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Classical Mechanics - Sample Material
Classical Mechanics - Sample Material
Institute for NET/JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, M.Sc. Entrance, JEST, TIFR and GRE in Physics
rˆ cos sin iˆ ĵ
ˆ sin ˆ
cos ˆj
r̂
cos sin
drˆ drˆ ˆ
iˆ sin ˆj cos iˆ
dt dt sin r
r cos
dˆ dˆ
iˆ cos ˆj sin rˆ
dt dt
7.1.1 The Position Vector in Polar Coordinate
r x iˆ y ˆj , r r cos iˆ sin ˆj
rˆ r cos iˆ r sin ˆj
r r cos iˆ sin ˆj r r rˆ
r r rˆ seems to contain only the quantity r . The answer is that r̂ is not a fixed vector
and we need to know the value of to tell how r̂ is origin. Although does not occur
explicitly in r r̂ , its value must be known to fix the direction of r̂ . This would be
apparent if we wrote r r rˆ to emphasize the dependence of r̂ on . However, by
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r
r v r rˆ
case 1 case 2
d d (rrˆ) dr drˆ drˆ ˆ
v rr̂ v .rˆ r rrˆ r ˆ r
v rr
dt dt dt dt dt
where r is radial velocity in r̂ direction and r is tangential velocity in ˆ direction as
If there is not any force in tangential direction i.e., f 0 is condition, then motion is
uniform circular motion i.e., is constant known as angular speed and tangential
speed is given by v r0
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v2
For non-uniform circular motion radial acceleration is ar and tangential
r
dv
acceleration is given by at
dt
a ar2 at2
In central force potential V is only function of r and only central force is always
a conservative force; the magnitude F of a central force can always be expressed as the
derivative of a time-independent potential energy
1 F ˆ 1 F ˆ
F 0
r sin r
V
And the force F is defined as F rˆ (force is only in radial direction)
r
7.2.1 Angular Momentum and Areal Velocity
The equation of motion in polar coordinate is given by m(r r2 ) Fr and
V
r Fr rrˆ rˆ ,
r
External torque 0 , so angular momentum is conserved
d ( mr 2)
m( r 2r) F but for central force F 0 , so m( r 2r) 0 0 means
dt
J
angular momentum of mr 2 J r p
mr 2
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r J r r p 0 r J , hence position vector r is perpendicular to angular
momentum vector J and hence J is conserved, its magnitude and direction both are
fixed so direction of r is also fixed.
So, motion due to central force is confined into a plane and angular momentum J is
perpendicular to that plane.
rd
Central force problem. Prove that Areal velocity is constant.
1
For the central force problem r rd
2
d 1 2 d 1 2 d
Now, Areal velocity = r r
dt 2 dt 2
d 1 2 J d J
r . It is given that 2
, so
dt 2 mr dt 2m
which means equal area will swept in equal time.
7.2.2 Total Energy of the System
E
Total energy is not explicitly function of time t , so 0 . So, one can conclude that
t
total energy in central potential is constant.
1
E mv 2 V r and Velocity v rrˆ rˆ
2
1
So, total energy, E m r 2 r 2 2 V r
2
1 2 1 2 2 J
mr mr V ( r ) , where
2 2 mr 2
1 2 J2
mr V r , r 0
2 2mr 2
1 2
E mr Veff ,
2
J2
where V r is identified as effective potential Veffective .
2mr 2
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of circular orbit.
Radius r r0 of circular orbit is also identified as stable equilibrium point
2Veffective
so 0 . If somehow particle of mass m changes its orbit without changing its
r 2
r r0
angular momentum and new orbit is bounded then new orbit is identified as elliptical
orbit. The angular frequency in new elliptical orbit is
2Veffective
r 2
r r0
m
7.2.4 Equation of Motion and Differential Equation of Orbit
So, Lagrangian can be reduced to
1
L r 2 r 2 2 V r
2
L
Since, 0 . So, is cyclic co-ordinate. Hence, angular momentum is conserved
during the motion.
d L 2 J
0 mr J or
dt mr 2
Equation of Motion
d L L
The Lagrangian equation of motion is given by 0
dt r r
V V
mr mr 2 0 or mr mr 2
r r
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mr mr 2 f r
d 2r J 2
m(r r2 ) f (r ) m 2 3 f (r ) ………..(1)
dt mr
J d J d
where, J mr 2 d 2
dt
mr dt mr 2 d
d 2 d d J d J d
2
dt 2 dt dt mr 2 d mr d
Substituting in (1)
J 2 1 d 1 dr J 2 J 2 1 d d 1 / r J 2
f r f r
m r 2 d r 2 d mr 3 m r 2 d d mr 3
J 2 1 d 2 1 / r J 2 J2 d 2 1 / r 1
f r f r
m r
2
d 2 mr 3 mr 2 d
2
r
1 J 2u 2 d 2u 1
Let, u 2 u f (differential equation of an orbit)
r m d u
kr 2
Example: Consider the motion of a particle of mass m in the potential field V (r ) .
2
If l is angular momentum then
(a) What is effective potential ( Veff ) of the system? Plot Veff vs r
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J2 1 2
Solution: (a) eff 2mr 2 2 kr
V
1/ 4
dVeff J2 J2
(b) 3 kr 0 at r r0 , so r0 and J m0 r02
dr mr mk
Veff
Veff J2
2mr 2 1 2
kr
2
r r
r r0
k
for circular motion m02 r0 kr0 , where r0 is radius of circle 0
m
J2 1 2 mkr04 1 2
total energy E 2
kr 2
kr0 E kr02 ,
2mr 2 2mr0 2
1/ 4
J2 k
on putting r0 gives E J
mk m
d 2Veff 3J 2 3J 2
k k 4k
dr 2 mr 4 J2
r r0 m
mk
d 2Veff
dr 2 4k k
r r0
2 2 0
m m m
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J2 Veff 2Veff
Solution: (a) If Veff V ( r ) , for circular stable orbit 0, 0
2mr 2 r r 2
k Veff J 2 V
(b) f (r ) , for circular motion 0 0
rn r mr 3 r
V k V k
It is given f ( r ) , if f ( r ) n n
r r r r
J2 k k J2
0
mr 3 r n r n mr 3
2Veff 3 J 2 nk 3J 2 n J 2
0 4 n1 0 . 0 , so n 3
r 2 mr r mr 4 r mr 3
Example: A particle of mass m and angular momentum l is moving under the action of a
central force f r along a circular path of radius a as shown in the figure. y
The force centre O lies on the orbit.
(a) Given the orbit equation in a central field motion.
r
2
d u m 1 x
u 2 2 f , where u . O
2 C (a,0)
d l u r
Determine the form of force in terms of l , m, a and r .
(b) Calculate the total energy of the particle assuming that the potential energy V ( r ) 0
as r .
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1 sec
Solution: (a) from the figure, r 2a cos y
r 2a
J 2u 2 d 2u 1
2 u f
m d u r
O x
J 2 sec 2 1 sec 1
4a 2
2a
sec tan 2 sec3
2a f
u
C (a,0)
J 2 sec 2 1 1
4a 2
2 3
2a sec tan sec sec f u
mr 2 J2 J2
(b) E V ( r ) , as r , V ( r ) 0 0
2 2mr 2 2mr 2
mr 2 J2
E
and r 2a cos and r 2a sin , as r
2 mr 2
J2
hence, 0 , so r 0 , so E 0
mr 2
7.3 Two Body Problem
Reduction of two body central force problem to the equivalent one body problem: A
system of two particles of mass m1 and m2 whose instantaneous position vectors of
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m2 m2 m1 m1
r1 r1 r2 r and r2 r1 r2 r
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
1 2 1 2
E m1 r1' m2 r2 ' V r2 r1 . The total energy is transformed
2 2
1 2 1 mm 2
E m1 m2 R 1 2 r V r
2 2 m1 m2
Centre of mass moving with constant momentum and equation of motion for three
generalized co-ordinates or will not terms in R and R . While discussing the motion of
1
the system, one can ignore m1 m2 R 2 .
2
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1 m1m2 2
So, energy in centre of mass reference frame is reduced to E r V r
2 m1 m2
m1m2
where, is reduced to one body system in centre of mass reference frame.
m1 m2
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l2 k
mr 3
2
mr r
J 2u 2 d 2u 1
Equation of orbit is given by 2 u f
m d u
k 1 2 J 2u 2 d 2u 2 d 2u ku 2 m
f r f ku u ku u
r2 u m d 2 d 2 J 2u 2
d 2u km km d 2u d 2 y
u 0 , put u y , so
d 2 J2 J2 d 2 d 2
d2y
The equation reduces to, y0
d 2
km km
The solution of equation reduces to y A cos u 2
A cos u 2 A cos
J J
1 km J 2 / km AJ 2
A cos 1 cos
r J2 r km
J2 AJ 2 l
Put l and e the equation reduce to 1 e cos which is equation of
km km r
conic, where l is latus rectum and e is eccentricity.
k
In a central force potential given by potential V ( r ) , the trajectory can be any conic
r
section depending on eccentricity e .
Now, we shall discuss the case specially of elliptical orbit as Veff
Kepler discuss for planetary motion.
rmin rmax
1 J2 k
Total energy E mr2 2
, where
2 2mr r E ellipse
J2 k
Veffective 2
with constant angular momentum J .
2mr r
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rmax rmin 2a , from plot of effective potential it is identified that rmax and rmin is the
turning point so at these points radial velocity is zero.
J2 k
E 2
2mEr 2 2mkr J 2 0 , given equation is quadratic in terms of r for
2mr r
their root at rmax and rmin . Using theory of quadratic equation, sum of roots,
2mk k
rmax rmin E , which is negative.
2mE 2a
7.3.4 Relationship between Energy and Eccentricity
k l J2
For central potential V ( r ) the solution of orbit is 1 e cos with l
r r km
1 2 J2 k
The energy is given by E mr 2
2 2mr r
l eJ sin J
So, 2
r e sin r , where 2
r ml mr
l eJ sin J2
after putting the value of 1 e cos and r with l in equation of
r ml km
energy,
2 EJ 2
one will get, e 1 .
mk 2
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mk 2
E 2 ; e 0 circle
2J
7.3.5 Kepler’s Second Law
Equal Area will swept in equal time or Areal velocity is constant.
dA J
( which is derived earlier )
dt 2m
7.3.6 Kepler’s Third Law
The square of time period ( T ) of revolution in elliptical orbit is proportional to cube of
semi major axis a ie T 2 a 3
dA J J J
dA dt ab T ( ab is the area of ellipse)
dt 2m 2m 2m
J 2 EJ 2 k
a a 1 e 2 T . It is given e 1 2
and E
2m mk 2a
2kJ 2 2kJ 2
e2 1 1 e 2
2amk 2 2amk 2
4m 2 2 2 2 2kJ 2 J2
T2 a a (1 e 2
) put value of 1 e 2
J2 2amk 2 amk
4m 2 2 4 4m 2 2 4 J 2 4 2 ma 3
T2 a (1 e 2
) T 2
a .
J2 J2 mak k
4 2 ma 3 4 2 a 3
T2 if k Gms m T 2 , where ms is mass of the sun.
k Gm s
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Example: Given a classical model of tritium atom with nucleus of charge +1 and a single
electron in a circular orbit of radius r0 . Suddenly the nucleus emits a negatron and
changes to charge +2 (the emitted negatron escapes rapidly and we can forget about it)
the orbit suddenly has a new situation.
(a) Find the ratio of the electron’s energy after to before the emission of the negatron
(b) Describe qualitatively the new orbit
(c) Find the distance of closest and the farthest approach for the new orbits in units of r0
Solution: (a) As the negatron leaves the system rapidly, we can assume that its leaving
has no effect on the position and kinetic energy of the orbiting electron.
From the force relation for the electron,
mv02 e2 mv02 e2
, and we find its kinetic energy
r0 4 0 r02 2 8 0 r0
and its total mechanical energy
mv02 e2 e2
E1
2 4 0 r0 8 0 r0
before the emission of the negatron. After the emission the kinetic energy of the electron
e2 2e2 e 2
is still , while its potential energy suddenly changes to
8 0 r0 4 0 r0 2 0 r0
Thus after the emission the total mechanical energy of the orbiting electron is
mv02 2e 2 3e 2 E
E2 , giving 2 3 .
2 4 0 r0 8 0 r0 E1
In other words, the total energy of the orbiting electron after the emission is three times
as large as that before the emission.
3e 2
(b) As E2 , the condition equation (i) for circular motion is no longer satisfied
8 0 r0
and the new orbit is an ellipse.
(c) Conservation of energy gives
3e 2 e 2 m r 2 r 2 2
8 0 r0 2 0 r0 2
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At positions where the orbiting electron is at the distance of closest or farthest approach
to the atom, we have r 0 , for which
3e 2 mr 22 e2 J2 e2
8 0 r0 2 2 0 r 2mr 2 2 0 r
me 2 r0
Then, with J 2 m 2 v02 r02
4 0
From above equations
3r 2 4r0 r r02 0
r0
the solutions are r , r r0
3
Hence, the distances of closest and farthest approach in the new orbit are respectively,
1
rmin , rmax 1
3
Example: A satellite of mass m 2000 kg is in elliptical orbit about earth. At perigee it
has an altitude of 1,100 km and at apogee it has altitude 4,100 km. assume radius of the
earth is Re 6, 400 km. it is given GmM e 8 1017 J .m
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2
2 EJ 2 1 2 EJ 2
e 1 1
mk 2 6 mk 2
1 2 EJ 2
1 140 10 26 J 2 J 140 1013 1.2 1014 kgm / sec 2
36 mk 2
(d) When satellite is at surface of the earth, R 6400 Km
Example: A planet of mass m moves in the inverse square central force field of the Sun
of mass M . If the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the orbit are a and b respectively,
then find total energy of the planet by assuming Sun is at the center of ellipse.
v2
Solution: Assume Sun is at the centre of elliptical orbit.
b
1 2 GMm 1 2 GMm v1
Conservation of energy, mv1 mv2 s a
2 a 2 b
Conservation of momentum, L mv1a mv2b
a
v2 v1
b
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1 2 b2 a2 b a 1 b 1
mv1 GMm mv12 GMm
a b a
2
2 b ab 2
1 2 GMm b 1 GMm
E mv1 GMm
2 a a b a a
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