Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Child Development and The Physical Environment
Child Development and The Physical Environment
CONTENTS
CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Behavioral Toxicology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Crowding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Housing and Neighborhood Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Schools and Day Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
424 EVANS
Behavioral Toxicology
LEAD Heavy metals, inorganic solvents, and pesticides commonly found in the
ambient environment affect child development. Lead, mercury, and polychlori-
nated biphenyls (PCBs) are the most studied behavioral toxins, with more limited
data available on other heavy metals, solvents, and pesticide exposure. Needleman
(1979) showed that accumulated body lead burden was associated with IQ deficits
in grade school children. The results of this study have been widely replicated
with statistical controls for socioeconomic status (SES), prospective designs, and
dose-response functions (Dietrich 2001, Hubbs-Tait et al. 2005, Koger et al. 2005,
Wigle 2003). Lead exposure early in life reduces IQ on the order of three points
per 10 µg/dl of blood. In a follow-up study of the same children, Needleman et al.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
(1990) demonstrated greater reading deficits, lower class ranks, and more high
school dropouts as a function of early childhood lead exposure. Lead levels below
current “safe” thresholds produce IQ deficits in three- to five-year-olds (Canfield
et al. 2003) as well as in elementary school–aged children (Bellinger & Needleman
2003, Chiodo et al. 2004). The Chiodo study also uncovered deficits in reaction
time, visual-motor integration, and attention. Teachers also reported more inatten-
tion and social withdrawal as a function of lead exposure. In a national sample of
6- to 16-year-olds, an inverse relation was uncovered between lead levels lower
than 5 µg per deciliter and reading and math (Lanphear et al. 2000).
Toxins can also influence socioemotional development. Child lead poisoning
survivors subsequently manifest increased hyperactivity, impulsivity, and aggres-
sion following their recovery. Moreover, these adverse outcomes often persist
throughout adulthood (Bellinger & Adams 2001, Dietrich et al. 2001, Hubbs-Tait
et al. 2005). In Needleman’s 1979 study, teacher ratings of students’ externalizing
behaviors were also related to body lead burden. Preschool children with body lead
burdens above 15 µg/dl, independent of SES and maternal mental health status,
had elevated behavioral problems (Sciarillo et al. 1992). One- to three-year-olds
with higher lead body burdens evidenced greater hyperactivity, distractibility, and
lower frustration tolerance with SES controls (Mendelsohn et al. 1998). Further-
more, in the 11-year follow-up by Needleman et al. (1990), juvenile delinquency
was associated with lead levels assessed in elementary school. In a different cohort,
Needleman and colleagues uncovered a significant association between skeletal
lead concentration and both teacher and parent ratings of externalizing sympto-
mology among 11-year-olds (Needleman et al. 1996). Prenatal blood lead levels
are also associated (independent of SES) with self-reported and parent-reported
delinquency in adolescence (Dietrich et al. 2001).
426 EVANS
Noise
READING The primary sources of noise exposure among children are transporta-
tion, music, and other people. Noise is typically measured as sound level with
decibels, a logarithmic scale. A change in 10 decibels is perceived as approx-
imately twice as loud. Children exposed to transportation noise (principally air-
craft) manifest significant delays in reading. Most of the evidence is cross-sectional,
comparing airport noise-impacted and nearby, quiet schools, typically with statis-
tical controls for SES (Evans & Hygge 2005, Evans & Lepore 1993). Reading
effects occur at sound levels far below those sufficient to produce hearing damage.
Several investigators have also prescreened children for normal hearing. Haines
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
et al. (2002), however, found no relation between airport noise and reading. Cross-
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
critical, important stimuli during noise exposure, but at the cost of attention to
more peripheral information (Hockey 1979, Smith & Jones 1992). Several stud-
ies with children have uncovered relations between chronic noise exposure and
poorer attention as measured by visual search tasks (e.g., finding a target symbol
in a visual array) (Heft 1979, Karsdorf & Klappach 1968, Moch-Sibony 1984,
Muller et al. 1998) and an auditory search task in relation to school airport noise
exposure (Haines et al. 2001c). Failure to replicate effects of noise on visual search
(Evans et al. 1995, Hambrick-Dixon 1986, Matsui et al. 2004) could be explained
by temporal parameters. Cohen et al. (1986) found that exposure to airport noise
for more than two years led to poorer visual search performance, whereas shorter
periods of noise exposure had the opposite effect.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
There may be a connection between attention reallocation under noise and ad-
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
428 EVANS
a task under escapable or inescapable loud noise or under quiet conditions. Partic-
ipants who worked under inescapable noise were less likely to perform success-
fully a subsequent task to avoid noise than those who had previously worked in
escapable noise or quiet (Hiroto 1974, Krantz et al. 1974). Adults are also less
persistent on challenging tasks following uncontrollable versus controllable noise
exposure or quiet conditions (Glass & Singer 1972). Both types of motivational
indices among adults are robust, replicated in many laboratory and field studies
(Cohen 1980, Evans & Stecker 2004). Fourth-graders exposed to uncontrollable
acute noise (Glass 1977) and children as young as four react similarly to chronic
noise (Bullinger et al. 1999; Cohen et al. 1986; Evans et al. 1995, 2001; Maxwell
& Evans 2000; Moch-Sibony 1984). Wachs (1987) also demonstrated that one-
year-old males but not females in noisier homes exhibited less mastery orientation
in a toy play task.
children and the physical environment raises important challenges given the high
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
Crowding
INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIORS The number of people per room, rather than areal
markers of density (e.g., people per acre), is the critical index of crowding related
to human well-being (Baum & Paulus 1987, Evans 2001). A number of studies
converge on elevated levels of social withdrawal among preschool children when
interacting under more crowded conditions. Several of these studies randomly
exposed children to different levels of density. Liddell & Kruger, Loo, and McGrew
observed the same child under variable density conditions (Hutt & Vaizy 1966;
Liddell & Kruger 1987, 1989; Loo 1972; McGrew 1970; Preiser 1972). Liddell
& Kruger (1989) found that home density was positively associated with social
withdrawal among children at nursery school. Hutt & Vaizy (1966) noted that
withdrawal was more marked among autistic children relative to typical 3- to
8-year-olds. The links between density and withdrawal occur among 10- to 12-
year-olds living at home (Evans et al. 1998) and among male 14- to 18-year-olds
in prison (Ray et al. 1982).
Parents are less responsive to young children in more crowded homes, irrespec-
tive of social class, and these relations begin before 12 months of age (Bradley
& Caldwell 1984, Bradley et al. 1994, Evans et al. 1999, Wachs 1989, Wachs &
Camli 1991). Reduced parental monitoring of children also occurs in higher density
homes (Gove & Hughes 1983, Hassan 1977, Mitchell 1971). Social withdrawal
may reflect coping with too much unwanted social interaction.
Controlling for SES, both children and their parents report more strained, neg-
ative familial interactions in high-density homes (Baldassare 1981, Bartlett 1998,
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
430 EVANS
Booth 1976, Chombart de Lauwe 1961, Fuller et al. 1993, Gasparini 1973, Gove
& Hughes 1983, Light 1973, Loo & Ong 1984, Saegert 1982, Youssef et al. 1998).
Greater child maltreatment among low-income children was uncovered in more
crowded homes (Martin & Walters 1982, Wolock & Horowitz 1979). Punitive par-
enting mediated relations between residential density and psychological distress
in low-income 8- to 10-year-olds (Evans & Saegert 2000). Interpersonal strains
between parents and children in crowded homes also accounted in part for negative
socioemotional and physiological stress outcomes in 10- to 12-year-olds, irrespec-
tive of SES (Evans et al. 1998). Residential crowding also erodes social support
among adults over time, which in turn leads to greater psychological distress
(Lepore et al. 1991).
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
among more crowded preschoolers (Bates 1970, Rohe & Nuffer 1977, Rohe &
Patterson 1974, Ruopp et al. 1979), elementary school children (Ginsburg &
Pollman 1975, Murray 1974, Shapiro 1975), and adolescents (Aiello et al. 1979).
Some studies have not found links between density and aggression among young
children (Fagot 1977, Smith & Connolly 1977). Liddell & Kruger (1987) found
diminished cooperation but no changes in conflict among more crowded nursery
school children. Loo’s (1972) contradictory results may be because of density
levels. In subsequent work with higher density levels, male but not female 5-year-
olds in more crowded conditions acted more aggressively (Loo & Kennelly 1978).
Another factor in crowding and aggression among children is the number of play
resources such as toys or play equipment. Although Smith & Connolly (1977)
uncovered no links between density in the nursery school and aggressive behav-
ior, resource availability had a strong impact. Rohe & Patterson (1974) showed
that when density was high and resources adequate, little impact was seen on
aggression in preschoolers. However, if high density was combined with low re-
sources, aggression increased. Higher ratios of preschoolers to activity areas led to
more off-task behavior and marginally less constructive play (Kantrowitz & Evans
2004).
Personal characteristics may buffer the impacts of crowding on aggression.
Loo & Kennelly (1978) found that boys but not girls responded negatively to
crowded conditions. The same interaction was uncovered in 9- to 17-year-olds
(Aiello et al. 1979). Loo (1978a) showed that 5-year-olds reacted with greater
aggression than did 10-year-olds to similar density conditions, whereas Aiello
found no developmental differences among 9- to 17-year-olds. Typical and brain-
damaged children between 3 and 8 years of age reacted with more aggression
to crowded conditions, whereas autistic children manifested extreme withdrawal
(Hutt & Vaizey 1966).
MENTAL HEALTH Elementary school children who live in more crowded homes,
independent of social class, reveal higher levels of neuroticism (Murray 1974), psy-
chological distress (Evans et al. 2001, 2002; Evans & Saegert 2000; Rutter et al.
1974), poorer behavioral adjustment at school (Booth & Johnson 1975; Evans et al.
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
1998, 2002; Saegert 1982), and lower social and cognitive competency (Shaw &
Emery 1988). Goduka et al. (1992), however, found no relations between house-
hold crowding and self-concept among 5- to 6-year-olds. Daily problem behaviors
among adolescents in a crisis shelter fluctuated in response to the census—as the
shelter became more populated, behavioral problems increased (Teare et al. 1995).
Several adult studies show associations between residential crowding and psycho-
logical distress net of SES, including a prospective, longitudinal study (Lepore
et al. 1991).
A few findings indicate moderation of density effects on mental health among
children. Evans et al. (2002) found that the adverse effect of crowded housing on
both self- and teacher ratings of psychological distress among third- and fourth-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
ers in crowded day care centers had greater behavioral disturbances if they also
lived in more crowded homes (Maxwell 1996). Bradley et al. (1994) demonstrated
that low-density housing contributed to resilience among socioemotional and cog-
nitive development in low-birth-weight babies at age 3. Consistent with these
findings, the elevated psychological distress of 8- to 10-year-olds in more crowded
homes is exacerbated by family turmoil (Evans & Saegert 2000). Malnutrition
early in life is frequently associated with babies who are more apathetic and less
responsive. Rahmanifar and colleagues (1993) found that such effects were accen-
tuated in more crowded homes. Finally, the adverse impact of laboratory crowding
on behavioral disturbances among 5-year-olds was exacerbated by pre-existing
hyperactivity or anxiety (Loo 1978b).
COGNITIVE PROCESSES Given the potential for crowding to disrupt ongoing activ-
ities such as studying as well as its potential to interfere with exploration and play
activities (Heft 1985), several researchers have scrutinized connections between
crowding and cognition. Nearly all of these studies statistically control for SES.
Psychomotor development (Widmayer et al. 1990) but not mental development
(Gottfried & Gottfried 1984) is related to residential density among 12-month-
olds. With maturation, however, mental development becomes negatively related
to crowding at 18 and 24 months of age (Gottfried & Gottfried 1984). These
same investigators also showed negative relations between residential density and
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
432 EVANS
30-, 36-, and 42-month indices of verbal, perceptual, and quantitative performance,
and at 39 months with language development. The IQ scores of children 30 months
of age were also negatively associated with residential crowding (Wachs 1978).
Preschool-age children living in more crowded homes suffer cognitive deficits in
verbal and math ability (Goduka et al. 1992). Using a different achievement index,
Maxwell (1996) found no association among preschoolers. Elementary school–
aged children from more crowded homes do more poorly on standardized reading
tests (Evans et al. 1998, Rutter et al. 1970, Saegert 1982, Wedge & Petzing 1970)
and perceive themselves as lower in scholastic competency (Evans & Saegert
2000). Essen et al. (1978) showed these relations in both 7- and 16-year-olds and
replicated the effect prospectively with the 16-year-olds. In addition, school per-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
(Booth 1976, Hassan 1977, Ray et al. 1982), as is educational attainment at age 25
(Conley 2001). Older (18 and 24 months) but not younger (7 to 15 months) infants,
especially males (Wachs 1979), living in more crowded homes suffer deficits in
object spatial relations and understanding of cause and effect (Wachs 1976, Wachs
et al. 1971). Toddlers also show impaired semantic memory in more crowded
homes (Gottfried & Gottfried 1984). Kindergarten children from higher density
homes perform more poorly on visual search (Heft 1979).
Many school districts in the United States are experiencing severe overcrowd-
ing (Campaign Fiscal Equality 1999). Crowding in day care centers was asso-
ciated with attentional deficits (Maxwell 1996). When kindergarten classrooms
were more crowded, children were off task more than when classroom density
was reduced. Density was manipulated by altering available classroom space over
time with class size held constant (Krantz 1974). Poor nutrition may exacerbate
some of the harmful impacts of classroom crowding on young children’s behaviors
(Grantham-McGregor et al. 1998). Although investigators have not conceptualized
class size as a manipulation of density, smaller class sizes in the earlier grades en-
hance concurrent and subsequent standardized test scores for children, particularly
for disadvantaged children (Greenwald et al. 1996, Ehrenberg et al. 2001). In ad-
dition, teachers spend less time disciplining children in smaller classes (Ehrenberg
et al. 2001).
Studies disentangling family size from density typically find that density, not
family size, is the critical variable (Booth 1976, Conley 2001, Evans et al. 1999,
Gottfried & Gottfried 1984, Gove & Hughes 1983, Loo & Ong 1984, Saegert
1982, Wachs 1979). Similar conclusions emanate from crowding effects in child-
care centers (Legendre 2003) and adolescent crisis shelters (Teare et al. 1995).
Laboratory studies holding group size constant and manipulating area also indi-
cate that density is salient. Some of the links between crowding and cognitive
development might be caused by changes in parent-child interactions. For exam-
ple, parents in more crowded homes talk less to their infants (Wachs 1979, Wachs
& Camli 1991) and use less sophisticated speech from infancy to two and a half
years of age (Evans et al. 1999). Children in crowded homes lack a place to study
and find it more difficult to get away from their family to be alone (Gove & Hughes
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
1983). Children with a place to study in crowded homes suffer fewer cognitive
consequences (Michelson 1968, Wachs 1979).
(2000), in a study of 8- to 10-year-olds, found that both male and female children in
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
434 EVANS
1998).
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
CHAOS With controls for SES, the regularity of events in the home (e.g., home-
work and bedtime schedule) (Fiese et al. 2002) as well as levels of unpredictability
and confusion in the home (Wachs & Corapci 2005) are related to socioemo-
tional functioning. Children ages 6 to 9 in households with more structure and
routines have better academic achievement and fewer behavioral adjustment prob-
lems (Brody & Flor 1997). Chaotic home environments are associated with multi-
methodological indicators of psychological distress among middle school children
(Evans et al. 2005). Fisher & Feldman (1998) showed that high school students in
households with less cohesion, orderliness, and clarity of rules and roles were more
emotionally distressed six years later. Children ages 3 to 4 in more chaotic homes
reveal cross-sectional and longitudinal deficits in cognitive development as well
(Petrill et al. 2004). Elementary school children in a national study of divorce ad-
justed better emotionally and performed better at school and on achievement tests
if their household had more routine and structure (Guidubaldi et al. 1986). Adoles-
cents in remarried families were more satisfied with family life in households with
more regular routines (Henry & Lovelace 1995). Temperament may moderate the
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
relation between family routines and adjustment. Sprunger et al. (1985) found that
babies with more regular biological cycles (eat, sleep, cry) benefited more from a
structured, predictable household routine.
Explanations for the adverse impacts of chaotic early childhood settings have
focused primarily on parent-child relationships and on self-regulatory ability. Fam-
ilies in households with more routines are more cohesive, happier, and have less
conflict (Jensen et al. 1983). Parents of infants in more chaotic homes, net of SES,
are less responsive and offer fewer learning stimulation opportunities (Corapci &
Wachs 2005). Six- to nine-year-olds in more chaotic households, independent of
income, have more difficulty self-regulating, which in turn accounts for most of
the shared variance between chaos and both academic achievement and socioe-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
motional adjustment (Brody & Flor 1997). Moreover, children in more chaotic
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
preschools are less compliant (Wachs et al. 2004). Adolescents from less cohe-
sive, unstructured homes also engaged in riskier health behaviors as young adults
(Fisher & Feldman 1998). One final aspect of housing quality, residential stability,
is worth mentioning. Numerous studies reveal that children exposed to more fre-
quent residential relocations, independent of SES, experience worse psychological
adjustment (for reviews, see Adam 2004, Humke & Schaefer 1995).
436 EVANS
2002, Hart 1978, Korpela 2002, Moore & Schneekloth 1989). One reason for
this may be the wider array of motoric and social play opportunities and greater
independent mobility afforded by such spaces (Heft 1988; Kytta 2002, 2004).
Children and adults also find natural settings more restorative, reducing cogni-
tive fatigue, and enhancing positive affect (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989, Kaplan &
Talbot 1983). A meta-analysis of outdoor learning experiences (e.g., Outward
Bound) revealed an effect size of 0.34. Moreover, the longer the outdoor experi-
ence, the stronger the benefits (Hattie et al. 1997). Access to nearby nature may
be beneficial as well. Girls but not boys residing in public housing more prox-
imate to natural outdoor spaces (i.e., trees, grass) evidenced better attentional
and emotional self-regulation ability (Faber Taylor et al. 2002). These same male
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
and female children played more and engaged in more complex play (e.g., cre-
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
ative play) in outdoor spaces containing more nature as compared with spaces
that were barren (Faber Taylor et al. 1998). Elementary school children play in
more complex ways in natural versus built play spaces (Kirkby 1989). Preschool
children engaged in more physically demanding play and developed better motor
skills when they played in more natural areas compared with traditional play-
grounds (Fjortoft 2004). Play in natural areas also benefits children with attention
deficit-hyperactivity disorder (Faber Taylor et al. 2001, Kuo & Faber Taylor 2004).
Nearby nature may also enhance attention (Wells 2000) and buffer some of the
ill effects of chronic stressor exposure among typical children (Wells & Evans
2003).
by equivalent findings in other studies relying upon expert ratings of school build-
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
ings (Berner 1993, Branham 2004a, Buckley et al. 2004, Lewis 2000). Branham
(2004b) also uncovered an inverse association between building quality and at-
tendance and dropout rates in secondary schools. Comparisons between older and
improved elementary school facilities across the state of Georgia (McGuffey &
Brown 1978), within the same school district (Bowers & Burkett 1988), using
a cohort design before and after moving to a new facility (Phillips 1997), and a
before/after comparison of test scores for the same building following renovation
(Berry 2002), all reveal improved test scores plus better attendance for the latter
study.
OPEN-PLAN DESIGN Open schools with few floor-to-ceiling walls have been com-
pared in studies with traditional, enclosed classrooms. The data on achieve-
ment converge on little or no impacts of open- versus traditional-plan facilities
(Ahrentzen et al. 1982, Gifford 2002, Gump 1987, Weinstein 1979), with parallel
results for indices of self-concept (Giaconia & Hedges 1982). Open-plan schools
and day care manifest problems with distraction and off-task time (Cotterell 1984,
Gump & Good 1976, Moore 1986, Neill 1982). Noise levels are higher in open-plan
schools (Kyzar 1977), and teacher complaints about noise in open-plan schools are
common (Bennett et al. 1980, Weinstein 1979). Proximity to unshielded circulation
systems also contributes to distraction in both preschools (Greenman 1988, Olds
2001) and elementary schools (Evans & Lovell 1979, Lackney 2004). System-
atic modifications of open-plan spaces providing greater demarcation and clearer
boundaries between learning areas reduced off-task time and interruptions (Evans
& Lovell 1979, Weinstein 1977).
Another common difficulty noted in open school designs is uneven use of
space, with large areas of unused space often accompanied by space on the pe-
riphery where users are cramped together (Propst 1972, Rivlin & Rothenberg
1976). Clustering of activity areas with clear boundaries appears to relieve this
problem and fosters comfort in day-care settings (Greenman 1988, Moore &
Lackney 1993, Olds 2001, Sanoff 1995, Weinstein 1987). Fourth-graders showed
increased but short-lived use of privacy booths when introduced into their
classrooms (Weinstein 1982). Preschoolers frequently used secluded spaces,
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
438 EVANS
1976), and English as a second language (Traub & Weiss 1974) perform more
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
We also know little about the role of cumulative exposure to multiple environ-
mental conditions upon children. Childhood exposure to environmental conditions
is not random. Low-income children are disproportionately exposed to multiple
suboptimal physical and social environmental conditions (Evans 2004) that por-
tend adverse developmental impacts (Repetti et al. 2002, Taylor et al. 1997). Mul-
tiple rather than singular risk exposure may be a particularly critical aspect of the
adverse developmental effects of childhood poverty.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Jim Dunn, Staffan Hygge, Lorraine Maxwell, Susan Saegert, Nicole Simon,
Ted Wachs, and Nancy Wells for critical feedback on earlier drafts of this article.
Preparation of this article was partially supported by the W.T. Grant Foundation
and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
LITERATURE CITED
Adam EK. 2004. Beyond quality: parental and between school building conditions and aca-
residential stability and children’s adjust- demic achievement of 12th grade students
ment. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 13:210–13 in Kuwaiti public schools. Unpubl. doctoral
Ahrentzen S, Evans GW. 1984. Distraction, pri- dissert. Virginia Polytech. Univ., Blacksburg
vacy, and classroom design. Environ. Behav. Appleyard D, Lintell M. 1972. The environ-
16:437–54 mental quality of city streets. J. Am. Inst.
Ahrentzen S, Jue G, Skorpanich MA, Evans Plan. 38:84–101
GW. 1982. School environments and stress. Baldassare M. 1981. The effects of household
In Environmental Stress, ed. GW Evans, pp. density on sub groups. Am. Sociol. Rev. 46:
224–55. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press 110–18
Aiello JR, Nicosia G, Thompson DE. 1979. Bartlett S. 1998. Does inadequate housing per-
Physiological, social, and behavioral conse- petuate children’s poverty? Childhood 5:
quences of crowding on children and adoles- 403–20
cents. Child Dev. 50:195–202 Bates B. 1970. Effects of social density on
Al-Enezi M. 2002. The study of the relationship the behavior of nursery school children.
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
440 EVANS
Unpubl. doctoral dissert. Univ. Oregon, of resilience and their relation to experiences
Eugene in the home environments of low birthweight,
Baum A, Paulus PB. 1987. Crowding. In Hand- premature children living in poverty. Child
book of Environmental Psychology, ed. D Dev. 65:346–60
Stokols, I Atlman, pp. 533–70. New York: Branham D. 2004a. The wise man builds his
Wiley house upon the rock: the effects of inadequate
Bellinger DC. 2000. Effect modification in epi- school building infrastructure on student at-
demiologic studies of low-level neurotoxi- tendance. Soc. Sci. Q. 85:1112–28
cant exposures and health outcomes. Neuro- Branham D. 2004b. The wise man builds his
toxicol. Teratol. 22:133–40 house upon the rock: the effects of inade-
Bellinger DC, Adams HF. 2001. Environmen- quate school infrastructure on student perfor-
tal Pollutant Exposures and Children’s Cog- mance. http://www.uh.edu/cpp/school.pdf
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
nitive Abilities. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Brody GH, Flor DL. 1997. Maternal psycholog-
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
Bellinger DC, Needleman HL. 2003. Intellec- ical functioning, family processes, and child
tual impairment and blood lead levels. N. adjustment in rural, single-parent, African
Engl. J. Med. 349:500–2 American families. Dev. Psychol. 33:1000–
Bennett N, Andrae J, Hegarty P, Wade B. 1980. 11
Open Plan Schools. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Bronfenbrenner U. 1979. The Ecology of Hu-
Humanities man Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Berner MM. 1993. Building conditions, paren- Univ. Press
tal involvement, and student achievement in Bronfenbrenner U, ed. 2005. Making Human
the District of Columbia public school sys- Beings Human. Los Angeles: Sage
tem. Urban Educ. 28:6–29 Bronfenbrenner U, Evans GW. 2000. Develop-
Berry MA. 2002. The contribution of restora- mental science in the 21st century: emerg-
tion and effective operation and maintenance ing theoretical models, research designs, and
programs on indoor environmental quality empirical findings. Soc. Dev. 9:115–25
and educational performance in schools. Bronzaft A, McCarthy D. 1975. The effect of
Presented at Indoor Air 2002, Monterey, CA elevated train noise on reading ability. Envi-
Blackman T, Evason E, Melaughs M, Woods ron. Behav. 7:517–27
R. 1989. Housing and health: a case study of Bronzaft AL. 1981. The effect of a noise abate-
two areas in West Belfast. J. Soc. Policy 18: ment program on reading ability. J. Environ.
18–27 Psychol. 1:215–22
Booth A. 1976. Urban Crowding and Its Con- Buckley J, Schneider M, Shang Y. 2004.
sequences. New York: Praeger LAUSD school facilities and academic per-
Booth A, Edwards JN. 1976. Crowding and formance. http://www.edfacilities.org/PUBS
family relations. Am. Sociol. Rev. 41:308–21 /LAUSD%20REPORT.PDF
Booth A, Johnson DR. 1975. The effect of Bullinger M, Hygge S, Evans GW, von Meis
crowding on child health and development. M. 1999. The psychological costs of aircraft
Am. Behav. Sci. 18:736–49 noise among children. Zentralblatt Hygeine
Bowers JH, Burkett CW. 1988. Physical envi- Umweltmed. 202:127–38
ronment influences related to student Campaign Fiscal Equal. 1999. Facilities: Con-
achievement, health, attendance and behav- ditions in New York. New York: Campaign
ior. CEFP J. 26:33–34 Fiscal Equal.
Bradley RH, Caldwell B. 1984. The home in- Canfield RL, Henderson CR, Cory-Slechta DA,
ventory and family demographics. Dev. Psy- Cox C, Jusko TA, Lanphear BP. 2003.
chol. 20:315–20 Intellectual impairment in children with
Bradley RH, Whiteside L, Mundfrom DJ, Casey blood lead concentrations below 10 µg per
PH, Kelleher K, et al. 1994. Early indications deciliter. N. Engl. J. Med. 348:1517–26
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
Chawla L, ed. 2002. Growing Up in an Urban- Davidson PW, Myers GJ, Cox C, Axtell C,
ized World. London: Earthscan Shamlaye C, et al. 1998. Effects of prenatal
Chiodo LM, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. 2004. and postnatal methylmercury exposure from
Neurodevelopmental effects of postnatal lead fish consumption on neurodevelopment. J.
exposure at very low levels. Neurotoxicol. Am. Med. Assoc. 280:701–7
Teratol. 26:359–71 Davie R, Butler N, Goldstein H. 1972. From
Chombart de Lauwe PH. 1961. The sociol- Birth to Seven: The Second Report of the
ogy of housing methods and prospects of re- National Child Development Study. London:
search. Int. J. Comp. Sociol. 2:23–41 Natl. Child. Bur.
Churchman A, Ginsberg Y. 1984. The image Dietrich K, Ris MD, Succop P, Berger O, Born-
and experience of high-rise housing in Israel. schein R. 2001. Early exposure to lead and
J. Environ. Psychol. 4:27–41 juvenile delinquency. Neurotoxicol. Teratol.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
performance and social behavior: a review Douglas JW. 1964. The Home and the School.
of research and theory. Psychol. Bull. 88:82– London: MacGibbon & Kee
108 Dunifon R, Duncan GJ, Brooks-Gunn J. 2004.
Cohen S, Evans GW, Stokols D, Krantz DS. The long-term impact of parental organiza-
1986. Behavior, Health, and Environmental tion and efficiency. In Family Investments in
Stress. New York: Plenum Children: Resources and Behaviors that Pro-
Cohen S, Glass DC, Singer JE. 1973. Apartment mote Success, ed. A Kalil, T De Liere, pp.
noise, auditory discrimination, and reading 85–118. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
ability in children. J. Exper. Soc. Psychol. 9: Earthman GI. 1998. The quality of school
407–22 buildings, student achievement, and student
Cohen S, Spacapan S. 1984. The social psy- behavior. Presented at Int. Conf. Quality
chology of noise. In Noise and Society, ed. School Facilities Maint., Vienna, Austria
DM Jones, AJ Chapman, pp. 221–45. New Edelstein MR. 1988. Contaminated Communi-
York: Wiley ties: The Social and Psychological Impacts
Conley D. 2001. A room with a view or a room of Residential Toxic Exposure. Boulder, CO:
of one’s own? Housing and social stratifica- Westview
tion. Sociol. Forum 16:263–80 Edelstein MR. 2002. Contamination: the invis-
Corapci F, Wachs TD. 2005. Does parental ible built environment. In Handbook of En-
mood or efficacy mediate the influence of en- vironmental Psychology, ed. RB Bechtel, A
vironmental chaos upon parenting behavior? Churchman, pp. 559–88. New York: Wiley
Merrill-Palmer Q. In press Edwards JN, Booth A, Edwards PK. 1982.
Cotterell JL. 1984. Effects of school architec- Housing type, stress, and family relations.
tural design on student and teacher anxiety. Soc. Forces 61:241–57
Environ. Behav. 16:455–79 Ehrenberg RG, Brewer DJ, Gamoran A, Willms
Cotton K. 1996. School size, school climate, JD. 2001. Class size and student achieve-
and student performance. http://www.nwrel. ment. Psychol. Sci. Public Int. 2:1–30
org/scpd/sirs/10/c020.html Environ. Prot. Agency. 2003. Indoor air quality
Dalgard OS, Tambs K. 1997. Urban environ- and student performance. http://www.epa.
ment and mental health. A longitudinal study. gov/iaq/schools/images/iaq and student per
Br. J. Psychiatry 171:530–36 formance.pdf
Darvill T, Lonky E, Reihman J, Stewart P, Essen J, Fogelman K, Head J. 1978. Children’s
Pagano J. 2000. Prenatal exposure to PCBs housing and their health and physical de-
and infant performance on the Fagan Test velopment. Child Care Health Dev. 4:357–
of Infant Intelligence. Neurotoxicology 21: 69
1029–38 Evans GW. 2001. Environmental stress and
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
442 EVANS
of children under environmental stress. Psy- Evans GW, Wells NM, Chan E, Saltzman H.
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
a longitudinal study. J. Fam. Psychol. 12:66– perience On Noise and Social Stressors. New
80 York: Academic
Fjortoft I. 2004. Landscape as playscape. Child. Glenn LE, Nerbonne GP, Tolhurst GC. 1978.
Youth Environ. 14:21–44 Environmental noise in a residential insti-
Fuller TD, Edwards JN, Vorakitphokatorn S, tution for mentally retarded persons. Am. J.
Sermsri S. 1993. Household crowding and Ment. Defic. 82:594–97
family relations in Bangkok. Soc. Probl. 40: Goduka IN, Poole DA, Aotaki-Phenice L. 1992.
410–30 A comparative study of black South African
Gasparini A. 1973. Influence of the dwelling on children from three different contexts. Child
family life: a sociological survey in Modena, Dev. 63:509–25
Italy. Ekistics 216:344–48 Gottfried AW, Gottfried AE. 1984. Home en-
Gen. Account. Off. 1995. School Facilities: vironment and cognitive development in
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
ton, DC: U.S. Gen. Account. Off. status families. In Home Environment and
Giaconia RM, Hedges LV. 1982. Identifying Cognitive Development, ed. AW Gottfried,
features of effective open education. Rev. pp. 57–115. New York: Academic
Educ. Res. 52:579–602 Gove WR, Hughes M. 1983. Overcrowding in
Gifford R. 2002. Environmental Psychology. the Household. New York: Academic
Victoria, Can.: Optimal Gramza AF. 1970. Children’s preferences for
Gifford R, Lacombe C. 2004. Housing quality enterable play boxes. Percept. Mot. Skills 31:
and children’s socioemotional health. Pre- 177–78
sented at Eur. Netw. Housing Res., Cam- Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF, Debes
bridge, UK F, Araki S, et al. 1997. Cognitive deficit
Gillis AR. 1974. Population density and so- in 7-year-old children with prenatal expo-
cial pathology: the case of building type, so- sure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol. Tera-
cial allowance and juvenile delinquency. Soc. tol. 19:417–28
Forces 53:306–14 Grantham-McGregor S, Chang S, Walker S,
Ginsburg HJ, Pollman V. 1975. Variation of ag- Powell C. 1998. School feeding studies in Ja-
gressive interaction among male elementary maica. In Nutrition, Health, and Child Devel-
school children as a function of changes in opment, pp. 104–18. Washington, DC: Pan
spatial density. Presented at meet. Soc. Res. Am. Health Org.
Child Dev., Denver, Colo. Grapko MG. 1972. A comparison of open space
Gittus E. 1976. Flats, Families and the and traditional classroom structures accord-
Under-Fives. London: Routledge & Kegan ing to independence measures in children,
Paul teachers’ awareness of children’s personality
Gladen BC, Rogan WJ. 1991. Effects of peri- variables, and children’s academic progress.
natal polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlor- Ontario Dept. Educ. Rep., Toronto, Can.
odiphenyl dichloroethene on later develop- Green KB, Pasternack BS, Shore RE. 1982. Ef-
ment. J. Pediatr. 119:58–63 fects of aircraft noise on reading ability of
Gladen BC, Rogan WJ, Hardy P, Thullen J, Tin- school-age children. Arch. Environ. Health
gelstad J, Tully M. 1988. Development after 37:24–31
exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and Greenberg MT, Lengua LJ, Coie JD, Pinder-
dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene transpla- hughes EE. 1999. Predicting developmental
centally and through human milk. J. Pediatr. outcomes at school entry using a multiple-
113:991–95 risk model: four American communities.
Glass DC. 1977. Behavior Patterns, Stress, and Dev. Psychol. 35:403–17
Coronary Disease. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Greenman J. 1988. Caring Spaces, Learning
Glass DC, Singer JE. 1972. Urban Stress: Ex- Spaces. Redmond, WA: Exchange
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
444 EVANS
Greenwald R, Hedges LV, Laine RD. 1996. The mental conditions of the home and attention
effect of school resources on student achieve- in young children. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol.
ment. Rev. Educ. Res. 66:361–96 9:47–69
Guidubaldi J, Cleminshaw HK, Perry JD, Nas- Heft H. 1985. High residential density and
tasi BK, Lightel J. 1986. The role of se- perceptual-cognitive development: an exam-
lected family environment factors in chil- ination of the effects of crowding and noise
dren’s post-divorce adjustment. Fam. Relat. in the home. In Habitats for Children, ed. JF
35:141–51 Wohlwill, W van Vliet, pp. 36–76. Hillsdale,
Gump PV. 1987. School and classroom en- NJ: Erlbaum
vironments. In Handbook of Environmental Heft H. 1988. Affordances of children’s envi-
Psychology, ed. D Stokols, I Altman, pp. ronments. Child. Environ. 5:29–37
691–732. New York: Wiley Henry CS, Lovelace SG. 1995. Family re-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Gump PV, Good LR. 1976. Environments oper- sources and adolescent family life satisfac-
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
ating in open space and traditionally designed tion in remarried family households. J. Fam.
schools. J. Archit. Res. 5:20–27 Issues 16:765–86
Haines MM, Stansfeld SA, Brentnall S, Head Heschong Mahone Group. 1999. Daylight in
J, Berry B, et al. 2001b. The West London schools: an investigation into the relation-
study: the effects of chronic aircraft noise on ship between daylighting and human perfor-
child health. Psychol. Med. 31:1385–96 mance. Calif. Bd. Energy Effic. Rep., Fair
Haines MM, Stansfeld SA, Head J, Job RFS. Oaks, Calif.
2002. Multi-level modeling of aircraft noise Hiramatsu K, Tokuyama T, Matsui T, Miyakita
on performance tests in schools around T, Osada Y, Yamamoto T. 2004. The Oki-
Heathrow London airport. Int. J. Epidemiol. nawa Study: effect of chronic aircraft noise
Commun. Health 56:139–44 exposure on memory of school children.
Haines MM, Stansfeld SA, Job RFS, Berglund Proc. Noise Public Health Probl. Int. Congr.,
B, Head J. 2001a. Chronic aircraft noise ex- 8th, pp. 179–180. Schiadam, The Nether-
posure, stress responses, mental health and lands
cognitive performance in school children. Hiroto D. 1974. Locus of control and learned
Psychol. Med. 31:265–77 helplessness. J. Exp. Psychol. 102:187–93
Haines MM, Stansfeld SA, Job RFS, Berglund Hockey G. 1979. Stress and cognitive com-
B, Head J. 2001c. A follow-up study of ef- ponents of skilled performance. In Human
fects of chronic aircraft noise exposure on Stress and Cognition, ed. V Hamilton, DM
child stress responses and cognition. Int. J. Warburton, pp. 141–77. New York: Wiley
Epidemiol. 30:839–45 Homel R, Burns A. 1989. Environmental qual-
Hambrick-Dixon PJ. 1986. Effects of experi- ity and the wellbeing of children. Soc. Indic.
mentally imposed noise on task performance Res. 21:133–58
of black children attending day care centers Howley C, Strange M, Bickel R. 2000. Research
near elevated subway trains. Dev. Psychol. about school size and school performance in
22:259–64 impoverished communities. http://www.ael.
Hart R. 1978. Children’s Experience of Place. org/eric/page.cfm?&scopre=ssrid=243
New York: Irvington Hubbs-Tait L, Nation J, Krebs N, Bellinger
Hassan R. 1977. Social and psychological im- DC. 2005. Neurotoxicants, micronutrients,
plications of high population density. Civili- and social environments. Psychol. Sci. Pub-
sations 27:230–26 lic Interest. In press
Hattie J, Marsh HW, Neill J, Richards G. 1997. Humke C, Schaefer C. 1995. Relocation: a re-
Adventure education and outward bound. view of the effects of residential mobility on
Rev. Educ. Res. 67:43–87 children and adolescents. Psychol. J. Hum.
Heft H. 1979. Background and focal environ- Behav. 32:16–24
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
Humphreys MA. 1974. Relating wind, rain and Ising H, Rebentisch E, Poustka F, Curio I.
temperature to teachers’ reports of young 1990b. Annoyance and health risk caused by
children’s behaviour. In Psychology and the military low-altitude flight noise. Int. Arch.
Built Environment, ed. D Canter, T Lee, pp. Occup. Environ. Health 62:357–63
19–28. Chichester, UK: Wiley Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. 2002. Breast-
Hunt S. 1990. Emotional distress and bad hous- feeding and gender as moderators of terato-
ing. Health Hyg. 11:72–79 genic effects on cognitive development. Neu-
Hutt C, Vaizey MJ. 1966. Differential effects rotoxicol. Teratol. 24:349–58
of group density on social behaviour. Nature Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. 2000. Teratogenic
209:1371–72 Insult and Neurobehavioral Function in In-
Huttenmoser M. 1995. Children and their living fancy and Childhood. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
surroundings: empirical investigations into Jensen EW, James SA, Boyce WT, Hartnett
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
the significance of living surroundings for SA. 1983. The family routines inventory:
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
the everyday life and development of chil- development and validation. Soc. Sci. Med.
dren. Child. Environ. 12:403–13 17:201–11
Hygge S. 2003. Classroom experiments on the Job RFS. 1988. Community response to noise:
effects of different noise sources and sound a review of factors influencing the relation-
levels on long-term recall and recognition in ship between noise exposure and reaction. J.
children. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 17:895–914 Acoust. Soc. Am. 83:991–1001
Hygge S, Boman E, Enmarker I. 2003. The ef- Johansson CK. 1975. Mental and perceptual
fects of road traffic noise and meaningful performance in heat. Rep. Doc. 4. Stock-
irrelevant speech on different memory sys- holm: Swed. Inst. Build. Res.
tems. Scand. J. Psychol. 44:13–21 Johansson CR. 1983. Effects of low intensity,
Hygge S, Evans GW, Bullinger M. 2002. A continuous and intermittent noise on men-
prospective study of some effects of aircraft tal performance and writing pressure of chil-
noise on cognitive performance in school dren with different intelligence and person-
children. Psychol. Sci. 13:469–74 ality characteristics. Ergonomics 26:275–88
Ineichen B, Hooper D. 1974. Wives’ mental Kantrowitz EJ, Evans GW. 2004. The relation
health and children’s behaviour problems in between the ratio of children per actual area
contrasting residential areas. Soc. Sci. Med. and off-task behavior and type of play in day
8:369–74 care centers. Environ. Behav. 36:541–57
Ising H, Braun C. 2000. Acute and chronic en- Kaplan R, Kaplan S. 1989. The Experience of
docrine effects of noise: review of the re- Nature. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
search conducted at the Institute for Water, Kaplan S, Talbot JF. 1983. Psychological ben-
Soil and Air Hygiene. Noise Health 2:7–24 efits of wilderness experience. In Behav-
Ising H, Ising M. 2002. Chronic noise increases ior and the Natural Environment, ed. JF
cortisol in the first half of the night caused by Wohlwill, I Altman, pp. 163–203. New York:
road traffic noise. Noise Health 4:13–21 Plenum
Ising H, Lange-Asschenfeldt H, Moriske HJ, Karagodina IL, Soldatkina SA, Vinokur IL,
Born J, Eilts M. 2004. Low-frequency noise Klimukhin AA. 1969. Effect of aircraft noise
and stress: bronchitis and cortisol in children on the population near airports. Hyg. Sanit.
exposed chronically to traffic noise and ex- 34:182–227
haust fumes. Noise Health 6:21–28 Karsdorf G, Klappach H. 1968. The influence
Ising H, Rebentisch E, Babisch W, Curio I, of traffic noise in the health and performance
Sharp D, Baumgartner H. 1990a. Medically of secondary school students in a large city.
relevant effects of noise from low-altitude Zeitschriftfurdie gesamte Hyg. 14:52–54
flights—results of an interdisciplinary pilot Kasl SW, Will J, White M, Marcuse P. 1982.
study. Environ. Int. 16:411–23 Quality of the residential environment and
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
446 EVANS
Korpela K. 2002. Children’s environment. In day care centers. Environ. Behav. 35:523–49
Environmental Psychology, ed. RB Bechtel, Lepore S, Evans GW, Schneider M. 1991. The
A Churchman, pp. 363–73. New York: Wiley dynamic role of social support in the link be-
Krantz DS, Glass DC, Snyder M. 1974. Help- tween chronic stress and psychological dis-
lessness, stress level, and coronary-prone be- tress. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 61:899–909
havior pattern. J. Exper. Soc. Psychol. 10: Lercher P, Evans GW, Meis M. 2003. Ambient
284–300 noise and cognitive processes among primary
Krantz PJ. 1974. Ecological arrangements school children. Environ. Behav. 35:725–35
in the classroom. Unpubl. doctoral dissert. Lercher P, Evans GW, Meis M, Kofler WW.
Lawrence: Univ. Kansas 2002. Ambient neighbourhood noise and
Kryter K. 1994. The Handbook of Hearing and children’s mental health. Occup. Environ.
the Effects of Noise. New York: Academic Med. 59:380–86
Press Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J. 2000. The neigh-
Kuller R, Lindsten C. 1992. Health and behav- borhoods they live in: the effects of neigh-
ior of children in classrooms with and with- borhood residence on child and adolescent
out windows. J. Environ. Psychol. 12:305– outcomes. Psychol. Bull. 126:309–37
17 Lewis M. 2000. Where children learn: fa-
Kuo F, Faber Taylor A. 2004. A potential cility conditions and student test perfor-
natural treatment for attention-deficit/hyp- mance in the Milwaukee public schools.
eractivity disorder. Am. J. Public Health 94: http://www.cefpi.org/pdf/issue12.pdf
1580–86 Liddell C, Kruger P. 1987. Activity and so-
Kytta M. 2002. Affordances of children’s envi- cial behavior in a South African township
ronments. J. Environ. Psychol. 22:109–23 nursery: some effects of crowding. Merrill-
Kytta M. 2004. The extent of children’s inde- Palmer Q. 33:195–211
pendent mobility and the number of actual- Liddell C, Kruger P. 1989. Activity and social
ized affordances as criteria for child-friendly behavior in a crowded South African town-
environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 24:179– ship nursery: a follow-up study on the ef-
98 fects of crowding at home. Merrill-Palmer
Kyzar K. 1977. Noise pollution and schools. Q. 35:209–26
Counc. Educ. Facil. Plan. J. 4:10–11 Light R. 1973. Abused and neglected children
Lackney JA. 2004. Thirty three principles of in America: a study of alternative policies.
educational design. http:/schoolstudio.engr. Harvard Educ. Rev. 43:556–98
wisc.edu/33principles.html Littlewood J, Sale R. 1972. Children at Play: A
Lackney JA. 2005. New approaches for school Look at Where They Play and What They Do
design. In The SAGE Handbook of Educa- on Housing Estates. London: Dep. Environ.
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
Loo C, Ong P. 1984. Crowding perceptions, Matheny A, Wachs TD, Ludwig J, Phillips K.
attitudes, and consequences among the Chi- 1995. Bringing order out of chaos: psycho-
nese. Environ. Behav. 16:55–87 metric characteristics of the confusion, hub-
Loo CM. 1972. The effects of spatial density on bub, and order scale. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol.
the social behavior of children. J. Appl. Soc. 16:429–44
Psychol. 2:372–81 Matsui T, Stansfeld SA, Haines MM, Head
Loo CM. 1978a. Issues of crowding re- J. 2004. Children’s cognition and aircraft
search: vulnerable participants, assessing noise exposure at home—The West London
perceptions and developmental differences. Schools Study. Noise Health 7:49–58
J. Popul. 1:336–48 Maxwell L. 1996. Multiple effects of home and
Loo CM. 1978b. Behavior problem indices: the day care crowding. Environ. Behav. 28:494–
differential effects of spatial density on low 511
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
and high scorers. Environ. Behav. 10:489– Maxwell L, Evans GW. 2000. The effects
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
448 EVANS
and a non-soundproofed school. Le Travail Neill SRSJ. 1982. Preschool design and child
Humain 44:170–78 behaviour. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 23:
Moore GT. 1986. Effects of the spatial defi- 309–18
nition of behavior settings on children’s be- Nicklas MH, Bailey GB. 1997. Analysis of the
havior: a quasi-experimental field study. J. performance of students in daylit schools.
Environ. Psychol. 6:205–31 http://www.deptplanetearth.com
Moore GT, Lackney JA. 1993. School design: Obasanjo OO. 1998. The impact of the physical
crisis, educational performance, and design environment on adolescents in the inner city.
applications. Child. Environ. 10:99–112 Unpubl. doctoral dissert., Ann Arbor: Univ.
Moore NC. 1975. Social aspects of flat Mich.
dwelling. Public Health Lond. 89:109–15 Oda M, Taniguchi K, Wen M-L, Higurashi M.
Moore R, Schneekloth L. 1989. Children and 1989. Effects of high-rise living on physical
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
vegetation [special issue]. Child. Environ. Q. and mental development of children. J. Hum.
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
Rahmanifar A, Kirksey A, Wachs TD, Mc- sity and partitioning on children’s behav-
Cabe GP, Bishry Z, et al. 1993. Diet dur- ior. Presented at Meet. Am. Psychol. Assoc.,
ing lactation associated with infant behavior Washington, DC
and caregiver-infant interaction in a semiru- Rohe WM, Patterson AH. 1974. The effects of
ral Egyptian village. J. Nutr. 123:164–75 varied levels of resources and density on be-
Ranson R. 1991. Healthy Being. London: E & havior in a day care center. Presented at
FN Spon Annu. Conf. Environ. Design Res. Assoc.,
Rauh VA, Whyatt RM, Garfinkel R, Andrews Milwaukee, Wisc.
H, Hoepner L, et al. 2004. Developmental Rosen KG, Richardson G. 1999. Would remov-
effects of exposure to environmental tobacco ing indoor air particulates in children’s envi-
smoke and material hardship among inner- ronments reduce rate of absenteeism? A hy-
city children. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 26: 373– pothesis. Sci. Total Environ. 234:87–93
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Ray DW, Wandersman A, Ellisor J, Huntington Children at the Center. Cambridge, MA:
DE. 1982. The effects of high density in a ABT
juvenile correctional institution. Basic Appl. Rutter M, Tizard J, Whitmore K. 1970. Ed-
Soc. Psychol. 3:95–108 ucation, Health, and Behaviour. London:
Regecova V, Kellcrova E. 1995. Effects of ur- Longman
ban noise pollution on blood pressure and Rutter M, Yule B, Quinton D, Rowlands O, Yule
heart rate in school children. J. Hypertens. W, Berger M. 1974. Attainment and adjust-
13:405–12 ment in two geographical areas: III. Some
Reiss S, Dyhdalo N. 1975. Persistance, achieve- factors accounding for area differences. Br.
ment, and open-space environments. J. Educ. J. Psychiatry 125:520–33
Psychol. 67:506–13 Saegert S. 1982. Environment and children’s
Repetti RL, Taylor SE, Seeman TE. 2002. Risky mental health: residential density and low-
families: family social environments and the income children. In Handbook of Psychol-
mental and physical health of offspring. Psy- ogy and Health, ed. A Baum, JE Singer, pp.
chol. Bull. 128:330–66 247–71. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Richman N. 1974. The effects of housing on Sanoff H. 1995. Creating Environments for
pre-school children and their mothers. Dev. Young Children. Mansfield, OH: Book
Med. Child Neurol. 16:53–58 Masters
Richman N. 1977. Behaviour problems in pre- Schmeck K, Poustka F. 1993. Psychiatric and
school children: family and social factors. Br. psychophysiological disorders in children
J. Psychiatry 131:523–27 living in a military jetfighter training area.
Rivlin LG, Rothenberg M. 1976. The use of In Proc. 6th Int. Congr. Noise Public Health
space in open classrooms. In Environmental Probl., ed. M Vallet, Nice, France
Psychology, ed. HME Proshansky, WHE It- Schneider M. 2002. Publi. school facilities
telson, LGE Rivlin, pp. 479–89. New York: and teaching: Washington, DC and Chicago.
Holt, Rinehart & Winston http://www.ncbg.org/documents/NCBG%20
Rodin J. 1976. Density, perceived choice and Final%20Teachers%20Report.doc
response to controllable and uncontrollable Schoer L, Shaffran F. 1973. A combined eval-
outcomes. J. Exper. Soc. Psychol. 12:564– uation of three separate research projects on
78 the effects of thermal environment on learn-
Rogan WJ, Gladen BC, McKinney JD, Carreras ing and performance. Am. Soc. Heat. Refrig.
N, Hardy P, et al. 1986. Neonatal effects of Air Cond. Eng. Trans. 79:97–108
transplacental exposure to PCBs and DDE. Sciarillo WG, Alexander G, Farrell KP. 1992.
J. Pediatr. 109:335–41 Lead exposure and child behavior. Am. J.
Rohe WM, Nuffer E. 1977. The effects of den- Public Health 82:1356–60
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
450 EVANS
Shapiro S. 1975. Some classroom ABC’s. Elem. Stewart W. 1970. Children in Flats: A Family
School J. 75:437–41 Study. London: Nat. Soc. Prev. Cruelty Child.
Shaw DS, Emery RE. 1988. Chronic family Taylor SE, Repetti R, Seeman SE. 1997. What
adversity and school-age children’s adjust- is an unhealthy environment and how does
ment. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry it get under the skin? Annu. Rev. Psychol.
27:200–6 48:411–47
Shaw M. 2004. Housing and public health. Teare JF, Smith GL, Osgood DW, Peterson RW,
Annu. Rev. Public Health 25:397–418 Authier K, Daly DL. 1995. Ecological influ-
Sherrod D. 1974. Crowding, perceived control, ences in youth crisis shelters: effects of social
and behavioral aftereffects. J. Appl. Soc. Psy- density and length of stay on youth problem
chol. 4:171–86 behaviors. J. Child Family Stud. 4:89–101
Smedje G, Norback D, Edling C. 1996. Men- Tracy EM, Green RK, Bremseth MD. 1993.
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
tal performance by secondary school pupils Meeting the environmental needs of abused
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
in relation to the quality of indoor air. In and neglected children: implications from a
Proc. Int. Conf. Indoor Air Qual. Climate, statewide survey of supportive services. Soc.
7th, Nagoya, Japan Work Res. Abstr. 29:21–26
Smith AP, Jones DM. 1992. Noise and per- Traub RE, Weiss J. 1974. Studying openness in
formance. In Handbook of Human Perfor- education. J. Res. Dev. Educ. 8:47–59
mance, ed. AP Smith, DM Jones, pp. 1–28. Wachs TD. 1976. Utilization of a Piagetian ap-
London: Academic proach in the investigation of early experi-
Smith PK, Connolly KJ. 1977. Social and ag- ence effects: a research strategy and some il-
gressive behaviour in preschool children as lustrative data. Merrill-Palmer Q. 22:11–30
a function of crowding. Soc. Sci. Inform. Wachs TD. 1978. The relationship of infants’
16:601–20 physical environment to their binet perfor-
Solomon D, Kendall AJ. 1976. Individual char- mance at 2 1/2 years. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 1:51–
acteristics and children’s performance in 65
“open” and “traditional” classroom settings. Wachs TD. 1979. Proximal experience and
J. Educ. Psychol. 68:613–25 early cognitive-intellectual development: the
Sprunger LW, Boyce WT, Gaines JA. 1985. physical environment. Merrill-Palmer Q. 25:
Family-infant congruence: routines and 3–41
rhythmicity in family adaptations to a young Wachs TD. 1987. Specificity of environmen-
infant. Child Dev. 56: 564–72 tal action as manifest in environmental cor-
Stansfeld SA, Berglund B, Clark C, Lopez- relates of infant’s mastery motivation. Dev.
Barrio I, Fischer P, et al. 2005. Aircraft and Psychol. 23:782–90
road traffic noise and children’s cognition Wachs TD. 1989. The nature of the physical mi-
and health: a cross-national study. Lancet croenvironment: An expanded classification
365:1942–49 system. Merrill-Palmer Q. 35:399–419
Steptoe A, Feldman PJ. 2001. Neighborhood Wachs TD. 2000. Necessary But Not Sufficient:
problems as sources of chronic stress: devel- The Respective Roles of Single and Multi-
opment of a measure of neighborhood prob- ple Influences on Individual Development.
lems, and associations with socioeconomic Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
status and health. Ann. Behav. Med. 23:177– Wachs TD. 2003. Expanding our view of con-
85 text: the bio-ecological environment and de-
Stewart PW, Reihman J, Lonky EI, Darvill velopment. Adv. Child Dev. 31:363–409
TJ, Pagano J. 2003. Cognitive development Wachs TD, Camli O. 1991. Do ecological or in-
in preschool children prenatally exposed dividual characteristics mediate the influence
to PCBs and MeHg. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. of the physical environment on maternal be-
25:11–22 havior? J. Environ. Psychol. 11:249–64
P1: OKZ /POI P2:
25 Oct 2005 16:31 AR ANRV264-PS57-16.tex XMLPublishSM (2004/02/24) OJO
Wachs TD, Corapci F. 2005. Environmental es for Children, ed. CS Weinstein, TG David,
chaos, development and parenting across cul- pp. 159–86. New York: Plenum
tures. In Social and Cognitive Development Wells NM. 2000. At home with nature. Environ.
in the Context of Individual, Social, and Cul- Behav. 32:775–95
tural Processes, ed. C Raeff, J Benson. New Wells NM, Evans GW. 2003. Nearby nature:
York: Routledge. In press a buffer of life stress among rural children.
Wachs TD, Gandour MJ. 1983. Tempera- Environ. Behav. 35:311–30
ment, environment, and six-month cognitive- Widmayer SM, Peterson LM, Lamer M, Car-
intellectual development: a test of the organ- nahan S, Calderon A, et al. 1990. Predictors
ismic specificity hypothesis. Int. J. Behav. of Haitian-American infant development at
Dev. 6:135–52 twelve months. Child Dev. 61:410–15
Wachs TD, Gurkas P, Kontos S. 2004. Predic- Wigle DT. 2003. Child Health and the Environ-
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
tors of preschool children’s compliance be- ment. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
Access provided by Cornell University on 03/25/15. For personal use only.
havior in early childhood classroom settings. Wilner DM, Walkley R, Pinkerton T, Tayback
J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 25(4):439–57 M. 1962. The Housing Environment and
Wachs TD, Uzgiris IC, Hunt JM. 1971. Cog- Family Life. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ.
nitive development in infants of different Press
age levels and from different environmental Wohlwill JF, Heft H. 1987. The physical envi-
backgrounds: an explanatory investigation. ronment and the development of the child.
Merrill-Palmer Q. 17:283–317 In Handbook of Environmental Psychology,
Wandersman A, Nation M. 1998. Urban neigh- ed. D Stokols, I Altman, pp. 281–328. New
borhoods and mental health: psychological York: Wiley
contributions to understanding toxicity, re- Wolock I, Horowitz B. 1979. Child maltreat-
silience, and interventions. Am. Psychol. 53: ment and material deprivation among AFDC-
647–56 recipient families. Soc. Serv. Rev. 53:175–94
Wedge P, Petzing J. 1970. Housing for children. Wu T-N, Chiang H-C, Huang J-T, Chang P-
Housing Rev. 19:165–66 Y. 1993. Comparison of blood pressure in
Weinstein CS. 1977. Modifying student behav- deaf-mute children and children with normal
ior in an open classroom through changes in hearing: association between noise and blood
the physical design. Am. Educ. Res. J. 14: pressure. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health
249–62 65:119–23
Weinstein CS. 1979. The physical environment Wyon DP, Andersen I, Lundqvist GR. 1979.
of the school: a review of the research. Rev. The effects of moderate heat stress on mental
Educ. Res. 49: 577–610 performance. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health
Weinstein CS. 1982. Privacy-seeking behavior 5:352–61
in an elementary school classroom. J. Envi- Youssef RM, Attia MS-E-D, Kamel MI. 1998.
ron. Psychol. 2:23–35 Children experiencing violence: I. Parental
Weinstein CS. 1987. Designing preschool use of corporal punishment. Child Abuse
classrooms to support development. In Spac- Negl. 22:959–73
P1: JRX/LOW P2: KUV
November 8, 2005 22:20 Annual Reviews AR264-FM
CONTENTS
Frontispiece—Herbert C. Kelman xvi
PREFATORY
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
viii CONTENTS
FAMILY/MARITAL THERAPY
Current Status and Future Directions in Couple Therapy,
Douglas K. Snyder, Angela M. Castellani, and Mark A. Whisman 317
ATTITUDE CHANGE AND PERSUASION
Attitudes and Persuasion, William D. Crano and Radmila Prislin 345
BARGAINING, NEGOTIATION, CONFLICT, SOCIAL JUSTICE
Psychological Perspectives on Legitimacy and Legitimation, Tom R. Tyler 375
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND ASSESSMENT
Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2006.57:423-451. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
INDEXES
Subject Index 613
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 47–57 637
Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 47–57 642
ERRATA
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Psychology chapters
may be found at http://psych.annualreviews.org/errata.shtml