A New Approach to the Design of Intermittent Water Supply Networks

Rajiv Batish

Sub Divisional Engineer, Project Public Health, U.T of Chandigarh, India,

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Phone ++91-172-742813; Email: rajivbatish@yahoo.com

Abstract

Drinking water systems should invariably be operated on continuous pattern for twenty
four hours a day. But due to financial constraints it is not practically possible to operate
drinking water systems for twenty-four hours a day in developing countries. Generally a
period of eight hours or less is considered adequate to supply the drinking water. Due to
present faulty design practice, which is derived from continuous water supply the
consumers are deprived of adequate water quantity and pressure.
Intermittent water supplies are unique in itself and need different approach for design and
modeling other than the continuous water supplies. Demand of water at particular node is
important characteristic in the continuous water supply, but it is SUPPLY of water at a
node what drives the intermittent systems. Many factors like charging of water mains at
the start of supply each day, ingress of contaminant due to negative pressure, application
of peak factors, changing resistance coefficients, equitable water distribution using
zoning valves, leakages etc are peculiar features of intermittent water supply. A
comparative study of existing town in northern India is presented for the design of new
water supply system using present design practices and a proposed design method. The
attempt has been made using ”EPANET” software and it is suggested that new method is
more practical and realistic for the design of intermittent drinking water systems.

Introduction

Water demand and water supplied are two terms used interchangeably in conventional
model for the design of water distribution networks based on continuous supply of twenty
four hours a day. But in most developing countries the water supplied is less than the
demand. The Water Distribution Networks (WDN) are designed on principles based on
continuous supply but operated on intermittent system. There is severe disparity in the
design and operation. The consumers residing near water sources draw maximum water
and those residing away are deprived of adequate quantity and pressure. The systems are
operated on intermittent basis due to necessity rather than the design. Due to paucity of
high capital and operational cost, the supply hours are reduced ranging from three to
eight hours a day. Interestingly intermittent water supplies may not be cheapest option if
all direct and indirect costs are considered (Guillermo Yepes 2001).
In the conventional model the demand of the consumers are not dependent on the
network pressure, whereas in intermittent WDN the supply of water at a node is
dependent on the available pressure. Due to intermittent hours of supply the consumers
provide individual house tanks to store maximum water for use in non-supply hours. The

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 supply to consumer tanks is dependent on the available pressure. These considerations
are not incorporated in the design of WDN based on continuous water supply. At the
operational stage the distribution of water is achieved by providing head dissipating
devices like throttle control valves. This scenario is not modeled at the design stage and
may deprive a large chunk of consumers and simultaneously overly benefiting others.
In this paper it is proposed to design the networks, as it will be maintained at the
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operational stage to minimize disparity in the design and practice.

Intermittent Vs Continuous Water Supply Systems

The intermittent system suffers from many disadvantages but still it is widely practiced in
developing countries. It is estimated that 91 percent water supplies in south East Asia and
approximately 100 percent in India are operated on intermittent periods (K.Vairmoorthy
2001). Yet there are no adequate norms and technical information available for the design
of intermittent supply networks.
Intermittent water supplies are essentially low supply networks where network demand is
more than the supply. Whereas it is assumed in the conventional model that demand at a
particular node is fully met and is equal to the supply, this may not be true in the
intermittent supply. In continuous water supply a consumer is likely to draw water as per
requirement and stop the water intake after the demand is met, whereas a consumer in
intermittent supply will keep getting as much water as is available. The excess water is
stored in storage tanks provided by the consumer. A consumer is likely to keep the water
taps open even after supply period. This may result in wastage of water once the supply is
restored. Also the consumers are more likely to dispose off excess water stored earlier to
fetch fresh water intake for use or storage. In developing countries and especially in India
the rate of water supply is highly subsidized and water metering is not very effective.
Thus there is an added reason to use as much water as available for consumption without
costing much to the consumers. Due to low cost of water the consumers are likely to use
drinking water for lawn irrigation or other purposes that are not specified at the design
stage. Hence on the one hand the water supply departments are designing the system
based on minimum demand to cut the costs; on the other hand consumers who have easy
access to more supply use it lavishly
Water quality is at high risk in the intermittent water supply networks (Kelkar P.S 2001).
Instances of outbreak of water borne diseases due to ingress of contaminated water
through leaking pipelines during non-supply hours are not uncommon. In the severely
affected networks the consumers are likely to install individual connections at a level
below the distribution line and thus try to draw as much water as possible during non
supply period. Consumers who can afford an online pump will directly suck the water
from the distribution main, thus causing negative pressure to develop inside the
distribution pipelines during non-supply period.
Due to intermittent supply the network is not expected to serve for instantaneous fire
demand. The fire fighting arrangements are made at important building by constructing
separate storage tanks at the premises of the building only.
Even though the intermittent supply suffers from several disadvantages, but practically it
is likely to stay in developing countries in the days to come. Thus for effectively meeting
consumers needs it is essential to analyze and design WDN based on supply rather than

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 demand. This will ensure equitable distribution of water supply and presently existing
disparity in design and practice can be minimized.
Design Parameters for the Design of Intermittent Water Supply Networks
l. Supply of water. In conventional analysis, models produce flow in each line and
pressure in each node based on the data provided by the user. The input data include
ground level and rate of supply for each node and connectivity, diameter, length,
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roughness etc. for each line. An important characteristic i.e. the rate of supply is
prescribed as input. Based on standard analysis technique the output is obtained. For
determining the pressure loss in pipeline, Hazen-William’s formula is generally used.
Actually the rate of supply need to be arrived based on the collective performance of each
component of the system. In fact, the rate of the supply from each node is dependent on
the pressure available at that node. So, there is direct relationship between the pressure at
that node. The relationship between the pressure and the supply at a stand post is
determined experimentally and is produced as shown in Fig-1, (Jacob C. 2001).

Figure-1
This essential equation is not considered in the conventional model. Hence a new model
is needed to satisfy the pressure-supply relationship at each node also in addition to the
continuity and the pressure loss relationships. The following relationship is usually
considered for the outlet (Jacob C. 2001).
H = KQn
Where H is the pressure and Q is the supply at a node. ‘K’ and ‘n’ are constants. In
relationship mentioned in Fig –1, K & n are found to be 0.05 and 2 respectively for
corresponding units of H and Q. The new model will give the actual supply available to
the consumers as an output. The rate of supply can be decided based on the local norms
and in India the supply rate is selected based on the population of the town or city
ranging from 40 Liter/capita a day to 200 Liter/capita a day (CPHEEO 1991)
2. Residual Pressure. The residual pressure for designing a distribution system is an
important parameter. The network should supply water at the designed pressure at the end
of the design life. Generally the residual pressure is selected based on specific
requirement or on the basis of Government approved standards. In India, the basis of
selection is Manual of Water Supply (CPHEEO 1991), which specify minimum residual
pressure at ferrule points,

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 Single storey buildings - 7 meters
Two storey building -12 meters
Three storey building -17 meters
For designing intermittent network the analysis is carried out for supplying water at the
storage tanks of individual consumer. The height of the storage tank may be selected
based on the storey of the building.
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3. Network Charging. In the intermittent water supply systems the pipes are generally
not fully charged in the non-supply hours. Conventional models analyze a network based
on the simple assumption that pipes are always full. More sophisticated approaches
(K Vairmoorthy 2001) and network-charging model prior to pressurized flow may yield
better results. This model predicts the time at which different users receive water after
supply resumes and highlights the time lag experienced by the tail end users in the
network. This hydraulic solver is not available in public domain and neither it has been
widely used nor implemented. The networks are subjected to short durations at the start
of supply for network charging and standard hydraulic model like EPANET (Lewis
Rossman 2002) can very well be used for post charged period i.e. for pressurized stage
after network charging.
4. Peaking Factors. Generally peaking factors are specified for designing the water
networks. The concept is well suited for continuous water supply system to account for
diurnal fluctuations. But the peaking factors have a different meaning when applied to
intermittent supply networks. There is no need to account for diurnal fluctuations where
the supply is less than the actual demand. In fact there will not be any peaking factors and
the supply will be more or less uniform. It has been reported that the peaking factors are
in the range of 1- 1.3 for intermittent water supply systems, (Surendran 1997).
In developing countries, most of the consumers collect water in storage tanks having
sufficient capacity. Hence for intermittent water supply system, the peaking factors may
be determined purely based on the hours of the supply. This can be expressed in the form
of a single formula, (Jacob 2002).
Design flow rate = Average flow rate * Peaking factor
Where Avg. flow rate (LPH) = Volume supplied in a day in Liters/ 24 hours
Peaking factors = 24/ Duration of supply (Hrs)
5. Networks Over Design. Generally it is considered safe to provide larger diameter pipes
in the distribution system to have minimum head loss, which leads to more residual
pressure at a node. This concept is only suitable for continuous supply system and may
severely affect the performance of intermittent water supply networks. As the flow or
supply from a node in the intermittent system is based on available pressure, the larger
size pipe will draw more water and thus cause unequal distribution.
However the pipe networks are generally over-designed to cater the future needs.
Sometimes a minimum diameter of pipeline is specified ranging from 80mm to 150mm
to cater the future needs. This leads to over designing the system in place of minimum
required diameters. These higher diameters make more water available to consumers,
even more than the specified allocated supply.
Over designing a water supply networks is inevitable due to several reasons. Design
period of a network is as high as 30 years. Demand at the end of design period is
computed considering the expected population growth and the developments in the zone.

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 Hence the network will have higher diameter pipes than just sufficient to meet the present
demand.
Carrying capacity of pipes reduces due to aging. The resistance coefficients change with
age and sometime effective internal diameter reduces. To take care of these situations, the
designer select conservative values of the resistance coefficients and select higher
diameters so that reduction in carrying capacity by the end of design period will not have
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any adverse effect. Practically this also results in an over designed system in the
beginning period of the design period. Importantly the over designing will not be uniform
throughout the network.
The quantity available for supply can vary seasonally. When the reduced available
quantity is supplied through the network capable of supplying higher discharge,
possibility of disparity in design arises. This situation is just similar to the over designed
system where consumers residing in high pressure are getting more water.
Hence it is very important to select pipe diameters in the intermittent supply networks as
over sized pipes can severely affect performance of the networks.
6. Pressure Surges Due to Air Release. The pipelines in the intermittent supply system
may not remain fully charged during non-supply hours due to above mentioned reasons.
This may create empty spaces and air may occupy it. As the water supply is restored the
air escapes from the available outlets. The release of this air produces a pressure surge
due to rapid deacceleration of the liquid at the instant the air is fully expelled. This event
has been called “air slam” and produces a pressure surge similar to one produced by the
rapid liquid deacceleration due to valve closure (Lingrireddy S. 2002). The surge may
last for few seconds but the magnitude may be quite high. During charging of network
the release of air causes sever reduction in the carrying capacity of pipes and in extreme
cases may cause choking if no arrangements are provided for air release. For intermittent
supply the carrying capacity of pipes increased by 32 % and bursting stopped completely
after installing adequate air valves (Paul Bock 2002).
The roughness of the pipes may keep changing during initial charging of pipelines due to
surges. It is not economical to model these conditions in the intermittent supply networks
and efforts should be to provide optimum number of air release valves to minimize this
effect. For localities where the water is supplied to consumer tanks, the affect of air surge
may be minimized due to release of air through open inlets of storage tanks during
charging of network in the initial periods of supply. But for rising mains, which are
supplying water intermittently, it is recommended to perform complete analysis for
providing air release valves optimally.
7. Leakages. These are integral part of intermittent water supply networks and a major
cause of trouble. Various studies in India have confirmed the range of leakages ranging
from 15-45 % of the total water supplied in the network, (IWWA 1988). The discharge
from a leakage point is dependent on the available pressure and usually modeled as
emitter (Lewis A. Rossman 2002). For conventional models the leakages are added to the
node’s demand but for intermittent supply these leakages can be grouped in the supply to
consumer tanks (Steffen Macke 2001)
8. Head Loss Generating Devices. These are very important components of intermittent
supply networks. The behavior of the system is totally dependent upon the placement of
these components, (Pramod R. Bhave 2000). Generally used devices may include Gate
valves, Globe valves, orifice plates and connection ferrules. Essentially the design and

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 modeling of intermittent networks involves two things (1) Determining optimum pipe
diameters (2) Determining optimum valve location and the corresponding head loss. Even
though gate valve is intended for use in either open full or to shut off the supply, but it is
still widely used as head loss or flow throttling valves. This has resulted in extreme
operational and maintenance problems for gate valves. The globe valves are better suited
as flow throttle devices and should be used for this purpose. The orifice plates are another
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option to permanently throttle the flow but if used we loose the flexibility in operation.
Ferrules are generally recommended for connecting a house connection with the
distribution main. The size or diameter of ferrule point is specified by the local water
company and are very effective tool to control the flow of water.

Designing Intermittent Water Distribution Networks- A Case Study

Traditional network analysis is generally termed as “Demand-Driven” in which nodal

demands are assigned fixed values and the problem is to find pipe flows and nodal
pressures that are hydraulically consistent with these demands. Actually the real systems
do not behave in this way. Rather, a water distribution system can be thought of as a
completely closed, pressurized system with a set of variable sized orifices that connect to
various devices that are open to the atmosphere e.g. sinks, storage tanks, cisterns, toilets
etc. For a specified of these orifices, the flow out of these will be dependent on the
pressure maintained in the system. Where as “Head-Driven analysis” is to determine the
flows out of each demand node that are consistent with the outflows from other nodes
and the available pressure in the system. For real systems, it can be assumed as
pressurized network of pipes with variable opening orifices which is a closer description
of the actual physical system than the one used in classical Demand-Driven analysis. The
variable opening orifices include the on-off behavior associated with various water using
devices such as cistern, tanks etc. whose “orifices” remain open till some event, such as a
float valve or human use, causes it to close. While open, the flow rate for the device
depends on the available system pressure. But practically, with available hydraulic tools,
it would be impossible to incorporate such a miniscule-view of water use behavior into
meaningful system wide analysis. For ease of simplicity the Demand Driven analysis is
performed. Hence, Head driven models are how the systems actually work and Demand
driven models are a convenient simplification.
With available technology, modeling real systems as it operates is huge task. Actual
demands are combinations of instantaneous demands and flows to storage. Unless both
these conditions are truly represented, the computer model will not show the real model.
The technology has to move up a long way to represent true conditions. But for systems
that are under fed or supply less water as compared to actual demand, the necessity of
head driven analysis is pertinent for distributing available water equitably.
One approach would be to place a reservoir at each junction node with the hydraulic
grade line (HGL) of the reservoir set equal to the total desired Head at a particular node.
This would assume that gauge pressure at the outlet in the elevated reservoir is zero. The
pipe connecting reservoir and node can be assigned some minor loss coefficient. This
approach may not be very appropriate for large system due to complexity of modeling.
But with proper skeletonization, the model can be simplified to represent lumped supply

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 to group nodes. Head-Driven analysis for this type of model is likely to give better results
than Demand-Driven models.
The water distribution pipeline network model of zone-I, Pinjore (Haryana, India) as
shown in Fig-2 is analyzed. For designing low supply intermittent systems, following
parameters needs to be addressed and taken care of.
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Figure -2
A). Supply to reservoir nodes: The quantity of water to be supplied can be taken based
on approved standards. In India the Manual of Water Supply (CPHEEO 1991) stipulates
a supply of 70 Liters per Capita day (LPCD) for small towns with house connections
having populations up to 20000 persons. Additionally 10% water is accounted for
wastages and total quantity of water to be supplied is 77LPCD. For real systems the
wastages are likely to be more but for publicly funded Government owned water supply
networks, provision for more than 10% wastages is not permitted. The quantity of water
to be supplied at a particular node is computed by multiplying the number of persons to
be served with per capita allocation. The supply is distributed keeping in view the present
and future population density. The height of the consumer storage reservoirs is taken
based on the requirement of pressure at ferrule point. For this design it is expected that
houses upto two storey are to be served and for this the pressure requirement is 12
meters as described above. After accounting for the head losses which are likely to occur
from ferrule point to overhead tank the elevation of consumer storage reservoirs can be
taken as 11 meters. Hence a network design should supply water to an elevated storage
tank of consumer located at 11 m height from ground elevation.
The analysis model can be further elaborated with the use of tanks in EPANET as
compared to consumer storage reservoirs. But unfortunately it increases the complexity

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 without any additional benefits. If all the nodes are connected with tanks then the model
predicts subsequent filling to tanks when an extended period simulation is performed.
This is not desirable and a simultaneous supply to all nodes is preferred. For tanks the
size is also very important, which is dependent on the consumer affordability and choice
and thus it is unknown. Hence for simplicity of design, it is preferred to use reservoirs.
But when calibrating an intermittent supply system with individual storages, it would be
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more appropriate to use tanks instead of reservoirs in EPANET, (Steffen Macke 2001).

B) Pipes: Diameters are selected on the design principles of conventional design. In India
a minimum diameter of 80 mm is specified for small towns. All diameters selected
should be equal or more than minimum diameter specified.
Special care is taken to select pipe that connects node with elevated storage. The flow to
the reservoir will be dependent on the diameter, length and resistance properties of this
pipe. The length can be taken as equal to the height of reservoir above ground level i.e.
11 m. As the supply of a group of houses is lumped together, thus a single diameter pipe
representing an equivalent pipe may be assigned. In practice the house connections are
permitted with the use of 6mm size ferrule from the distribution line. These ferrules act as
head loss generating devices and control the pressure in distribution line to the great
extent. The actual physical components can be incorporated in the design and may
closely resemble the field conditions. But it is again likely to increase complexity without
much benefit. For easing design, it is preferable to use a global diameter for this pipe.
There may be minor variations in the flow but that are negligible.

C) Leakages: For demand driven design models the leakages are usually added to the
demand of consumer or a general multiplier is defined to increase the demand. This does
not consider the effect of pressure on the leakages. During the period of high use the
leakages are likely to be low and similarly the leakages are likely to be high for the
period of minimum use. This aspect is not accounted in traditional model.
There may be some considerations to uniformly distribute leakages in the model. But it is
likely that while changing the location of leakages from one node to another node it may
not necessarily affect the network design to large extent. Hence for design purpose the
leakages can be grouped with the stipulated supply to a particular node.

D) Head Loss Generating Devices: The model is analyzed to supply water to consumer
storages with different pipe sizes alongwith placement and extent of head loss generating
valves or orifice plates. After performing various trials a satisfactory solution is attained,
which can be implemented under field conditions. For creating a permanent pressure
zone it is preferable to use orifice plates and for other purposes a throttle control valve
such as globe valve would be appropriate.

Design and Analysis

First the network is designed for conventional demand driven analysis when it satisfy
design criterion and supply the demand of each node. But the situation changes when this
conventional design of pipe network is analyzed by connecting nodes with tanks having
elevation above ground level equal to desired design residual pressure. In this case no

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 demand is assigned to nodes. An extended period simulation shows that majority of
storage tanks do not receive water within an intermittent supply period of four hours. A
comparison of both models is shown in Table No 1.
For meeting equitable distribution of water the network is redesigned by changing
diameters of pipes and providing suitable flow throttle valves. The proposed new design
supply water equal to the allocated quantity against a desired head. The details are shown
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in Table No 1 in column number 3.

Table No 1

Demand-Driven Analysis for Head-Driven Analysis Head-Driven Analysis

Conventional Design of Conventional for the Proposed
Design Design using Flow
Throttling Valves
Node Elevation Demand Pressure Node Head Supply Node Head Supply
No. (m) (LPM) (m) No. (m) (LPM) No. (m) (LPM)
R1 595.00 -611.1 0.00
J1 577.0 0.00 17.98 R1 595.00 -2609.5 R1 595.00 -631.13
J2 555.25 54.76 36.24 R2 566.25 276.19 R2 566.25 55.88
J3 572.55 46.48 18.99 R3 583.55 0.00 R3 583.55 44.49
J4 574.58 51.24 16.89 R4 585.77 0.00 R4 585.77 58.01
J5 572.03 70.15 19.78 R5 583.08 0.00 R5 583.08 70.25
J6 571.08 46.48 22.46 R6 582.08 295.93 R6 582.08 48.49
J7 563.63 46.48 28.88 R7 574.63 293.21 R7 574.63 48.98
J8 558.51 46.48 33.37 R8 575.00 0.00 R8 575.00 48.89
J9 580.37 9.00 11.24 R9 591.37 0.00 R9 591.37 15.27
J10 581.49 15.00 13.13 R10 591.45 0.00 R10 591.45 15.26
J11 572.17 34.23 22.66 R11 583.17 134.77 R11 583.17 34.39
J12 564.61 77.96 27.69 R12 575.61 211.84 R12 575.61 77.17
J13 565.90 20.00 27.45 R13 576.90 366.71 R13 576.90 20.11
J14 562.53 14.00 32.28 R14 573.53 399.96 R14 573.53 14.07
J15 571.97 46.48 22.42 R15 582.97 630.30 R15 582.97 46.17
J16 580.68 9.00 22.42 R16 591.24 0.00 R16 591.24 9.11
J17 575.95 23.32 15.59 R17 586.95 0.00 R17 586.95 24.29

Table No 2 gives the characteristics of the flow throttle valves and respective head loss
required to achieve allocated supply as indicated for the proposed design in Table No 1.

From the values in Table No 2 a suitable size globe valve can be selected depending upon
the head-loss. And depending upon the size and flow characteristics associated with the
selected valve, the percent opening or throttling required can be predicted, to achieve the
same head loss with the design flow under equivalent pressure.

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 Table No 2

Valve Diameter Flow Headloss Valve Diameter Flow Headloss

ID Of Pipe (LPM) (m) ID Of Pipe (LPM) (m)
(mm) (mm)
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V1 80 55.88 13.64 V16 80 16.53 11.48

V2 150 48.45 11.70 V17 80 15.98 11.44
V3 150 582.68 0.01 V18 80 16.01 11.48
V4 200 631.13 0.01 V19 80 15.16 6.43
V5 80 48.89 5.22 V20 80 9.14 4.68
V6 80 77.14 8.33 V21 80 82.15 10.21
V7 100 199.77 9.15 V22 80 51.85 1.51
V8 80 14.07 9.64 V23 80 59.76 7.00
V9 150 321.47 0.47 V24 80 11.61 2.34
V10 80 20.10 11.32 V25 80 32.89 7.57
V11 80 26.07 11.42 V26 80 9.86 5.45
V12 80 15.26 3.13 V27 80 19.48 2.13
V13 80 104.78 3.07 V28 80 11.70 7.67
V14 80 39.60 16.69 V29 80 17.83 8.90
V15 80 11.70 0.77 V30 80 24.43 1.67

Modeling and Design limitations: A model can never represent a real system
perfectly. More it is near to reality much better it is. An EPANET design model is also
not able to render the reality in perfect sense but nevertheless following limitations
should not hinder the design’s functionality. .
• In EPANET model no support is provided for empty or partly filled pipes during
initial charging at the start of the supply daily.
• For simplicity of design the supply is considered to storage reservoirs instead of
tanks.
• No support is provided to ascertain the effect of air surges in the pipe network
under intermittent supply.
Conclusions: The traditional approach of designing a water distribution network on
demand-driven analysis is still appropriate for continuous supply systems. But for low
supply intermittent systems this approach may not give appropriate results in the
operational stage. Instead of overcoming the deficiencies of traditional design at the
operational stage by hit and trial procedure it is more appropriate to design a system as it
will be operated in the field conditions.
Acknowledgments: I sincerely thank Environmental & Water Resources Institute of
the American Society of Civil Engineers for giving me this opportunity and awarding
International Fellowship. I am highly grateful to Dr. Rakesh Bahadur and
Dr. Dilip L. Kothekar for their encouragement and support. Finally, special thanks to

10

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 Public Health Department of Union Territory of Chandigarh, India for making this paper
possible.

References:

1. CPHEEO. (1991)“Manual on Water Supply and Treatment” 3rd Edition, Central

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Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO), Ministry

of Urban Development, Government of India.
2. Guillermo Yepes, Klas Ringskog and Shyamal Sarkar (2001) “ The High Costs
of Intermittent Water Service” Journal of Indian Water Works Association
(IWWA), April-June 2001.
3. IWWA Publication No M 2 (1988) “ LEAKAGE Detection and Prevention”
Indian Water Works Association, Pipeline Road, Vakola, Santacruz (E), Mumbai
400 055 (India)
4. Jacob Chandapillai and R. Narayan Iyer (2001) “Equitable Distribution of Water
through Pipe Networks under Low Supply Situations” Proc. Of the 4th
International Conference on WATER PIPELINE SYSTEMS, BHR Group, York,
U.K. 28-30 March 2001.
5. Jacob Chandapillai (2002) “ Design and Implementation of Intermittent Water
Distribution Systems” Proc of 34th annual conference of IWWA at Banglore
(India) 18-20 January 2002.
6. Kalanithy Vairmoorthy, et al (2001) “ Design of sustainable water distribution
systems in developing countries” http:// www.sbu.ac.uk/wdru (2001)
7. Kelkar P.S. et al (2001) “ Water quality assessment in distribution system under
intermittent and continuous modes of water supply” Journal of IWWA Jan-March
2001.
8. Lewis A.Rossman (2002), “ EPANET2, Users Manual” Water Supply and Water
Resources Division, United States Environmental Protection Agency. http://
www.epa.gov/ORD/NRML/wswd/epanet.htm
9. Lingrireddy S. and Don J. Wood, University of Kentucky. Naftali Zloczower,
(2002) A.R.I. Flow Control “ Pressure Surges Due to Air Release” A.R.I Flow
control, Paul Bock ariafrica@global.co.za (2002)
10. Paul Bock (2002), A.R.I Flow Control, Africa/East Rand Valves, P.O. Box
13965, Northmead, Benoni 1531, South Africa.
11. Pramod R. Bhave (1999), “ Approach for Distribution Network Analysis of
Intermittent Water Supply Systems” Proc of WATERNET seminar, IWWA 4-5
June 1999, Mumbai (India)
12. Pramod R. Bhave and Rajesh Gupta (2000) “ Design, Performance and
Operation of Regional Rural Water Supply Systems” Journal of IWWA, Oct-Dec
2000.
13. Steffen Macke and Arne Batterman (2001), “ A Strategy to Reduce Technical
Water Losses for Intermittent Water Supply Systems” http://sdteffen.de/diplom/
(2001)
14. Surendran S., S.V. Senarathne and M.D. Smith (1997) “ Study of Water Usage
in Rural Areas” 23rd Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC)
conference, Durban, South Africa 1997.

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World Water & Environmental Resources Congress 2003