CARD 1 - Developments in linguistics.

Today I'd like to talk about developments of linguistics.

Modern linguistics is usually described as a social science. One reason may be that the
function of language is not just communicating facts. It is a part of being a member of a
particular society. Language seems to be central to culture. It has been said that when you
learn a foreign language, you join a new culture.
So essentially, there is no answer as to why spoken language is so complex. As a
historical statement, we find that language system builds upon its past self, so there is a
lot of complexity that comes simply from these older foundations. Linguists like
Chomsky suggest that language's primary function is building clearer and complex
thoughts a mental device with a mental purpose. The use of our vocal organs or gestural
organs to share these thoughts is a second development that could only occur after
enough people had the first function.
Linguists are not necessarily polyglots. A polyglot speaks many languages, and it is
certainly an advantage for a linguist to know a foreign language, but a linguist is
interested in language rather that languages. The distinction is subtle but vital. Linguists
may refer to individual languages for the purposes of their research, but their
ultimate goal is to gain a deeper insight into the workings of all languages.There are
many very legitimate and well-respected linguists who only really work in one language
(Noam Chomsky being one of them). Linguists mostly touch questions concerning the
development of one or another language, deal with elements of a language: syntax,
intonation, pronouncing, punctuation etc, compare and contrast two different languages
and so on.

CARD 2 - Developments in linguistics.

Today I'd like to talk about developments of linguistics.
We can trace the origins of linguistics to ancient India and Greece. Research in India
began in the 5-th century BCE. The linguist Panini identified rules for the assembly of
words. He suggested that words are built from different pieces, including prefixes and
suffixes. He also developed rules for pronunciation. The Greek Aristotle was the first
known European to study linguistics. He identified different sentence parts in his work
Categories. He used the notions subject and predicate.
Language was viewed through our history numerous times. Panini saw it through
different rules on the different parts of the words. Aristotle emphasized an especial role of
sentence analysis. When Europeans started to explore language a group from Port Royal
suggested a link between thought patterns and grammatical structures. For Saussure,
language was a collection of interrelated systems. Chomsky claims that we are born with
particular grammar patterns and rules. He believes that these are programmed in our
brains.
In 19 century Saussure argued that language is a system of related components.
According to his theory , parts of a sentence influence other parts. This approach is also
known as structuralist. Edward Sapir wrote about language from the point of view that
language structure can affect the way people see the world. Noam Chomsky work has
added academic credibility to linguistics. Some of Chomsky's works were directed to
generative and universal grammar. His aim was to examine the full possibilities of human
grammar. However, some modern linguists now prefer a more humanistic approach.
 CARD 3 – Language acquisition and language learning
Today I’d like to talk about language acquisition and language learning.
First of all lets clarify the difference between these two notions. Steven Krashen, an
American linguist, described it quite clearly – LA is refers to the process of internalizing
a language and its rules and mostly refers to the native language, while LL is the type of
conscious language development, which relates to the foreign language mostly.
But still, there is a relation between LL and LA, which was determined by Noam
Chomsky. He claims that all natural languages contain a common set of central rules and
also there are other rules, which differ from one L to another. Those theories indicate that
when a person learns the 2nd language, he finds it easier to learn these central rules than
those which are unique.
This may lead to a language interference – for example, when you find a 2nd language
rule, which isn’t a central one, you try to understand it using the knowledge of the 1st
language.

CARD 4 – CALL
Today I would like to give a talk about CALL.
So, Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an approach to language teaching
and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation,
reinforcement and assessment of material to be learned.
CALL's origins can be traced back to the 1960s. Up until the late 1970s CALL projects
were confined mainly to universities, where computer programs were developed on large
mainframe computers. The PLATO project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960,
is an important landmark in the early development of CALL.
Now let’s turn to benefits:
- students can experience the language rather than merely studying it.
Since students are in touch with computers outside the class, they can readily
use computers inside the class.
- using computers can increase students’ desire to develop their linguistic skills
faster and increase their positive attitudes toward learning the target language
better than those attending traditional classes.
Lets move to disadvantages:
- The issue of developing software to promote learning is another obstacle
because software development takes more time and money.

CARD 5 – VLE
Today I would like to give a talk about VLE.
So, virtual lerning environment (VLE) combines the functions of two different software
groups: CALL and MT (machine translation). In basic terms, a VLE is a website that
brings together a number of key learning activities and resources and which is made
accessible through a single portal. To some extent, it is like an online classroom. Though,
accessing the first page of the VLE, students are able to navigate the site in order to make
use of the functions they require.
Typically, this might include discussion boards, student web pages, listening activities
and web-based assessments.
Lets now move to the advantages of VLE.
 - can help teachers and support staff manage and deliver a variety of daily tasks,
including: - general class administration and organization, the creation of lesson
plans using existing resources, assessment and monitoring of students,
allocation and marking of on-line assignments, discussion and support with
students on line.
Among disadvantages I can name
- those people who are uncomfortable with technologies
- doesn’t offer that human-to-human contact, which may limit your opportunities
for team-building and role-playing activities, brainstorming, or discussion.

CARD 6 – MT
Today I would like to talk about MT.
So, MT is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of
software to translate text or speech from one language to another.
The idea of machine translation may be traced back to the 17th century. In 1629,
René Descartes proposed a universal language, with equivalent ideas in different
tongues sharing one symbol. But the idea of using digital computers for translation of
natural languages was proposed as early as 1946 by A. D. Booth and developed quite
slowly because of several reasons.
To decode the meaning of the source text in its entirety, the translator must interpret
and analyze all the features of the text, a process that requires in-depth knowledge of
the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms of the source language, as well as the culture
of its speakers. The translator needs the same knowledge to re-encode the meaning in
the target language.
Disadvantages:
- word-sense disambiguation which concerns finding a suitable translation when a
word can have more than one meaning.
- its inability to translate non-standard language with the same accuracy as
standard language.

CARD 7 – Corpus Linguistics

Today I would like to talk about corpus linguistics.
Corpus linguistics refers to the analysis of collected language samples through
computerized electronic media. Linguists have long been interested in analysis of
language samples. However, over the last 20 years, development in computer
technology have led to considerable advancements in this area.
It is known that the term corpus linguistics first appeared only in the early 1980s, but
the basic corpus methodology was widespread in linguistics in the early twentieth
century.
Nowadays, the term “corpus” is almost always associated with electronic corpus,
which is a collection of texts stored on some kind of digital medium to be used by
linguists with the purpose of retrieving linguistic items for research. In other words,
the term ‘corpus’ refers to a collection of written or spoken texts which is stored and
processed on computer for the purposes of linguistic research.
 As for data linguists use to investigate linguistic phenomens, Roughly, four types of
data for linguistic analysis can be distinguished:
1) data gained by intuition a) the researcher’s own intuition (“introspection”)
b) other peoples’ (“informant‟s”) intuition (accessed,
for example, by elicitation tests)
2) naturally occurring language: a) systematic collections of texts (“corpora”)
b) randomly collected texts or occurrences
(anecdotal evidence)

CARD 8 – CLT
Today I’d like to talk about CLT.
Firstly, lets clarify what СLT is. СLT (or Communicative language teaching) is an
approach to language teaching as the means and the ultimate goal of study.
CLT was developed in 1970 in Britain. It was a reaction to the grammar translation
and audio lingual methods that both seemed ineffective since many people around the
world wanted to develop their communication skills and achieve a good mastery of
English. Learners wanted to reach a high level of accuracy and fluency in order to
have access to additional areas of employment, travel, learn about culture, use the
internet, and so on.
Unlike other approaches that focus on grammatical competence, CLT emphasizes
meaningful communication - learners should know how to use the language in
different contexts and for different purposes. It is also about understanding different
types of texts and being able to maintain communication even with a limited range of
vocabulary.
If talking about advantages:
- much more pupil-orientated, because it is based on pupils’ needs and interests.
- seeks to adapt language to interests of pupils.
- seeks to use authentic resources.
- Children acquire grammar rules as a necessity to speak
But surely there are some drawbacks:
- It pays insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning take
place.
- often seems to be interpreted as: “if the teacher understands the student we have
good communication” but native speakers of the target language can have great
difficulty understanding students.
- focuses on fluency but not accuracy.

CARD 9 – TPR
Today I’d like to talk about TPR.
Firstly, lets clarify what TPR is. Total Physical Response is an approach to teaching
language based on the coordination of language and physical movement. In TPR,
instructors give commands to students in the target language with body movements,
and students respond with whole-body actions. The idea is that if you have to do
something physical in response to language, then learning is more meaningful, and
you learn faster.
The method was created by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San
José State University. Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing
young children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between
parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a
physical response from the child.
If talking about advantages, here are some of those:
- It is a lot of fun and learners enjoy it.
- It is very memorable. It does assist the students to recognize phrases or words.
- It is good for all the learners who are active in the class.
- It is no need to have a lot of preparation or materials using TPR.
But surely there are some drawbacks, for example:
- Students who are not used to such things might find it embarrassing.
- It is only suitable for beginner levels
- It is not flexibly used to teach everything and if used a lot it would come
repetitive.

CARD 10 – Audiolingualism
Today I’d like to talk about audiolingualism.
Firstly, lets clarify what audiolingualism is. Audio-lingualism is a method of foreign
language teaching which is based on behaviourism and relies on formation as a basis
for learning, through a great deal of mechanical repetition. Applied to language
instruction, it means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence
and the students would have to repeat it. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit
grammar instruction: everything is simply memorized in form. 
This approach has its roots in the USA during World War II, when there was a
pressing need to train key personnel quickly and effectively in foreign language skills.
The results of the Army Specialized Training Program are generally regarded to have
been very successful, with the caveat that the learners were in small groups and were
highly motivated, which undoubtedly contributed to the success of the approach. 
There are a few main features of audiolingualism, for example: 
- ask your students to repeat phrases or whole sentences 
- drill the pronunciation and intonation of utterances 
- choral drilling 
- question and answer. 
If talking about advantages, here are some of those: 
- Listening and speaking skills are emphasized 
- The use of visual aids is effective in vocabulary teaching. 
- The method is just as functional and easy to execute for larger groups. 
But surely there are some drawbacks, for example: 
- It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence. 
- Equal importance is not given to all four skills.
1) What is language? What is linguistics?
Language is a shared system of expression particular to a nation or people, while
linguistics is the scientific study of language as a communicative and cognitive
system.

2) Does a linguist have to be a polyglot? Why/why not?

I know many cases when linguists hate being asked how many languages they know.
Linguists as scholars work to analyze language and figure of how it works and why we
can speak it. So there are many very legitimate and well-respected linguists who only
really work with one language (Noam Chomsky was one of them). So, guess it
depends on what king of comparison and analysis you make. I mean between two
foreign or between your mother tongue and foreign one.

3) What is language interference? Give an example

LI refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another
language. for example, when you find a 2nd language rule, which isn’t a central one,
you try to understand it using the knowledge of the 1st language.

4) What are key design features of language suggested by Charles Hockett?

Comment on them
In 1960 an American linguist names Charles Hockett demonstrated that all
human languages share a series of key design features. These are displacement,
creativity and duality.
DISP: the ability to talk about things which are not happening right here and
now. Animals can make communicative noises but they cannot express past or
future or probability.
CRE: enables us to understand and produce new utterances easily, it is
fundamental to human language.
DUAL: refers to the existence of a series of elements which have no meaning in
themselves, but which combine to form units which do have meaning. Letters C-
A-T have no meaning in themselves, for example, but combines as cat, they have
clear meaning in English.

5) Enumerate branches of the linguistic tree and comment on them

There are 7 main branches of the linguistic tree: Phonetics, Phonology,
Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics. I will focus on
three of these which collectively are often called “Microlinguistics”.
Firstly, there is phonology - the study of sounds and speech and how they are
used.
Secondly, there is Morphology – the branch which studies the structures of
forms of words.
Thirdly, there is Syntax, which investigates the ordering of words.

6) What are five main functions of language. Comment on them

There are 5 main functions which are c common for all languages.
Firstly, social interactions, a way of easing relationships with others.
 Secondly, recording of facts, means of storing information for future use,
usually in written form.
Thirdly, emotional expression, a way of expressing how we feel, including
opinion and emotions.
Fourthly, expression of identity, a way for a group of people who share similar
views to show their similarity.
Fifthly, naming the world, a way of taking note and making sense of our
environment.

7) What is lingua franca? What is the plural form of the phrase? What are the advantages
and disadvantages of using an international language?
LF is a language which is used for communication between people with different
language. One of the most popular nowadays is English. 
+: it makes communication easier and equal.
- : it can change mother language by adding slang or transforming words

8) What contribution did Panini make to linguistics?

Panini is one of the first linguists. He lived in India in the 5th century BCE. He
was interested in the structure of words, including prefixes and suffixes. He
created the rules of construction of words . The statement of the linguist was
connected to the building of words from different parts, which include prefixes
and suffixes.He was one of the people who took the time to develop rules for
pronunciation. Also He create the grammar structure of Classical Sanskrit which
is using even now.

9) What contribution did Aristotle make to linguistics?

The most famous philosopher of ancient Greece Aristotle lived in the 4th century
BC. He was The first known European linguist . the first time subject and
predicate were used in Aristotels' work. That means the birthing of sentence
analysis. In his works he singled out and described parts of speech such as sound,
syllable, article, name, verb, sentence. Its description was used by many scientists
and it is still considered perfect. In morphology - Aristotle singled out the main
parts of speech, the name and the verb, determined that the names are divided
into female and male and lying between them, that is, the middle ones. Aristotle,
furthermore, find out nouns and verbs as word classes. Aristotle defines what is
meant by "synonymous" or words with one meaning.

10) What contribution did the Greeks make to linguistics?

The Greeks developed an alphabet . Along with written speech, the Greeks
commenced studying grammatical and philosophical issues. Greeks went to
classify parts of speech. Some of them remain the same even nowadays. Also
Greek language was used in research to identify meaning of word endings.

11) What contribution did Rasmus Rask make to linguistics?

Rask was the first to show the relationship between the ancient Northern and the
Western and Eastern Germanic languages, . He formulated the first working
version of what would later be known as "Grimm's Law" . 
 He knew twenty-five languages and dialects, and he is believed to have studied
twice as many. His numerous philological manuscripts were transferred to the
Royal Danish Library at Copenhagen. Rask influenced many later linguists.

12) What contribution did Jacob Grimm make to linguistics?

In the 1815 we found a periodical which was published by Jacob Grinn and his
brother. It studies the lawless etymological combinations, laws of language,
especially in correspondence of sounds. This criticism is said to have had a
considerable influence on the direction of Grimm’s studies. His famous Deutsche
Gramatik was the outcome of his purely philological work. Some work had even
been done in the way of comparison and determination of general laws and the
concept of a comparative Germanic grammar. Also his works were dedicated to
phonology, which he described in his second work with no fewer than 600 pages.
The Grammar was continued in three volumes, treating principally derivation,
composition and syntax, the last of which was unfinished. Grimm then began a
third edition of which only one part, comprising the vowels. The Grammar
stands alone in the annals of science for its comprehensiveness, method and
fullness of detail. Every law, every letter, every syllable of inflection in the
different languages was illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material, and
it has served as a model for all succeeding investigators.

13) What is the idea of Sapir-Whorf’s theory?

The hypothesis oflinguistic relativity holds that the structure of alanguageaffects

its speakers'worldview orcognition. 

The principle is often defined to include two versions. The strong version says
that language determines thought and,that linguistic categories,limit and
determine cognitive categories, Whereas the weak version says that linguistic
categories and usage only 

Influence thought and decisions.Edward Sapir claimed that languages contained

the key to understanding the world views of peoples. He supported the viewpoint
that because of the differences in the grammatical systems of languages no two
languages were similar enough to allow for perfect cross-translation. Sapir also
thought because language represented reality differently, it followed that the
speakers of different languages would perceive reality differently.In other words
he stated that the cultural difference between people arise their language
difference due to the result of various patterns, settings and visions.It reinforces
the idea of that in intercultural communication we always should be aware of the
opposite culture even superficially.
14) What is Ferdinand de Sassure famous for?

He was a Swiss linguist and semiotician. His ideas laid a foundation for many
significant developments in both linguistics and semiology in the 20th century. He
is widely considered one of the founders of 20th-century linguistics and one of
two major founder of semiotics. 

Saussure's contribution to linguistics is described as the study of "the whole

range of human sciences. It is particularly marked linguistics, philosophy,
psychology, sociologyand anthropology. Saussure's most influential work,Course
in General Linguistics.Its central notion is that language may be analyzed as
a formal system of differential elements, apart from the messy dialectics of real-
time production and comprehension. In case of semiotics Some linguists have
pointed out to the fact that Saussure did not 'invent' semiotics but built upon
Aristotelian and neoplatonist knowledge from the Middle Ages.

15) What is Noam Chomsky famous for?

Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist,

historian, social critic and political activist. Sometimes described as "the father of
modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and
one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. 

The basis to Chomsky's linguistic theory is rooted in biolinguistics, holding that

the principles underlying the structure of language are biologically determined in
the human mind and hence genetically transmitted. He therefore argues that all
humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of
sociocultural differences. His popular Universal Grammar which is based on his
argument of observations about human language acquisition, noting that there is
an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and
the rich linguistic knowledge they attain. Chomsky also challengesstructural
linguistics and introduces transformational grammar.

16) What are key variables influencing language learning? Comment on them?
It is clearly that different learners learn in different ways, but thhere are certain
key factors which had been identified. These are age, motivation, aptitude,
personality and cognitive or learning style.
AGE – The best native-speaker-like results are achieved who have maximum
number of years of exposure. Teenagers are better at grammar and vocabulary;
pronunciation is easier for younger age.
MOTIV – next question
APTITUDE – is the ability to systemize the rules required in language learning.
PERSON – there is no best type, though outgoing students find easier to learn
speaking skills as they are less worried about making mistakes.
17) What types of motivation are there in language learning?
Language learning motivation is usually divided into 2 main areas: INTEGRATIVE
and INSTRUMENTAL. INT motivation is driven by a want to loin or mix effectively
with the native-speaker group which uses target language. INS motivation is the kind
that you feel when you want to become part of the speech community of the new
language.

18) What is universal grammar? What is language acquisition device?

UG programmes the brain to make sense of the different rules of language. Language
Acquisition device is a hypothetical module of the human mind posited to account for
children's innate predisposition for language acquisition.

19) Comment on the theory of multiple intelligence. What type are you?
According to the theory, different intelligence types are organized into 8 areas
which identify the ways in which different people learn.
1) Verbal-linguistic intelligence are good at using words and language.
2) Logical learners have a strong ability to use reason and logic.
3) Visual learners see the world in terms of pictures and images.
4) Bodily learners are stimulated through movement and action.
5) Musical intelligence refers to the ability to produce and appreciate
music.
6) Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand others
7) Intrapersonal intelligence is concerned with self-reflection.
8) Natural intelligence interact well with nature and the environment.

20) Tell the difference between accent and dialect. Idiolect and sociolect.
DIALECT describes both a person’s accent and the grammatical features of the way
that person talks.
ACCENT is the way that particular person or group of people sound. It’s the way
somebody pronounces words, the musicality of their speech
IDIODIALECT is an individual’s unique use of language is called an idiolect
SOCIOLECT involves both passive acquisition of particular communicative practices
through association with a local community, as well as active learning and choice
among speech or writing forms to demonstrate identification with particular groups

21) What types of research are there in linguistics? Comment on them

QUAL: It is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding
of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the
problem or helps to develop ideas for potential quantitative research. Some
common methods include focus groups, individual interviews and observations.
QUAN: it is used to quantify the problem by generating numerical data or usable
statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions and other variables and
generalize the results from a large sample population.
It include various forms of surveys (online surveys, paper surveys, face-to-face
interviews, online polls and systematic observations)
22) What is a pidgin language? What is creole?
PIDGIN: on-the-spot languages that develop when people with no common language
come into contact with each other. Nobody speaks a pidgin as their first language.
Usually a pidgin language is a blend of the vocabulary of the major language with the
grammar of one or more other language
CREOLE: If a pidgin survives and the next generation of speakers learns it as their
first language or if it becomes a stable lingua franca, it becomes a creole. There is no
single theory that explains the genesis of creole languages.

23) What is bilingualism? Who are come-overs and neo-native speakers?

В is the phenomenon of speaking and understanding two or more languages. The
term can refer to individuals (individual bilingualism) as well as to an entire
society (social bilingualism). A neo-native speaker also acquires the language in a
familial/communal setting, but is the offspring of co-speakers of Irish who are not
native speakers but speak Irish as their household language.

24) Explain why has English become the language of business.

The dominance of international language is widely attributed to economic power.
During the late 18th century to the early 1900’s, the economies of both the United
States and Great Britain burgeoned because of the Industrial Revolution. In the
19th century, the way the global economy operated was highly influenced by
mass media—radio, television, and more recently, the Internet. Because of this
sudden surge in advertising and marketing, partnered with the reach of mass
media, English as the language of the world’s economic superpowers would find
itself at the center of such phenomenon.

25) What is translation? What is interpreting? What skills are essential for these
spheres?
TRA is rendering text from a source language into a target language while preserving
meaning. Translation is written. Skills: Excellent writing skills in your native languag,
Excellent reading and comprehension skills in your source language,  Cultural knowledge
in both your target and source language(s), Good computer and keyboarding skills,  Self-
motivation, organization and discipline
INT is an oral form of translation, enabling real-time cross-linguistic communication
either face-to-face, in a conference setting or over the phone. It can also be called oral
translation, real-time translation or personal translation. This is the process where a
person repeats what is said out loud in a different language. Skills: Be an extremely good
listener, Have excellent sensory, motor and cognitive skills, Have an extensive
vocabulary of multiple languages, Be culturally aware, Cope with stress and self-control
when dealing with difficult speakers

26) What is simultaneous and consecutive interpreting?

CONS In consecutive interpretation, the interpreter waits for the speaker to finish a
sentence or an idea, and then renders the speaker's words into the target
language.interpreters are trained in special note-taking and memory techniques.
Consecutive interpretation is best suited for situations involving a small number of
people, like press conferences, interviews, teleconferences, or any type of one-on-one
exchange. 
SIMU In simultaneous interpretation, the participants wear headphones, and the
interpreter renders the speaker's words into the target language as he or she is speaking.
simultaneous interpreters always work in teams of two. Usually, the interpreters work in a
special room and everyone involved can focus on their work without the distraction of
hearing another language.The use of audio equipment also means that there is no limit to
the number of people who can participate.

27) What are advantages and disadvantages of MT?

+: students can experience the language rather than merely studying it, using computers
can increase students’ desire to develop their linguistic skills faster and increase their
positive attitudes toward learning the target language better than those attending
traditional classes. 
-: The issue of developing software to promote learning is another obstacle because
software development takes more time and money.

28) What is localization translation? Give examples of successful and unsuccessful

cases of localization
Localization in three words: “to make local.” While localization involves translation, it
goes one step further. In essence, localization is the process by which messaging is not
just translated from one language to another, but rather is adapted to more effectively
convey a similar meaning or connotation in the target culture. The language is the same
but if you localize from American English to British English: 1) Spelling can be different:
z’s become s’s (as in “localize” becomes “localise”) 2) Certain words are used
differently: elevator-lift 3) Of course, expressions and idioms are very different as well.
4) And lastly, visuals need to be considered because after all, these are two different
cultures.
Currency units: These also require localization, such as changing from $100 to £100
pounds sterling. And, to show equivalent amounts, you would need to do a currency
conversion, such as “$100 (£65)”.
Paper size: A printed document might be designed for European A4 paper (210 by 297
mm, or 8.27 in × 11.7 inches) instead of American letter-size (8.5 x 11 inches). Those
slight differences in size can impact formatting and page breaks.
Date formats: You’ll need to know about the differences in date formats: does 4/5/15
mean April 5 (as in the U.S.) or May 4 (as in the UK).

29) What is discourse? What is discourse analysis?

Discourse denotes written and spoken communications. DA refers to the linguistic
study of authentic connected speech or written discourse. It is a qualitative method of
studying the organization of language communication above sentence structure and
surface level.

30) What is a speech act? What is its structure?

SA is an utterance that has performative function in language and
communication. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as
promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating. The basis of
structure includes declarative, interrogative, imperative. Since speech acts are
linguistic acts and hence have a grammatical structure: their components stand
in morphological, syntactic and semantic dependence relations.