COVID-19 has created unprecedented logistical challenges for elementary and secondary

schools, accompanied by new costs. Due to the pandemic, federal aid has been under a strain to

accommodate, and provide adequate resources to several schools. In contrast the federal

response to date has been limited. For Congress to continue to aid schools throughout the

pandemic planning must be implemented ongoing. If Congress “decides to invest in future

generations, it faces a range of options for how to structure an aid package “(Gordan & Reber,

2020).

Thus, stimulate the distribution of funds and show the considerable difference in how

per-child allocation correlate with child poverty rates under the most likely alternative

approaches (Gordan & Reber, 2020). This study explains why the federal government is

uniquely situated to promote school spending during the pandemic. This study evaluates what

can be done to better serve public schools. In addition, options for federal response to the public

health and economic cries due to the virus. Currently, school districts revenues are down, their

costs are up, state, and local resources cannot able to provide needed resources to support all

schools.

Context and Data

 To better understand how states, distribute aid to school districts, this research analyzed

district level data from FY2018, the most recent available. We characterize the progressivity of

state aid across districts within states by regressing per-pupil state aid on the child poverty rate,

controlling for log enrollment to account for economies of scale and weighted by enrollment,

separately for each state. Figure 2 shows the estimated B1 (multiplied by 10) for each state with

95 percent confidence intervals. The states are ordered from the most progressive at the top the

least progressive at the bottom.

For example, in the state where the distribution of state aid is most progressive

(Wyoming), every 10-percentage-point increase in a district’s child poverty rate is associated

with about $5,400 per pupil in additional state aid. Overall, aid is distributed to high-poverty

districts in receiving more aid per pupil than low-poverty districts uniform per-pupil state aid in a

handful of states. The sample displays that no states are showing a negative slope that is

statistically different from 0, though the point estimates are small and negative for several states.

Figure 3 shows how average revenue per pupil overall and for state and local resources

evolved during the Great Recession. We adjust for inflation and normalize the series to be l00 in

FY2008 before the recession. Therefore, this provides a breakdown of how monies are allocated

for each state.

Literature Review

 The decline in revenue translated into significant reductions in employment: Evans,

Schwab, and Wagner (2019), found that despite the influx of ARRA funds, the Great

Recession reduced K-12 employment enough to undo reductions in class size achieved in

the previous 13 years.

 Budgets were cut more in states with a greater reliance on state, rather than local,

revenue, as the recession hit state income and sales tax revenue bases hard.

 While federal grants succeeded at offsetting other revenue losses in the 2008-09 and

2009-10 school years, the recession lasted much longer than ARA funding, so federal aid

postponed, but did not prevent, budget cuts (Evans, Schwab, and Wagner, 2019).

 Two papers examining state-specific experiences during the Great Recession, Chakrabarti

and Sutherland (2013), on New Jersey and Chakrabarti, Livingston, and Setren (2015), on

New York, are enough to establish a range of impacts across states.

Results

The results suggest, “present stimulations of several scenarios, modeled on the different

approaches that, Congress has used to allocate stabilization aid during the Great Recession

and the COVID-19 crisis so far” (Gordan & Reber, 2020). The study focused on how

progressive different approaches would be: the extent to which they would send more aid per

child to states with higher child poverty rates. The research assessed how federal funds are

distributed to states, rather than how states are required to distribute aid to districts, for two

reasons.

First, Congress has more control over the incidence of aid between states than within

them: states will not make transfers to other states, but they may reallocate state aid across

districts in response to federal aid. Second, poorer states have significantly lower school

spending levels to start, so cuts are likely to be even more harmful. These findings describe

the progressivity of different approaches to allocating federal aid to states, rather than the

progressivity of spending that would ultimately prevail, accounting for responses of state and

local governments.
 The formulas we stimulate, such as those Congress uses for these purposes, determine

how any amount appropriated by Congress will be divided among the states. These

calculations simulate the allocation per child for each $10 billion of federal aid for ease of

interpretation and to focus on the distributional implications of different formulas. Congress

could allocate funds: (1) based on population or poverty counts or (2) proportional to existing

funding allocations that use population or poverty counts as inputs, as in the CARES Act

ESSER Fund.

In which relied on state shares of the Title I allocation, spending would ultimately

prevail, accounting for responses of state and local governments. In any stabilization

package, Congress would need to specify not only how it would distribute federal aid to the

states but also how states should allocate those funds to their districts. Congress does not

need to use the same approach for allocation to districts within states as it uses for allocations

to states. The study identified and answered the questions asked in the beginning on how

funding can benefit all states.

Discussion

 School districts will need more funds to operate during this economic and public

health crisis.

 The federal government is positioned to provide critical aid, because states cannot

easily borrow to cover funding shortfalls.

 Federal aid to state and local governments will also promote economic recovery by

reduction layoffs or increases in state and local taxes.

  We argue that additional stabilization funding for schools should be progressively

allocating more funding per child to states with higher poverty rates, rather than based

only on population, as under ARRA during the Great Recession.

 Due to the pandemic, poverty schools are affected the most with limited resources.

I agree with the research because it explains how students are at a loss for funding and

how important aid is needed, especially for poor districts. This will assist me while allocating

resources provided by the district in not being wasteful and learning how to use items that I

would usually discard as a potential project for later.

Text Structure #4
Ghazli, N., Zain, N. H., Fesol, S. F., Moketar, N. A., Odzaly, E. E., & al., e. (2012). Relationship
betwee learning habits and socioeconomic status: a COVID-19 pandemic study.
Inernational Journal of Advanced Technology and Engineering Exploration. Vol.8, (74),
DOI: 10.19101/IJATEE.2012.SI762122, 102-113.

Introduction
This study is based on a quantitative method of an examination to investigate

undergraduate learning habits during COVID-19 pandemic. This study evaluated the changes

that have occurred students’ habits and experiences in continuing to learn during the pandemic.

Thus it, “aims to study the relationship between the psychological disruption variable with the

perception of students regarding the importance to learn by themselves and their current

motivation to study even doing the pandemic” (Ghazi, 2012).

The academic performance of students existing knowledge, academicians and their

socioeconomic status, and their own efforts of completing assignments. In addition, students

were studied from different social environments and different background on if this might be a

determining factor on individual students’ academic performance.

According to Ghazali et al., (2012), “socioeconomic statuses may have different levels of

motivation and factors that contribute to their learning habits.” Therefore, Ghazli et al., (2012),

comments that, “an early intervention might be necessary to ensure students’ performance does

not decline.” Moreover, the opinion of Ghazli et al., (2012), is that without an early intervention

program, teachers will begin to see an increase in failing grades, fewer students being promoted

to the next grade, and a rise in depression statistics among students.

The research questions for this study include:

1. Before COVID-19 crisis, how many hours did you spend per day for self-learning?

2. During COVID-19 crisis, how many hours do you spend per day for self-learning?

3. Regarding hours of learning during COVID-19 crisis, how many hours are spent on

online learning per day?

This study is important to me because it reflects how student’s conception and opportunities

have made an impact since COVID-19, on learning new material without face-to-face teaching.

Therefore, this assures that students can and will adapt to different circumstances. Even though,

all students may not have the ability to complete assignments online, at least this study defines

the lengths many will go to in being successful and held accountable for their learning, either

positive or negatively.

This research design has clarified, no matter what race, gender, parent pressure, school

anxiety or motivation, a positive attitude and commitment will increase chances of

accomplishment. The outcome of this study can be used to assist students and academicians as

well as parents to recognize the features that might affect the learning habits and learning

performance of individual students (Ghazli et al., 2012). This study is hoped to help future

students to cope with this pandemic situation more steadily (Ghazli et al., 2012).

Review of Literature Review

 Lam G. A theorical framework of the relation between socioeconomic status and

academic achievement of students. Education. 2014, 134 (3):326-31. This journal

provides information on how to design a framework to assist with socioeconomic

status and achievement amongst students.

  Wang G, Zhang Y, Zhao J, Zhang J, Jiang F. Mitigate the effects of home

confinement on children during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet. 2020; 395

(10228:945-7). This article explains how students are experiencing depression due to

isolation due to the pandemic.

 Ozsoy G, Memis A, Temur T. Metacognition, study habits and attitudes. International

Electronic Journal Elementary Education. 2009: 2(1); 154-66. This study evaluated

students study habits and attitudes involving core-curriculum.

 Hauser RM. Measuring socioeconomic status in studies of Child Development. 1994;

65(6): 1541-5. k This study assessed if socioeconomic is a factor in children

development at a young age.

 Mueller CW, Parcel TL. Measures of socioeconomic status: alternatives and

recommendations. Child Development. 1981; 52(1): 13-30. This study examines,

what is available to students that are at a disadvantage from their environment to aid

in academic.

Participants and Context

Student co-researchers were recruited from undergraduates of the Faculty of Computer

and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi [sic] MARA, Melaka Branch. The online

questionnaires were distributed to all students through their respective academic advisor and the

participation was voluntary. The survey gathered responses from 675 participants between 18 to

25 years old from five bachelor’s degree programs and one diploma program in one week. Six

participants were excluded from the survey due to their refusal to participate. The Statistical

analysis was carried out using the SPSS tool.

 In the context of level of study, majority of the diploma (as much as 61.5%) and degree

(as much as 61.8% students), were studied between 4-8 hours daily during COVID-19, Whereas

27.5% of diploma students and 32.5% of degree students were studied less than 4 hours daily

during COVID-19. The remaining of 10.9% of diploma students and 5.7% of degree students

were studied more than 8 hours per day during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Many of the students with parents working in government, private, self-employed,

unemployed or from other types of occupation, spent around 4 to 8 hours daily for their online

learning during COVID-19. Only 6.1% and 6.7% of the students whose parents works in

government and private sectors respectively, must spend more than 8 hours daily just to maintain

their learning pace, as compared to 13.7% of students from the self-employed category.

Procedures

The questionnaire used was adapted from [33]. The questionnaire was designed to

measure the constructs below: Learning hours taken per day by students based on their

demographic data. In Addition, performed on data of difficulties experienced using on study

habits; Yes or No closed-ended questions and students perception of access disruption that

utilized a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 -N/A or I do not know, 2 = Much worse than

before, 3= Worse than before, 4 = Same as before, 5 = Better than before, and 6 = Much better

than before.

The association between socioeconomic and learning habits were calculated using Chi-

Square Test. Each item of learning habit was analyzed based on five categories: less than 2

hours, between 2 to 4 hours, between 4 to 6 hours, between 6 to 8 hours and more than 8 hours.
The Chi-Share Test of Independence is commonly used to test the statistical independence or

association between two or more categorical variables, which is suited with this study.

The investigation consisted of three sections. The first section of the survey gathers

information about demographics data such as age groups, levels of education, courses studied,

semester, total family income, and occupation sector for the head of the family. The second

section elicits simple information from student’s perception of assess disruption as well as

difficulties experienced due to COVID-19. To interpret more information from the research the

primary methods of analysis used were descriptive statistics. The descriptive analysis was

performed on demographic data toward self-learning hours during COVID-19.

Results

The results were conclusive with other studies on how undergraduates have adjusted their

learning style in leu of the current crisis. The results revealed that there is a small, positive

correlation between the variables of psychological disruption impact (r = 0.198) and students'

necessity of self-learning and self-motivation (r = 0.219). The sample concluded that male and

female students studied less before COVID-19. Whereas, during COVID-19 male and female

students had to study more than 8 hours per day during the pandemic.

However, in terms of the access towards their ability to continue their tertiary education,

ability to have a decent social life, and their state of psychological welfare, most of the students

ranked it as worse than before and much worse than before with a total of 63.3% {423}, 61.4%

(410), and 58.5% respectively. The results reported that there were only two socioeconomic

status variables (gender and year of study) found to be significant, where the p-value is less than
0.05, p=0.000; 0.003. The other two variables (residential area and family income) are not

significant.

Discussion

 We found an increasing pattern in the self-learning duration amid COVID-19 compared

to before COVID-19. This result was consistent with a study by (Tran T, Hoang AD,

Nguyen LC, Ta NT, Pham QH, et al. (2020), who concluded that the students spent more

hours 9 average of 4.0 hours daily at home for studying.

 In our study, many of the students spent around 4 to 8 hours, with an average of 6 hours

daily to perform their online assignments.

 This study reflected that there were differences in student’s learning habits about their

current year of study, either he/she was a junior or senior student.

 Moreover, family income was rejected along with socioeconomic status which referring

to gender, either the student male or female, did bring differences in students learning

pattern amid COVID-19.

 The results revealed that there is a positive relationship between the impact of

psychological disruption variable with the perception of students regarding the

importance to learn for themselves.

 Similar findings are portrayed, “where younger female students tended to do well with

mix of online courses, but older male students are less successful as they took a greater

proportion of their courses online” (Glazier RA, Hamann K, Pollock PH, Wilson BM.,

2017).
 After reading this study, I agree with the findings that students’ attitudes and perceptions are

more focused and an intense commitment to self-learning even with the present pandemic.

The research settles the misconception of social status, ethnicity, and income as an impact on

defining one’s dedication and willingness to succeed. to learning.

The results lead to the following question:

1) Once the pandemic is over will students return to their pattern of learning before COVID-

19?

Research Proposal: The effects of COVID-19 on Teachers and Students at Ida Lee Elementary

School

Introduction

This is a mixed qualitative research study that looks at how COVID-19, has impacted

students at Ida Lee Carey Elementary school. “Meanwhile, teachers are scrambling to retool

education, creating new video and online lessons from scratch to keep up with new demands”

(Aliyya, 2020). In addition, students are close to a grade level behind and their performance is

continuing to decline.

Moreover, students are showing significant signs of loss of knowledge theory, lower

grade “scores, psychological” and suffering from emotional issues; more than likely stemming

from the absence of traditional instructor-based teaching models. The students that seemed to

suffer the most, are students that have not returned to their, classrooms causing teachers to adapt

to the new way of teaching.

Subsequently, “students of color are about three to five months behind in learning; white

students were about one to three months behind” (Dorn et al., 2021). Therefore, schools need to
implement systems to increase individual students’ success, not to mention technological

problems, “insufficient learning materials and unstable internet and the like” (Yen, 2020). The

purpose of this study is declining due to the pandemic, the purpose of this study is to determine

whether “executing adaption strategies now and moving forward are imperative so that the

methods have positive and lasting effects to limit the past negative consequences” (UNESCO

2020). This research will use a six-point Likert scale (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 =

usually, 5= often, 6 = always) for the following questions.

The research questions for this study include:

Questions for students:

 Have you heard of Covid-19?

 Tell me what you know about Covid-19?

 During Covid-19 have you been going to school online or in person?

 How do you feel about Language Arts?

 What do you like about Language Arts?

Questions for teachers:

 What is the effect Covid-19 is having on the education of elementary school students?

 In what ways might this study assist educators, policy makers, administrators, and

politicians with coping with change?

 How are teachers coping with teaching virtually and face-to-face at the same time?

 What are the signs that a student has been impacted by Covid-19?

 As a teacher, how do you build up the confidence in your students in the classroom and

virtual?
 This study is important to me because students all over the world have been affected by

the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, as a future educator, it is our responsibility to be proficient

and adaptable to change. Currently we have no idea when the corona virus will be over, or what

life will look like following the pandemic. Therefore, we must ensure students have accessibility

for proper support and healthy development.

This research can assist me in the classroom in adapting lessons for student development

being delivered face-to-face and online. Prior research has focused on the problems that the

pandemic has already caused in the following areas: depression, anxiety, and the continual

decline in learning.

Review of Literature Review

 According to Aliyya, (2020), “the lack of limited technological equipment, limited

learning methods within the instructive system, lack of communication with the quality

of educational systems, and the shortage of technological formats used for children with

special educational needs and economic difficulties.”

 According to RTI International’s Center for Education Services “non-profit organizations

are assisting with closing opportunity gaps for students of color, raising achievement
levels and providing access to high-quality educational materials” (Lakhani, 2020).
 According to Aliyya, (2020), “teachers say they are scrambling to retool education,
creating new videos and online lessons from scratch” (p.2, para.2).
 According to Aliyya, (2020), “due to COVID-19, Texas public school system continues
to have problems with students being disengaged and implementing successful
educational curriculum.”
  According to Aliyya, (2020), “a flood of new data on the national, state and local districts
admit the group most affected is students of color and those in high-poverty
communities.”
 According to Aliyya, (2020), “executing adaption strategies now and moving forward
will create more methods that will have positive and lasting effects to limit the past
negative consequences in educational systems.”

Participants and Context

This mixed qualitative study will take place at Ida Lee Carey Elementary school. The

sample will consist of 30 student participants and 6 teachers who taught the students in third and

fourth grade to be eligible for the study. This study will only evaluate students that were

previously enrolled at the same school for language arts in the third and fourth grade. These

“teachers” will be key informants throughout the interviews of the students, to provide past and

current grades.

Thus, providing me the information to analyze data from past and present performance.

This data is needed from both educators to determine how COVID-19 has impacted students in

language arts. The research will evaluate both formats of “virtual” and in-person learning. The

duration of the study will be over a period of three and half months, from beginning: August-

September, September-October, October, and the midpoint November. This study will consist of

15 students, girls, and 15 boys, chosen randomly out of a group of 30 students. There will be

three language arts classes involved in completing this study. The demographics: Caucasian,

Hispanic and African-American.

Procedures
 I will schedule an appointment to meet with the school principal at Ida Lee Carey

Elementary school, ask for permission to complete my research. Once permission is granted

from principal, administrators, parents, and teachers; the survey will be given to all of the

participants and the teaching staff at Ida Lee Carey Elementary school district. The

questionnaires will be completed the first 3 days of fall 2020. After beginning my study, the

fourth-grade teacher will select the students by the procedure of: male/female, special education,

general education, and bilingual.

The Methods for collecting data consisted of in collecting baseline data to be able to

show outcomes, and to conduct an impact assessment after completing my research; impact

assessment will also assist me documenting the changes in participants attitudes, behaviors, and

competencies, his is pertinent with making comparisons. This study will consist of in person

interviews and structured interview schedule, to collect data during the planning phase and over

the course of the project implementation, monitoring efforts and formative evaluations, online

when available; before class activities, in class activities, class summary after completing

assignments, and after school activities.

To answer and evaluate research questions, the following will be utilized: questionnaires,

interview schedules, focus groups, observations, online/ journals, collected surveys and

reflections. The survey will be given to all of the participants and the language arts teaching

staff at Ida Lee Carey Elementary school in DISD. The questionnaires will be completed the first

3 days of fall 2020. The first section gathered will be demographics and background information

questions such as: gender, age, grade level, type of school, and school district. The second

section will apply a six-point Likert scale (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = usually, 5=

often, 6 = always). Teachers will be asked what type of technology they use frequently. Such as,
blackboards/whiteboards, the Internet, smart phones, PowerPoints, projectors, laptops, tablets,

and educational websites.

The participants within this study will be asked questions to measure their comprehension

of the material, learning outcomes, and cognitive response. The study will evaluate quizzes,

homework, and grade assessment as to determine learning outcomes for in person and online

format. The students will be given material a week prior to assignments were due. The

participants will be given directions on how to complete the supplementary materials, students

asked questions, and teacher addressed any concerns or problems anticipated. After assignments

are submitted “teachers” will review material and allocated a grade assessment. Focus groups

will be implemented in this study because this will provide a wider perspective of the project

activities and outcomes. The research will evaluate both formats of “virtual” and in-person

learning

Results

Consequently, prior studies substantiate the impact of all factors listed above,” promote

the quality of online learning, learning stimulation, motivation, and improvement of teachers and

attitudes toward technology, and integration of technology into learning processes” (Huang et al.

(2020). The findings of this study can serve as a starting point for future studies that can assist

other educational systems, in particular those of countries with low and medium economic

development (of which Kosovo is also a part), is overcoming difficulties in reforming education

systems.

In addition, an increase interaction between “teachers,” parents, and students, to improve

the way in which students are instructed to performing tasks, and to clarify assessment methods

(Duraku & Hoxha. 2020). If developed based on viewpoints that can improve the quality of
education, this enactment can have positive long-term effects, as highlighted by previous studies

that argue that student well-being is affected by the quality of learning (Ghosh and Kumi 2014).

The findings of this study will confirm the readiness and motivation of teachers to

advance their knowledge and skills, as well as to contribute with the aim of advancing the quality

of education. This study will be beneficial to policymakers, educational leaders, health

professionals and school psychologists, and teachers.

Discussion

 The impact of Covid-19 has influenced the methods used to interact with students and we

as teachers, parents and administrators must adapt.

 Thus, adjusting to remote learning, online learning, and changes within the educational

system.

 Diverse techniques must be implemented to eliminate the staggering numbers of students

experiencing emotional, psychological, and or who have completely disengaged due to

the lack of interaction and limited human connection. Leading to more problems such as,

anxiety, depression, stress, fear, and grades that continue to fall.

 “Executing adaption strategies now and moving forward will create more methods that

will have positive and lasting effects to limit the past negative consequences in

educational systems” (UNESCO, 2020).

Even if no one can predict the future, this study will provide an enormous amount of

information on how, students, parents, teachers, educators, policy makers, state politicians,

psychologists, social workers, administrators are adapting to change.

The results should answer the following questions:

1) What changes must be applied to maintain high performance, interaction, and

motivational techniques for students to be successful?

2) What teaching strategies will be the best fit for elementary students to raise grade scores?
Glazier, R., Hamann, K., P.H., P., & B.M, W. (2020). Age, Gender, and Student Success: Mixing
Face-to-Face and Online Courses in Political Science. Journal of Political Science
Education. 16(2), 142-57.
Hoang, A.-D., Nguyen, Y.-C., Nguyen, L.-C., Ngoc-Thuy, Pham, T. Q.-H., Pham, C.-X., . . .
Nguyen., T.-T. (2020). Toward Sustainable Learning during School Suspension:
Socioeconomic, Occupational Aspirations, and Learning Behavior of Vietnamese
Students during COVID-19. Sustainability.4195; https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104195
12(10)., 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104195
Tran, T., Hoang A, D., Nguyen, Y., & Nguyen, L. T. (2020.). Toward Sustaniable Learning
during School Suspension: Socioeconomic, Occupation Aspirations, and Learning
Behavior of Vietnamese Student during COVID-19. 12 (10), 1-19.