Chapter 3 Potential Environmental Impacts From Solar Energy Technologies INTRODUCTION produced from photovol free compared to fossil fuels based el and don’t produce toxic air or greenhouse gas (GH( taking PV as a prod many potential environmental, health, and safety hazard materials. The full product lifecycle analysis in recent years has raised more concerns about hazardous materials and their recyling/tisposal, even afer 25 years, Most Im (TF) PV (Cae, CIGS, 0 pave way {0 potential environmental, health, and safety. At the same time, emerging solar PV production technologies such as organie solar cells anc perovskite solar cells are also involved with unknown health and environmental hazards. Regardless ofthe specific 2, summarizes the potential health, safety, and environmental hazards associ- ated with different PV technologies, and24 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Production 3. acceptabl ‘Apart from the tions have potent thermal power pl power plants have it of exposure of chemicals and hazardous air emission. ind outputs of a product 2011; Raugei et al., ‘The industrial scale PY production depends on the fol product design and development: 1, Raw materials mining and refining toward the necessary requirements of PV materials feed stock: The primary hazards are exposure to and inhalation of kerf dust FIG. 3.1. Overview of photovoltaic solar cell materials process a Potential Environmental Impacts Chapter | 3 25 2. Materials processing: PV technologies use ing the materials process which can be cl and health issues of exposure to sawing. ‘exposure to solvents, such as nitric ric acid, used in wafer etching and cl + Product design and developme arranged into module and cor hydroxide, and hydrofluo- ‘as reactor cleaning. either in building roots, le analyses of the solar modules stages for PV system and coal based power plants. LCA of PV power plants shows that the majority of the GHG emission is during the materials extraction and preparation and module manufacturing. FIG. 3.2. Comparison of the leeyce stages for PV system and cul based power plan.26 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Production The lifecycle GHG emissions for PV power systems are compared with other electricity generation technologies by NREL harmonization which shows that ‘cycle GHG emissions from solar PV systems are similar to other les and nuclear energy, and much lower than coal (http:/jvww.nrel, ‘gov/analysis/sustain_Icah, However, the materials manufacturing and can leave worse effects on the environment started from the microelectronics industry. Wafers was majorly adopted from the micro- electronics industry. Different methods have been adopted to manufacture silicon. The quality/p icon will decide the process. According to the available pu ify the and semiconductor grade. The metal approximately pure up to 99.6% and semi ‘The purity of the silicon is achieved through a series of chemical processes. Commonly. three basie steps are involved in silicon production, such as reduc- tion of and packaging. The first and foremost step in icon is reduction, Section 3.3.1 wi the -a reduction methods available. Thi which is sand or quartz. The a key processing step ‘cesses are seldom used wwe consider only the carboths ten simply as: facturing on an industrial scale, Here ion process. The process can be writ- Reduction of sitca gS eae (ag ESSE eaearpareneee Carbotnermic __Aluminathermic —=—Caleiolhermic. «= Magnesiothermic ‘eduction reduction eduction Teducton FIG. 3.3. Different methods of silica reduetion, Potential Environmental Impacts Chapter | 3 27 SiO, +2C=$i+2CO(e) licon source and reduction agents of method will lead 10 99.0 wi.% of Mn, C, Ca, Mg, B, P, and so on. rough further chemical processes to result mic and needs a very high Cat soe warn OG 4 Schematie of silicon metal preduction plant (From Selacar-Villalpando, MD. R Post Guillen, D Pai 8, Rrandick, GK. (ds), 2012. Energy Techlogs id Other Technologies, Joke Wiley and Sons)28 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Production ‘molten alloy is allowed to coo! ina suitable mold to attain a specific size. During the refining process, the gas used for purging has toxie elements after its filtra- tions, mainly sulfur dioxide, 3.3.2. Purification of est purty ofthe silicon is achieved through reduction and pyrolysis of HCl, Siti, SiCl,, and SIHBrs, This is wn. as chloride-hydride technology. The purification mn -of MG-Si and deposition of silicon was established in the 1950s and known as the Siemens process (Gribov and Zinov'ev, 2003; ‘Tsuo et al, 1998). The typical chemical processing is given in the reactions G.2-35). Acconding to reaction (3.2), the MG-Si is reacting with HCL. 10 pro- lorosilane (HSiCl) at 500°C and 30 MPa temperature and pressure, respectively. 5(MG)Si+ I6HCI = 4HSiCIs +64 +SiCl, 2) 2SiHCI, = SiC + SiCl, 3) 2SiH2Ch = SiHCl, + SiHsC1 G4) 2SiHsC1=SiH,Cl, + SiH, G3) ‘The reactions (3.3-3.5) are responsible for the redistribution of chlorine and hydrogen atom from the metal chloride compounds and generating silane gas, ‘The steps in the process are necessary to distill diboride and other impurities. sting material for production of c-Si wafers and silicon chips is silica 02). However, silicon for semiconductor use must be much purer. Intense involved to make the MG G-Si is exposed to hydrochloric acid and copper to produce a rosilane (HSiCIs). The gaseous trichlorosilane the desired diameter. For the multicryst and cooled into blocks or ingots. The purity of Pure (from 99.99999% 10 99,9999999%) for mi industry usage. The whole process involves a ergy intensive and Potential Environmental impacts Chapter | 3 29 3.3.4 Hazardous Materials Used in Si Processing and Manufacturing 2003). The mining of me can lead to severe lung diseases. The personal e respiratory masks can s tain level of exposure. Howev problems for the workers, Tabl related health issues caused. ‘TABLE 3.1 Hazardous Materials and Associated Health Issues in Silicon Processing. Hazardous Material Environment Used Health Issues gical rade silica Mining Silicosis, a severe lung dust disease Hydrochloric acid Reduction chamber ertanveorosive Catbon tetrachloride chant Liver cancer, greenhouse Bs CChlorositanes 2Siand xsi tnt “Sepostion Diborane 2:5) dopant ENS, pulmonary Germane 2S dopant Blood, CNS, kidney Hydrogen i deposition Fite hazard Hydrogen fluoride Etchant Inrtant, burrs, bone teeth Lead Soldering CNS, Gt, blood, kidney, Nitric acid Wafer cleaning Continuedrotovoltaic Technology Production TABLE 3.1. Hazardous Materials and Associated Health Issues in Processing —cont’d Environment Used Health Issues 2S) dopant flarnmeble Si dopant Selenium compounds C18 deposition Sodium hydroxide Wafer cleaning Silane Si deposition 25 deposition Clean the reactors Greenhouse gas Sulfur dioxide Within chamber ‘Acid tain Sodium hydioxide/ Remove the sawing ye lung, and skin damage. potassium hydroxide damage Phosphinelasine Doping with $i Accident ‘most hazardous in the production and The semiconductor indu for this extreme environmental hazardous material (Alsema et al., 1996), There are strong regulations in the use of sulfur hexafluoride (SF) from the Intergov- ‘emnmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC). It is rated one of the most potent GHGs per molecule; as one ton is equivalent to 25,000 tons of CO; (Moskowitz when reacting with silicon to gen- crate silicon tetrafluoride (SiF,) and sulfur difluoride (SF,), or be reduced to tetrafluorosilane (SiF,) and sulfur dioxide (SOx). However, other chemicals listed in Table 3.1 are used in the production of c-Si «ling and disposal procedures. The production of monocrystalline mainly for the electronic industry. However, the growing PV mark: is surpass- ing the electronic industry. ‘The additional chemicals, such as ammonium Potential Environmental impacts Chapter | 331 fluoride, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, phosphorous oxychloride, and tin are used inthe prod hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, ion tannie chloride, tantalum pentoxide, 998). ‘materials are often used in TF s te materials are metal, glass, pla Of the most hazardous gases and explo- ‘dents involving silane gas explosions have been reported in the past (Moskowitz, 1995). Another explosive gas used in the process is hydro- gen and usually mixed wi ane to recycle the hydrogen in waste streams. ethane is also a potential GHG and a potential threat to the environment if leased. The dopants used in the a-Si such as germane gas are considered to be toxic and damage blood and kidneys (Fthenakis, 2003; Avrutin etal, 2011) The other dangerous chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, acetone, aluminum, chlor s, dibor- trogen, silicon tetrafluoride, tin, germanium, jum tetrafluoride used in the process need special handling to avoid ‘occupational injury (Fthenakis, 1998). Table 3.2 shows the materials used in the silicon PV industry and their potential environmental hazards. ‘TABLE 3.2 Materials Used in Silicon Photovoltaic Industry and Their Potential Environmental Hazards With Regulatory Measures Environmental Materials Hazard Regulations ilicon tevachlorde (SiCl,) React with water and cause ‘environmental SF, exposure