Q1 Explain the concept of topology and types of network

Answer: Network topology is the arrangement of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a communication network.
Network topology can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of telecommunication
networks, including command and control radio networks, industrial field busses and computer networks.
Network topology is the topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically or logically. It is an
application of graph theory wherein communicating devices are modeled as nodes and the connections between
the devices are modeled as links or lines between the nodes. 
Physical topology is the placement of the various components of a network (e.g., device location and cable
installation), while logical topology illustrates how data flows within a network. Distances between nodes,
physical interconnections, transmission rates, or signal types may differ between two different networks, yet
their topologies may be identical. A network’s physical topology is a particular concern of the physical layer of
the OSI model.
Examples of network topologies are found in local area networks (LAN), a common computer network
installation. Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical links to other devices in the network;
graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology
of the network. A wide variety of physical topologies have been used in LANs,
including ring, bus, mesh and star. Conversely, mapping the data flow between the components determines the
logical topology of the network. In comparison, Controller Area Networks, common in vehicles, are primarily
distributed control system networks of one or more controllers interconnected with sensors and actuators over,
invariably, a physical bus topology.
Types of network:
1. BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When
it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

a) It transmits data only in one direction.
b) Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

a) It is cost effective.
b) Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
c) Used in small networks.
d) It is easy to understand.
e) Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

a) Cables fails then whole network fails.
b) If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
c) Cable has a limited length.
 d) It is slower than the ring topology.

2. RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the
last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

a) A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to
pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
b) The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between
each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
c) In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them.
Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
d) Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each
node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

a) Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having
tokens can transmit data.
b) Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

a) Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 b) Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
c) Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3. STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star
Topology
a) Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
b) Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
c) Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

a) Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
b) Hub can be upgraded easily.
c) Easy to troubleshoot.
d) Easy to setup and modify.
e) Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

a) Cost of installation is high.
b) Expensive to use.
c) If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
d) Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4. MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other.
Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:
a) Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data
to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken
links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
b) Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The
network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

a) Fully connected.
b) Robust.
c) Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

a) Each connection can carry its own data load.
b) It is robust.
c) Fault is diagnosed easily.
d) Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
a) Installation and configuration are difficult.
b) Cabling cost is more.
c) Bulk wiring is required.

5. TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical
topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

a) Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
b) Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

a) Extension of bus and star topologies.
b) Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
c) Easily managed and maintained.
d) Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

a) Heavily cabled.
b) Costly.
c) If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
d) Central hub fails, network fails.

6. HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office
in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
a) It is a combination of two or topologies
b) Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

a) Reliable as Error detecting and trouble-shooting is easy.
b) Effective.
c) Scalable as size can be increased easily.
d) Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

a) Complex in design.
b) Costly.

Q2 Explain the TCP/IP protocol

Answer: TCP/IP, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of
communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP can also be used as a
communications protocol in a private network (an intranet or an extranet).
The entire internet protocol suite - a set of rules and procedures - is commonly referred to as TCP/IP, though
others are included in the suite.
TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end communications that identify
how it should be broken into packets, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. TCP/IP
requires little central management, and it is designed to make networks reliable, with the ability to recover
automatically from the failure of any device on the network.
The two main protocols in the internet protocol suite serves specific functions. TCP defines how applications
can create channels of communication across a network. It also manages how a message is assembled into
smaller packets before they are then transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the
destination address.
IP defines how to address and route each packet to make sure it reaches the right destination.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address to determine where to forward the message.
How TCP/IP works
TCP/IP uses the client/server model of communication in which a user or machine (a client) is provided a
service (like sending a webpage) by another computer (a server) in the network.
Collectively, the TCP/IP suite of protocols is classified as stateless, which means each client request is
considered new because it is unrelated to previous requests. Being stateless frees up network paths so they can
be used continuously.
The transport layer itself, however, is stateful. It transmits a single message, and its connection remains in place
until all the packets in a message have been received and reassembled at the destination.

The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI
model. The layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

The first layer is the Process layer on the behalf of the sender and Network Access layer on the behalf of the
receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
1. Network Access Layer
This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI model. It looks out
for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
We just talked about ARP being a protocol of Internet layer, but there is a conflict about declaring it as a
protocol of Internet Layer or Network access layer. It is described as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by
layer 2 protocols.
2. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are responsible for
logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are :
IP – stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the
destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions:
IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most of the websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number
of IPv4 addresses are limited in number when compared to the number of users.
ICMP – stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible
for providing hosts with information about network problems.
ARP – stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.
3. Host-to-Host Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication
and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The two
main protocols present in this layer are:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – It is known to provide reliable and error-free communication
between end systems. It performs sequencing and segmentation of data. It also has acknowledgment feature and
controls the flow of the data through flow control mechanism. It is a very effective protocol but has a lot of
overhead due to such features. Increased overhead leads to increased cost.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – On the other hand does not provide any such features. It is the go-to
protocol if your application does not require reliable transport as it is very cost-effective. Unlike TCP, which is
connection-oriented protocol, UDP is connectionless.
4. Process Layer
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model: Application, Presentation and Session
Layer. It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface specifications. Some of the
protocols present in this layer are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP,
NFS, X Window, LPD. Have a look at Protocols in Application Layer for some information about these
protocols. Protocols other than those present in the linked article are:
HTTP and HTTPS – HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to
manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a
combination of HTTP with SSL (Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser need to fill out
forms, sign in, authenticate and carry out bank transactions.
SSH – SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is
more preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
NTP – NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to one
standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation
without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30
PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

Q3 Explain the Concept of Wireless Network

Answer: Definition: Wireless networks are computer networks that are not connected by cables of any kind.
The use of a wireless network enables enterprises to avoid the costly process of introducing cables into
buildings or as a connection between different equipment locations. The basis of wireless systems are radio
waves, an implementation that takes place at the physical level of network structure.
Wireless networks:
The first professional wireless network was developed under the brand ALOHA net in 1969 at the University of
Hawaii and became operational in June 1971. The first commercial wireless network was the Wave
LAN product family, developed by NCR in 1986.
 1973 – Ethernet 802.3
 1991 – 2G cell phone network
 June 1997 – 802.11 "Wi-Fi" protocol first release
 1999 – 803.11 VoIP integration

Types of wireless networks

a) Wireless PAN:
Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) connect devices within a relatively small area, that is
generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light
provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN applications.
[10]
 Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to integrate Wi-Fi into
a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7 "virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities
have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.
b) Wireless LAN
wireless LANs are often used for connecting to local resources and to the Internet
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a wireless
distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for internet access. The use
of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage
area, and still remain connected to the network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name . Fixed
wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or networks at two distant
locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It is
often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link. To
connect to Wi-Fi, sometimes are used devices like a router or connecting Hot Spot using mobile
smartphones.
c) Wireless ad hoc network
A wireless ad hoc network, also known as a wireless mesh network or mobile ad hoc
network (MANET), is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each
node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes and each node performs routing. Ad hoc networks
can "self-heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power. Various network layer
 protocols are needed to realize ad hoc mobile networks, such as Distance Sequenced Distance Vector
routing, Associativity-Based Routing, Ad hoc on-demand Distance Vector routing, and Dynamic source
routing.
d) Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several wireless
LANs.
WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.
e) Wireless WAN
Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between
neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices
of business or as a public Internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are
usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz and 5.8Ghz band, rather
than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station
gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each
access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic
solar panels or wind systems they can be stand-alone systems.
f) Cellular network
A cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas called cells, each
served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. In a cellular
network, each cell characteristically uses a different set of radio frequencies from all their immediate
neighbouring cells to avoid any interference.
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a
large number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other
and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of
the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.
Although originally intended for cell phones, with the development of smartphones, cellular telephone
networks routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations:
 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three
major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support
system. The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to the operation
and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is transferred to
where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for a majority of cell
phones.
 Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile
phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first service to set up a PCS.
 D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is being
phased out due to advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks are replacing the older
system.
g) Global area network:
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of
wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off
user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves
succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.[14]
h) Space network:
Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft, usually in the vicinity of the
Earth. The example of this is NASA's Space Network.

Q4 Write Note on: Cyber-crime and Cyber terrorism

Answer: Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is a crime that involves a computer and a network. The
computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Cybercrimes can be defined
as: "Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to
intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm, or loss, to the victim directly
or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such as Internet (networks including chat rooms,
emails, notice boards and groups) and mobile phones (Bluetooth/SMS/MMS)". Cybercrime may threaten a
person or a nation's security and financial health. Issues surrounding these types of crimes have become high-
profile, particularly those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement, unwarranted mass-
surveillance, sextortion, child pornography, and child grooming.
CYBERPOL The International Cyber Policing Organization Public Utility was established in Belgium by
Royal Decree WL22/16.595 together with 136 Countries on the 22 July 2015. The first International Cyber
Policing Summit took place on the 17 and 18 November 2015 attended by 110 officials and 8 ambassadors at
the Palais Des Congress te Brussels. CYBERPOL predicted Cyber Crime will cost the global economy $1.2
Trillion by the end of 2019.
There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or
otherwise. Debarati Halder and K. Jaishankar further define cybercrime from the perspective of gender and
defined 'cybercrime against women' as "Crimes targeted against women with a motive to intentionally harm the
victim psychologically and physically, using modern telecommunication networks such as internet and mobile
phones".[3] Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes,
including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes. Cybercrimes crossing international borders
and involving the actions of at least one nation-state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare.
A report (sponsored by McAfee), published in 2014, estimated that the annual damage to the global economy
was $445 billion. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud in the US.
[6]
 In 2018, a study by Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), in partnership with McAfee,
concludes that close to $600 billion, nearly one percent of global GDP, is lost to cybercrime each year.

Cyber- terrorism:
Assigning a concrete definition to cyberterrorism can be hard, due to the difficulty of defining the term
terrorism itself. Multiple organizations have created their own definitions, most of which are overly broad.
There is also controversy concerning overuse of the term, hyperbole in the media and by security vendors trying
to sell "solutions".
One way of understanding cyberterrorism involves the idea that terrorists could cause massive loss of life,
worldwide economic chaos and environmental damage by hacking into critical infrastructure systems. The
nature of cyberterrorism covers conduct involving computer or Internet technology is motivated by a political,
religious or ideological cause is intended to intimidate a government or a section of the public to varying
degrees seriously interferes with infrastructure
The term "cyberterrorism" can be used in a variety of different ways, but there are limits to its use. An attack on
an Internet business can be labeled cyberterrorism, however when it is done for economic motivations rather
than ideological it is typically regarded as cybercrime. Convention also limits the label "cyberterrorism" to
actions by individuals, independent groups, or organizations. Any form of cyberwarfare conducted by
governments and states would be regulated and punishable under international law.
The Technolytics Institute defines cyberterrorism as
"the premeditated use of disruptive activities, or the threat thereof, against computers and/or networks, with the
intention to cause harm or further social, ideological, religious, political or similar objectives. Or to intimidate
any person in furtherance of such objectives."