Sustainability 2018, 10, 1482 12 of 19

institutions. The problem is accentuated by the conflict of interest between the non-disclosure of
process details 2018,
Sustainability by suppliers and
10, x FOR PEER operators of techniques and the need of far reaching transparency
REVIEW 12 of 19
as a prerequisite of plausible LCAs. The comparative LCA performed on behalf of the German
transparency
Environmental as a prerequisite
Protection Agencyof[18]
plausible LCAs.
has been The comparative
conceived LCALCA
as a model performed on behalf of
for phosphate the
fertilizers
German
produced from Environmental Protection
fossil and recycled AgencySeveral
materials. [18] hasdatabase
been conceived as a model
flaws have LCA for phosphate
been revealed and corrected
fertilizers produced from fossil and recycled materials. Several database flaws have been revealed
and full transparency will be provided as soon as the report is published [18].
and corrected and full transparency will be provided as soon as the report is published [18].
The preliminary results of the normalized LCA of phosphate fertilizers on the German market [18]
The preliminary results of the normalized LCA of phosphate fertilizers on the German market
exhibit[18]
two relevant
exhibit twoenvironmental impacts:impacts:
relevant environmental eutrophication and human
eutrophication toxicity.
and human Eutrophication
toxicity. is mainly
Eutrophication
causedisby applying fertilizers to cropland and losing phosphate to water bodies. Long-term
mainly caused by applying fertilizers to cropland and losing phosphate to water bodies. Long-term eutrophication
is alsoeutrophication
due to phosphogypsum
is also due tostacks directly releasing
phosphogypsum acidicreleasing
stacks directly process water to rivers
acidic process [22,23]
water but does
to rivers
only marginally
[22,23] but does contribute to the global
only marginally impacttoreflected
contribute the globalinimpact
the LCA, if no in
reflected long-term
the LCA,sensitivity analysis
if no long-term
sensitivityThe
is performed. analysis
mainiscontributor
performed. toThe
themain
humancontributor
toxicitytoimpact
the human toxicity
category impact category
is cadmium (Cd), aistoxic
metalcadmium
present in (Cd), a toxic high
relatively metalconcentrations
present in relatively high concentrations
in sedimentary in sedimentary
phosphates. The relevancephosphates.
of the two
The relevance of the two main impact categories in comparison
main impact categories in comparison to others is exhibited in Figure 9. to others is exhibited in Figure 9.

Figure 9. LCA
Figure normalization
9. LCA ofofbaseline
normalization baselinefor
foraverage
average PPfertilizers
fertilizerssold
sold
in in Germany
Germany [18].[18].

Despite its flaws in revealing the regional impacts of phosphogypsum stacks, regardless if
Despite its flaws in revealing the regional impacts of phosphogypsum stacks, regardless if caused
caused by accidents [24,25] or by continuous leaching [22,23], LCA is a powerful tool for evaluating
by accidents
the direct[24,25] or by continuous
environmental leaching
impact of options for [22,23], LCA in
improvement is case
a powerful tool interests.
of conflicting for evaluating
In the the
directLCA
environmental impact of options for improvement in case of conflicting
study, the conflicting interests are between energy consumption with its corresponding interests. In the LCA
study,greenhouse
the conflicting interestsand
gas emissions arehuman
between energy
toxicity, consumption
since removing cadmiumwith itsfrom
corresponding greenhouse
phosphate fertilizers
gas emissions
consumes and energyhuman toxicity,
from fossil fuels,since removing
regardless if wet cadmium
chemical orfrom phosphateprocesses
thermochemical fertilizers
areconsumes
used.
energyThe critical
from question
fossil fuels, isregardless
whether the additional
if wet use of
chemical orenergy justifies the removal
thermochemical processes of cadmium
are used.inTheterms
critical
of the impact categories of the LCA.
question is whether the additional use of energy justifies the removal of cadmium in terms of the
As Figureof9the
impact categories clearly
LCA.shows, phosphate processing only marginally (<0.1%) contributes to the
global warming potential by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Even if more energy is needed for
As Figure 9 clearly shows, phosphate processing only marginally (<0.1%) contributes to the global
producing controlled release fertilizers or removing cadmium from phosphate rock or phosphoric
warming potential by greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Even if more energy is needed for producing
acid, the impact on greenhouse gas emissions is unlikely to become relevant, since the additional
controlled
GHG release
emissionsfertilizers
remainor removing
marginal. Incadmium
addition, from
fossil phosphate
fuels such rock or phosphoric
as natural gas in the acid, the for
study impact
on greenhouse
calcination,gas mayemissions
be replacedisby unlikely
renewable to become
energy suchrelevant, since thesolar
as concentrated additional
power in GHG emissions
the future,
remain marginal.
whereas In addition,
cadmium accumulated fossilinfuels
soils such as natural
will remain and gas
onlyingradually
the studybefor calcination,
taken-up may be
by crops,
replaced by renewable
consequently energy
increasing the such
weekly ashuman
concentrated
cadmiumsolar intakepower in the exceeding
rate already future, whereas cadmium
the European
Food Safety
accumulated Authority’s
in soils (EFSA)and
will remain recommendations
only gradually (tolerable weeklyby
be taken-up intake of 2.5
crops, µg/kg body weight)
consequently increasing
for toddlers, children and vegetarians. According to
the weekly human cadmium intake rate already exceeding the European Foodthe Scientific Report of EFSA, individual dietary
Safety Authority’s
survey results varied between a weekly minimum lower bound average of 1.15 to a maximum upper
(EFSA) recommendations (tolerable weekly intake of 2.5 µg/kg body weight) for toddlers, children
bound average of 7.84 µg/kg body weight and a minimum lower bound 95th percentile of 2.01 and a
and vegetarians. According to the Scientific Report of EFSA, individual dietary survey results varied