STEEL INTRODUCTION

• Since steel is produced in the factory under better quality control, steel
structures have higher reliability and safety.
• When carbon in small quantities is added to iron, ‘Steel’ is obtained.
• Influence of carbon on mechanical properties of iron is much larger than
other alloying elements.
• The atomic diameter of carbon is less than the interstices between iron
atoms and the carbon goes into solid solution of iron. As carbon dissolves
in the interstices, it distorts the original crystal lattice of iron.
• Adding more and more carbon to iron (upto solubility of iron) results in
more and more distortion of the crystal lattices and hence provides
increased mechanical strength.
• When more carbon is added, enhanced mechanical strength is obtained,
but ductility is reduced.
• More amount of carbon causes problems during the welding process.
• The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is a plot of transformation of iron
with respect to carbon content and temperature.
• Generally carbon content in structural steels is in the range of 0.12-
0.25%. .Up to 2% carbon, we get a structure of ferrite + pearlite or pearlite
+ cementite depending upon whether carbon content is less than 0.8% or
beyond 0.8%. . Beyond 2% carbon in iron, brittle cast iron is formed.
• Process of slow cooling in a furnace is called ‘annealing’.
• Grain size of crystal is an important parameter in strengthening of steel.
• Decreasing the grain size could enhance the yield strength.
• Cup and cone fracture is considered to be an indication of ductile
fracture.
• High strength steels, due to their specific microstructure, do not show a
sharp yield point but rather they yield continuously For such steels the
yield stress is always taken as the stress at which a line at 0.2% strain,
parallel to the elastic portion, intercepts the stress strain curve.
• Stress at which elongation first occurs in the test piece without increasing
the load during the tensile test is known as yield stress.
• Density of steel for the purpose of checking the nominal mass-
0.00785kg/mm3 of the cross sectional area per meter.
• Tensile test: as per IS code 1608
• Bend Test: as per IS code 1599
• Rebend Test: As per IS code 1599
• High Strength deformed steel bars for concrete reinforcement: IS: 1786
• All the above IS code is of fourth revision (Metallurgical Engineering
Department).

IS: 1786 HSD Bar Specification For Concrete Reinforcement

Grade: Fe415, Fe415D, Fe500, Fe500D, Fe550, Fe550D, Fe600

Where, D and S indicate the strength grade with same 0.2% proof stress
but with enhanced and additional requirements.
The main difference among Fe415, Fe415D and Fe415S is elongation and
UTS/YS ratio (ref- Table 3).
Bar consist of ribs (longitudinal and transverse), marking area (no ribs
present),
Measured length of the bar shall be distance from the Centre of one rib to
the Centre of another rib.
Nominal sizes of bar shall be 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm,
16mm, 20mm, 25mm, 28mm, 32mm, 36mm, 40mm.
Two types of bar: (1) Bar having uniform cross-sectional area along the
length of bar, (b) bar having cross-sectional areas varies along the length.
Gross cross sectional area of both types of bar is calculated as per IS: 1786
clause 6.3.1and 6.3.2 (for first type- w/0.00785L).Use a bar not less than
0.5 m to determine its cross section.

IS 1608 (PART-1) METALLIC MATERIALS - TENSILE TESTING

Scope: this standard specifies the method for tensile testing of metallic
materials and defines the mechanical properties which can be determined
at room temperature.
Gauge length: it is the length of collinear portion (distance between grips
for un-machined test piece) of the test piece on which elongation is
measured at any moment during the test.
Proof stress Vs yield stress
Q1. Why 0.2% proof stress?
Since in HYSD bar no sharp yield point is obtained (due to their specific
microstructure) so to tackle this problem we find 0.2% proof stress( It is
obtained by drawing a parallel line to the obtained stress vs strain curve
and the point at which that line cut the obtained curve is known as proof
stress). It is not a stress at 0.2% strain.
Q2. How to interpret the tensile test report?
To verify obtained elastic modulus find out the slope of obtained stress vs
strain curve within elastic limit.
Q3. What is difference between Load vs displacement and Load vs
Extensometer curve?
Computrised UTM (Tensile test of 500D TMT)
Input data Output data
Weight- 1.23 Kg Weight after fracture- 1.23Kg
Length- 500mm Length after fracture- 550mm
Density- 7.85g/cc Density after Fracture- 7.85g/cc
Original gauge length- 100mm Gauge length after fracture- 125mm
Extensometer gauge Length- 50mm
Cross-sectional area- 313.38mm2
Output data:
Minimum area after fracture- 284.89mm2
Percent reduction of area- 9.09%
Elongation after fracture- 25mm
Percentage elongation after fracture: 25% (16MM min as per IS 1786)
Peak load- 198.7KN
Tensile strength- 634.05MPa
Max Displacement- 61.93mm
Displacement at yeild Point- 12.759mm
Proof stress – 445.12Mpa
Yield Stress- 535.254Mpa
Youngs Modulus- 77.816GPa
1. First check Min and Max range of 0.2% proof stress/Yield stress as per
IS 1786
2. Check TS/YS ratio (> 1.10 for Fe500D)
3. Minimum Elongation percent on gauge length (16% for Fe500D)
4. Min total elongation at maximum force- (5% for Fe500D) as demand by
purchaser then only.
Nominal Size- standard size (size use for identification)
Effective Size- actual Size (same as gross sectional area)
For purpose of checking the nominal mass, density of steel shall be taken
as 0.00785Kg/MM2 of the cross sectional area per metre.
1) Proportional test piece
Test pieces 2) Non- proportional test piece
3) Machined test pieces
4) Un-machined test pieces
Proportional test piece- test piece whose original gauge length is
proportional to the square root of the original cross sectional area with
proportionality constant k=5.65. if the specimen dies not meet this
requirement then use higher value of proportionality constant 11.3 or use
non-proportionality specimen.
Non-proportionality test pieces: original gauge length is independent of the
original cross sectional area.
1) With transition radius (b/w the gripped ends
and the parallel length if these have different
dimensions) -
Machined test pieces: 2) without transition radius- the free length b/w
the grips shall always be greater than the original length
Marking of the original gauge length (Lo): it is done to determine manual
determination of the elongation after fracture. It is marked by punch
marks. Accuracy of marking- +1%.
Overlapping gauge length: if the parallel length (Lc) is much greater than
the original gauge length
Extensometer gauge length: (Le) > 0.50Lo but < 0.9Lc. it measure the
yield and proof strength. For measurement of parameter at or after v
reaching maximum force then Le=Lo.