Veterinary Nursing Journal

ISSN: 1741-5349 (Print) 2045-0648 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tvnj20

Anatomy and Physiology of the Dog and Cat 7. The

Respiratory System

Vicky Aspinall

To cite this article: Vicky Aspinall (2004) Anatomy and Physiology of the Dog
and Cat 7. The Respiratory System, Veterinary Nursing Journal, 19:2, 54-59, DOI:
10.1080/17415349.2004.11013250

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17415349.2004.11013250

Published online: 21 Nov 2014.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 14

View related articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tvnj20

Download by: [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] Date: 04 April 2016, At: 03:45
 TECHNICAL PAPERS

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OFTHE DOG AND CAT
7.THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 03:45 04 April 2016

Student An understanding ofhow an animal breathes is vitalfor the

and
qualified veterinary nurse- particularly when aiding respiration in any
VNs
way {during, say, gaseous anaesthesia). Here, Vicky Aspinall
runs through the processes and mechanics ofrespiration
Vicky Aspinall

0
xygen is necessary to produce energy by aerobic metabolism, Nasal cavity
which occurs in all body cells. The respiratory system of The nasal, maxillary, incisive and palatine bones of the skull form the
mammals has evolved to conduct atmospheric air into the nasal cavity, which extends from the external nares to the internal
body, extract its oxygen, and then excrete waste products (specifically, nares at its caudal end. It is divided into the right and left nasal
carbon dioxide) back into the atmospheric air. Respiration may be chambers by a cartilaginous nasal septum, which may become more
defined as the exchange of gases between a living organism and its bony as the animal ages.
environment. It has two stages: Attached to the dorsolateral walls of the chambers and lying
• External respiration {breathing). The exchange of gases within them are delicate coiled bones known as the dorsal and ventral
between the external environment and the blood. This takes turbinates or conchae. The walls of the nasal chambers and
place within the lungs. turbinates are covered in a layer of ciliated columnar mucous mem-
• Internal or tissue respiration. The exchange of gases between brane, which is well supplied with blood capillaries and fine branches
blood and tissues. of the olfactory nerve. These structures serve to
warm, moisten and filter inspired air, trapping any
foreign particles that may damage the lungs. The
Upper respiratory tract olfactory nerve fibres detect smells and convey
The respiratory tract is the pathway along which information to the olfactory lobes of the brain for
inspired and expired gases travel to and from the interpretation (see Part 4 of this series, Veterinary
lungs. The upper respiratory tract comprises the Nursing, September 2003, pp 156-161).
nasal chambers, pharynx, larynx and cranial part of Two air-filled cavities, the paranasal sinwes,
the trachea. lead from the nasal chambers. The frontal sinus
lies within the frontal bone above the eyes. The
Rhinarium Vicky Aspinall, MRCVS, is the maxillary sinus lies between the maxillary bone and
The rhinarium (nosepad) is composed ofkeratinised, principal ofAbbeydale Veterinary the palatine bone, just below each eye. Each is lined
pigmented squamous epithelium, and protects the Training, Gloucester, and a director of with ciliated mucous membrane and drains into
Abbeydale VedinkVeterinary
end of the nasal bone. It is well supplied with Training. Her main interest is in the nasal cavity.
mucous glands which keep it moist and supple and anatomy and physiology, and in the
provide the 'wet-nosed' appearance of a healthy dog. past few years she has written a series Pharynx
of CO-ROMs for veterinary nurses,
The rhinarium is penetrated by a pair of The pharynx is a muscular tube lined with mucous
and has co-written a new textbook,
C-shaped nostrils, or external nares. Air enters the 'An Introduction to Veterinary membrane. It forms a cross-over point between the
nasal chambers through these nares. Anatomy and Physiology' respiratory and digestive systems and lies at the

54 VETERINARY NURSING Volume 19 No 2Aprii/May 2004

 Nasal chamber ----..,..::;~
Rhinarium ---·IJtl(tP_.,

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea ---------~-...:.IQ~
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 03:45 04 April 2016

Lobes of the lung

The respiratory tract

Frontal
sinuses Nasopharynx
Turbinates
within
nasal
chamber

back of the oral and nasal chambers. The soft palate extends caudally
from the hard palate and divides the pharynx into the oropharynx
and nasopharynx. The auditory Eustachian tube leads from the
middle ear into the pharynx {see Part 5, Veterinary Nursing,
November2003,pp 188-193).
During respiration, air passes from the nasal chambers across the
pharynx and into the larynx and trachea.
Hard Soft Oropharynx
Larynx palate palate

The larynx is a complex, rigid, box-like structure formed by inter- Epiglottis Trachea
connecting cartilages linked by smooth muscle. The cartilages consist Longitudinal section through the canine head, showing the upper respiratory
of a pair of arytenoids and the cricoid, thyroid and epiglottis. tract
The epiglottis is the most rostral structure and is attached to the
ventral border of the larynx. The cranial entrance to the larynx is the Arytenoid First three
(second one tracheal
glottis. not shown) rings
The larynx lies in the midline between the rami of the mandibles.
It is attached to the skull by the hyoid apparatus, which allows it
to swing backwards and forwards like a trapeze. When food is
swallowed, the larynx moves forwards, the epiglottis closes the glottis
and food passes from the oropharynx down the oesophagus. During
respiration, the larynx swings back into its resting position, the
epiglottis falls forward to leave the glottis open, and air passes from
the nasopharynx down the trachea {see illustrations overleaf).
The lumen of the larynx contains a pair of vertical vocal folds,
which lie against the walls when at rest. The vocal cords responsible
for producing sound are the leading edges of the folds. Behind each
fold is a cavity- the lateral ventricle. In older large dogs, the vocal
folds may become paralysed, interfering with respiration and result- Epiglottis Thyroid Cricoid
ing in a continuous strident roaring noise when the dog exerts itself.
This laryngeal paralysis may be treated by a 'tie-back' operation. Cartilages of the larynx

VETERINARY NURSING Volume 19 No 2Aprii/May 2004 55

 Nasoflharynx Eustachian tube

Respiratory
bronchiole
Oeso-

---- phagus

Oral
cavity
Trachea ----
Arteriole Venule

Oropharynx Pharynx Epiglottis Larynx

The pharynx and larynx during swallowing (above) and respiration (below)
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 03:45 04 April 2016

Nasof1harynx Eustachian tube

Nasal
chamber

Capillary networks Alveoli

surrounding each
Oral
cavity alveolus

Oropharynx Epiglottis Larynx

Terminal parts of the respiratory tract within the lung

Lower respiratory tract
The lower respiratory tract comprises the caudal trachea (as it runs
through the thoracic cavity) and the lungs.
Trachea
This simple tubular structure conducts gases up and down the neck,
through the cranial thoracic inlet and into the thoracic cavity. It lies
in the midline, ventral and slightly to the right of the oesophagus. In
the thorax, it lies within the mediastinum and divides (bifurcates)
into right and left principal bronchi, just cranial to the base of the
heart.
The trachea is a permanently open, flexible tube consisting of
C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage linked by smooth muscle and
fibrous connective tissue. Each ring opens onto the dorsal side of the
trachea, to allow the oesophagus - which lies alongside - to distend
when food passes down it. The trachea is lined with ciliated columnar
mucous membrane which traps particles of dust and dirt. The tiny
hairs of the cilia pass particles up to the pharynx, where they are either
coughed out or are swallowed and destroyed by stomach acid.
Bronchi and bronchioles
The right and left principal bronchi lead away from the trachea at
the bifurcation just cranial to the base of the heart. Each has a similar
structure to the trachea, except that the rings of cartilage are complete
and smaller. Each bronchus enters the root of its associated lung and
divides into smaller secondary bronchi. These are named according
to which lung lobes they supply with oxygen.
Within the lung tissue, each bronchi divides into smaller and
smaller bronchioles. These are not kept open by cartilage rings but
are lined with ciliated mucous membrane. This arrangement is often
referred to as 'the bronchial tree' because it resembles tree branches.
Lungs
The lungs almost fill the thoracic cavity. When inflated with air, they
appear pale pink and feel firm and spongy. When collapsed or con-
solidated, they become dark red. The two lungs are slightly different
in size and shape. The right lung is larger than the left and is made up
of an apical or cranial lobe; a cardiac lobe; a caudal or diaphragmatic
lobe; and a small accessory lobe which lies between the two lungs.
The left lung is made up of apical, cardiac and diaphragmatic lobes.
In the lungs, the smallest bronchioles lead into yet narrower tubes,
lined with ciliated mucous membrane- respiratory bronchioles.
Each divides to form two or three smaller alveolar ducts ending in
alveolar sacs, or alveoli, which have a grape-like appearance (see
diagram above). The alveoli and alveolar ducts are formed by a
single layer of epithelium- the pulmonary membrane. Within the
pulmonary membrane, gaseous exchange occurs, 'goblet cells' secrete
mucus, and phagocyric cells scavenge dust, smoke and other particles.
There is no muscle tissue in the lungs; their ability to expand and
contract is due to the presence of elastic connective tissue.
The blood supply to the lungs is called the pulmonary circulation.
Capillary networks surround each alveolus. These branches of the
pulmonary artery bring deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
of the heart to the lungs (see Part 6, Veterinary Nursing, February/
March 2004, pp 16-22). The capillaries leading away from the alveoli,
in a network of larger and larger vessels, eventually combine to form
the pulmonary vein, which drains oxygenated blood into the left
atrium of the heart.

56 VETERINARY NURSING Volume 19 No 2Aprii/May 2004

 Table I. Clinical respiratory terminology
Larynx
Term Definition
Respiratory rate Number of breaths per minute
Dyspnoea Difficulty in breathing
Apnoea Lack of breathing
Tachypnoea Rapid respiratory rate
Bradypnoea Slow respiratory rate
Bronchi and
Orthopnoea Breathing with the mouth open
LtiEt:~- larger
bronchioles Pneumothorax Air within the pleural cavity
Root of the Haemothorax Blood within the pleural cavity
lung Pulmonary Hydrothorax Fluid within the pleural cavity
pleura Pyothrax Pus within the pleural cavity
Right
Chylothorax Chyle (a fluid containing lymph) within the pleural
principal -11-111------'~V Wallofthe
bronchus -thoracic cavity
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 03:45 04 April 2016

cavity Pleurisy Inflammation of the pleural membranes

Pneumonia Infection and inflammation of the lung tissue

Costal pleura

Mediastinum

Ventral view of the lungs within the thoracic cavity

Thoracic cavity
The thoracic cavity is one of rhe three body cavities (see Parr 1,
Veterinary Nursing, March 2003, pp 63-69) and is delineated by the
cranial thoracic inlet, sternum, thoracic vertebrae and ribs. The
caudal thoracic inlet is filled by the diaphragm- a musculotendinous
structure which projects cranially into rhe thoracic cavity, like a
dome. Iris anached co the lase few ribs, co the xiphoid cartilage of rhe
sternum and co rhe ventral surface of rhe first few lumbar vertebrae. Ir
is penetrated by three foramina, which allow structures such as rhe
oesophagus and aorra co run between the thorax and abdomen. The
phrenic nerve, which arises from the cervical spinal cord and runs
down the neck, controls the movement of rhe diaphragm.
The ribs form the sides of rhe thoracic cavity. Between rhem are
two layers of intercostal muscles. The external intercostals (the outer
layer) run from rhe caudal border of each rib in a caudoventral direc-
tion. They are rhe thicker of the two muscles and, during respiration,
rhey contract and life rhe ribcage outwards, rhus bringing about inspi-
ration. The internal intercostals are thinner and run from rhe cranial
border of each rib in a cranioventral direction. Their function is co
assist in expiration, a mainly passive process. Both sees of muscles are
innervated by intercostal nerves from rhe spinal cord.
A layer of serous epithelium lines the thoracic caviry, secreting a
watery or serous fluid co lubricate and reduce friction between oppos-
ing tissue surfaces. The pleural membrane lines the inner surfaces of
the cavity and covers all rhe structures within ir. Different pans of rhe
pleural membrane are named according co rhe area they cover (see
diagram above).
The pleural cavity contains nothing bur a small volume of serous
fluid and a vacuum. The vacuum is essential for respiration; anything
char interferes wirh ir (see Table 1) affects rhe animal's ability co breathe.
Two layers of pleura form the mediastinum, which divides rhe
pleural cavity into rhe right and left pleural cavities, each containing
a lung. The mediastinum is quire a rough structure. Provided it
remains intact, one lung can function normally even if the ocher is
damaged or infected. Most of the organs in the thoracic cavity (the
heart, oesophagus, trachea, blood and lymphatic vessels) lie between
rhe rwo layers of the mediastinal pleura.
The mechanics of breathing
External respiration is defined as rhe exchange of gases between
atmospheric air and the blood of an organism, bur how is air drawn
into rhe lung tissue?
The ace of breaching involves rhe intercostal muscles and
diaphragm. There are three fundamental factors:
• There is a vacuum between the parietal and pulmonary pleura
(within the pleural cavity).
• The lungs almost completely fill rhe thoracic cavity.
• Air can only enter rhe lungs when rhe pressure within them is
lower chan char of the external air.
Breaching occurs in two stages: inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration is an active process (see diagram overleaf). The external
intercosrals contract and pull rhe ribcage upwards and outwards. The
diaphragm contracts and flanens. The combined action increases the
volume of the thoracic cavity and, because of rhe vacuum between
the thoracic wall and rhe lungs, the lungs expand. This lowers rhe
pressure within the lungs, so char atmospheric air rushes down rhe
respiratory traer and into the alveoli.

VETERINARY NURSING Volume 19 No 2Aprii/May 2004 57

 Thoracic wall
Resting position (pleural membranes Inspiration: the ribs are drawn up and
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 03:45 04 April 2016
not drawn) outwards.The diaphragm flattens. The
lungs expand. Air is drawn down the
trachea into the lungs
Mechanics of breathing
Expiration is a mainly passive process. The external intercostals
and diaphragm relax and return to the resting position. The volume
of the thoracic cavity reduces, the lungs return to normal size, the
pressure within the lungs rises and gases are pushed up the respiratory
tract and out of the body.
During forced expiration - for example, when the animal is exer-
cised- the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles contract to
push air out of the lungs with great force.
The number of breaths an animal takes per minute is called its
respiratory or breathing rate. To measure it, either observe the
animal quietly as it stands in front of you, or gently place your hands
on either side of the chest and feel the movements. Count the breaths
taken in exactly one minute. To save time you can do this over a
quarter of a minute and multiply the total by four, but be careful-
any inaccuracies will be similarly quadrupled.
The respiratory rate is linked to the animal's metabolic rate.
Smaller animals have a faster metabolism and breathe more quickly.
Larger animals breath more slowly. The respiratory rate is also
affected by factors such as activity, excitement, pain, environmental
temperature, and certain drugs and poisons. When an animal is at
rest, it uses only a small percentage of its normal lung capacity. The
changes that occur during normal respiration are of great importance
when using gaseous or inhalation anaesthesia {see Table 2 for defini-
tions of the different lung volumes).
Gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange occurs between alveoli and blood, and between
blood and tissues. It depends on diffusion (the passage of a substance
from areas of high to low concentration). Diffusion continues until
the two concentrations are equal. it is a passive process.
The concentration of oxygen in the inspired air of the alveoli is
higher than in the blood. Accordingly, oxygen diffuses through the
thin pulmonary membrane lining the alveoli into the blood, and then
travels within the network of fine capillaries which cover the outside
of each alveolus. The oxygen combines with the haemoglobin
58
Expiration: the ribs relax and retum
to the resting position.The diaphragm
returns to a domed shape.The lungs
contract. Air is pushed out of the
lungs and out of the trachea
contained by erythrocytes {red blood cells) to make oxyhaemoglobin,
in which form it is carried to body tissues.
The concentration of oxygen in the body tissues is low, so oxygen
diffuses from the blood into the tissue cells where it is used in the
energy-creating process of aerobic metabolism.
Carbon dioxide is a waste product of these processes. It cannot be
used and is excreted by the lungs. It is present in higher concentra-
tions in the tissues than in the blood, so it diffuses from tissue into
blood and is carried, mainly in solution within plasma, back to the
lungs. There, the carbon dioxide is in higher concentration in the
blood than in the alveoli, so it diffuses across the endothelium of the
capillaries and the pulmonary membrane of the alveoli into a gas
mixture which is then expired {see Table 3).
Control of respiration
The function of respiration is to supply body tissues with oxygen for
aerobic metabolism and to carry away carbon dioxide. Normally, the
changing metabolic rate of the body makes different demands on the
respiratory system. The cells of the mammalian body are remote from
the site at which gases are taken in and expelled, so a complex but
vital system of controlling respiration has evolved.
The structures which monitor and control respiration are found in
the brain, lungs and peripheral circulation. They are:
• Apneustic and pneumotaxic centres. These control expiration
and lie within the pons and medulla oblongata of the hindbrain
{see Part 4, ~terinary Nursing, September 2003, pp 156-161).
• Inspiratory centre. This controls inspiration and lies within
the pons and medulla oblongata. Nerve impulses from the
centre travel down the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and
down the intercostal nerves to the intercostal muscles.
These two expiratory and inspiratory centres inhibit each other
and cannot function simultaneously. They are responsible for the
basic rhythm of respiration.
• Stretch receptors via so-called Hering-Breuer reflexes.
These lie within the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles. They
VETERINARY NURSING Volume 19 No 2Aprii/May 2004
 Table 2. Definitions of lung volume
Lung volume Definition

Tidal air Air that passes into and out of the lungs
Tidal volume Volume of air that passes in and out of the
lungs during normal quiet respiration
Residual volume Volume of air left in the lungs after forced
expiration
Functional residual volume Volume of air left in the lungs after normal
expiration
Minimal air Volume of air left in the lungs after death
Dead space Volume of air that never reaches the area
of gaseous exchange and is expired Table 3. Composition of inspired and expired air
unchanged- air within the nasal cavities,
Atmospheric/inspired air Expired air
pharynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles
Downloaded by [Orta Dogu Teknik Universitesi] at 03:45 04 April 2016

Total lung capacity Volume of air breathed out with Nitrogen 79 per cent 79 per cent
maximum expiration or breathed in with Oxygen 21 per cent 16 per cent
maximum inspiration Carbon dioxide 0·04 per cent 4 to 5 per cent
Vital capacity Total volume of air in the respiratory tract Water vapour Levels vary Levels increase
that can be used during respiration Other inert gases Constant Constant

monitor the degree of stretching by the lung tissue and prevent
over-inflation. They transmit information to the inspiratory
centre via the vagus nerve (X), and inhibit further inspiration
but stimulate expiration.
• Chemoreceptors. Peripheral receptors lie within the walls
of the carotid arteries (carotid bodies) and the aorta (aortic
bodies); central receptors are found in the medulla oblongata.
They monitor the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the blood according to changes in the pH of the blood. These
receptors modifY the rate and depth of respiration.
A complicated network between these receptors and the inspira-
tory and expiratory receptors in the hindbrain controls the respiratory
system so that it can respond to the changing needs of the body as
rapidly as possible. To take one example of how the system functions,
suppose a dog stops breathing. Carbon dioxide produced by the
tissues builds up within the plasma of the blood and makes the blood
more acidic; that is, the H+ concentration rises and the pH falls. The
fall in pH stimulates the central and peripheral chemoreceptors to
stimulate the expiratory centres of the brain, and the dog breathes
out. The levels of carbon dioxide go down.
Acknowledgement
The illustrations in this article, with the exception of those on page 58, are
reproduced by kind permission of Cy Barnes
Understanding respiration
The passage of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the lungs,
blood and cells occurs simultaneously and continuously throughout
an animal's life. If anything interferes with this process the animal will
die within minutes, so an understanding of how an animal breathes is
vital when aiding respiration in any way. The commonest example of
such a time for the veterinary nurse is probably during the adminis-
tration and monitoring of gaseous anaesthesia.
Further reading
Aspinaii,V.The Respiratory System CD-ROM- Keyskills, Stroud, Gloucestershire
Aspinaii,V. (2003) Clinical Procedures in Veterinary Nursing. Butterworth-
Heinemann, Oxford
Aspinaii,V. & O'Reilly, M. (2004) Introduction to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology.
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
Colville,T & Bassert,J. M. (2002) Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary
Technicians. Mosby, Missouri
Cooper, B. & Lane, D. R. (Eds) (2003) Veterinary Nursing, 3rd edn. Butterworth-
Heinemann, Oxford
Evans, H. E. ( 1997) Miller's Anatomy of the Dog, 3rd edn. W. B. Saunders,
Philadelphia
Smith, B. ( 1999) Canine Anatomy. Lippincott,Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Tartaglia, L. & Waugh, A. (2002) Veterinary Physiology and Applied Anatomy.
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford

VETERINARY NURSING Volume 19 No 2Aprii/May 2004 59