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A design guide for vacuum drainage systems, for use in conjunction with
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EN 72709:Vacuum drainage systems inside buildings

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Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled

Contents
1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Background ................................................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Vacuum drainage systems compared to gravity drainage.......................................................... 3
1.4 Applications ................................................................................................................................ 3

2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS .................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Definitions of terminology ........................................................................................................ 4
2.2 The vacuum transport process.................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Operation of system .................................................................................................................... 5

3 BASIC COMPONENTS .......................................................................................................... 6

3.1 Interface units ............................................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Vacuum toilets ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.3 Collection tanks and vacuum generation .................................................................................. 8
3.4 Ejector unit ................................................................................................................................ 8
3.5 Vacuum station .......................................................................................................................... 9
3.6 Vacuum generating and forwarding pumps ............................................................................... 9
3.7 Controls .................................................................................................................................... 10
3.8 Column tank ............................................................................................................................ 10
3.9 Combined vacuum generator and forwarding pump .............................................................. 11
3.10 Check and isolation valves ...................................................................................................... 11
3.11 Pipework.................................................................................................................................... 12

4 DESIGN .................................................................................................................................. 12
4.1 Design requirements ................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Design criteria ................................... :...................................................................................... 12
4.3 Maintainability ........................................................................................................................ 15
4.4 Noise control ............................................................................................................................ 15

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................... 16

DESIGN EXAMPLES
In the course of producing this guidance. the following sites in the UK have been studied:

m The Earth Centre. Doncaster

m Lords Cricket Ground. London
m McAlpine Stadium. Huddersfield
m Sainsbury Supermarket. Sevenoaks
m Waitrose Supermarket. Gloucester Road. London.

0 Institute of Plumbing 2001

Published by Institute of Plumbing. Produced by BRE
 , I ,, !.., '. ' I

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1 INTRODUCTION Whilst the original systems were developed for

1.1 Scope
The aim of this publication is to act as a guidance
document for vacuum drainage systems, for use in
conjunction with EN1 2109: Vacuum drainage
systems inside buildings. This guide is aimed at
designers, installers and building services students
and lecturers who may be considering using a
vacuum drainage system or who wish to know more
about them.
This document covers vacuum drainage systems
within buildings, and does not cover their use
outside buildings, or vacuum sewerage. The
principles of vacuum drainage are covered, however
the design details, such as pipe sizing, are not dealt
with as such matters would be designed by a
vacuum drainage system specialist.
The terms used in this document are as defined in
EN12109. However, a few of the definitions from
the European Standard are included in section 2 to
aid the reader's understanding.
domestic sewerage transportation, the systems
evolved in two different areas; transportation and
land-based systems. The majority of work has been
in the transportation sector, and the marine
industry continues to be the major user of the
system, where the need to conserve wholesome
water, and the problems of confined pipework runs
and sewage disposal are paramount. For the same
reasons, this technology was adopted by the other
forms of mass transport, i.e. airlines and railways.
Today some SO00 ships, from yachts and cargo
vessels to ocean going cruise liners, SO major airline
companies, and over 1000 train installations use
vacuum drainage systems.
The building sector has been slow to adopt this new
technology, but with the restrictions placed on new
projects such as small conduit, ceiling voids and
service ducts, and the growing awareness of the
need to limit water consumption, the system is
finding a place in the building sector.

1.2 Background 1.3 Vacuum drainage compared to gravity drainage

Generally, the modern vacuum drainage system is Table 1 summarises the differences between
believed to have been started by the development of conventional drainage systems and a vacuum
the vacuum toilet of Mr Joel Liljendhal in the mid drainage system.
1950s. The concept of his system was to separate the
heavily polluted waste and the lightly polluted 1.4 Applications
water (black and grey water) for separate treatment. Particular consideration should be given to the use
The vacuum toilets used only about 1 litre of water of vacuum drainage in the following circumstances:
per flush, improving the efficiency of the system 0 water shortage or other reasons for reducing
and making treatment easier. This two-pipe system, water consumption
although environmentally friendly, met with quite a
0 limited sewerage capacity
lot of resistance because houses needed to be
re-plumbed and the vacuum toilet required more 0 where separation of black and grey water is
maintenance than a conventional toilet. This lead to desired, e.g. where grey water is reused
the development of the single-pipe vacuum drainage 0 where separation of wastewaters is desired,
system generally employed today. e.g. for different treatments

I
~~

Parameter Conventional Conventional

(gravity) (DumDed) Vacuum
Pipe size (mm) Branches 32-100 Branches 32-100 Discharge from valves 32-50
Stacks 100-150 Stacks 100-150 Service connection 38-90
Pipeline gradient To a fall To a fall Flexible arrangements,with
minimal gradients or sawtooth
profile. Vertical upward flow
sections 'lifts' can be used
Maintenance Negligible, only after Regular planned servicing of Regular, planned servicing of
requirements pumps and interface units pumps and interface units
Energy requirements At time of installation At time of installation and At time of installation and
throughout lifetime of building throughout lifetime of building
Retrofit or extension of May be difficult to May require additional Flexible layout makes
system within building accommodate pipework Pumps installation simple
and falls
Conventional water 7.5 litre flush WC 7.5 litre flush WC N/A
consumption WCs
Low water 6 litre flush WCs 6 litre flush WCs 1.5 to 3 litre flush vacuum
consumption WCs toilets
~~~~

Loading of sewerage system Dependant upon appliances Dependant on pumping rate Discharge from forwarding
installed pumps can be times to coincide
with low flow periods
Table 1 - differences between different types of drainage systems

(3
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1 Advantages I Disadvantages
Low installation costs High component costs
Environmentally safe Mechanical components- possibly for failure
, Electrical power only required at vaciiiim station Skilled design, installation and maintenance required
Always self cleansing Regular maintenance required
No possibility of vermin in pipelines Standby facilities required
Possible water saving technique if vaciiiim toilets are used Require area for situation of vacuum tanks and vaciiiim
generation equipment
I High water velocities prevent deposits in pipework I High velocity water may cause transient plumbing noise I
Minimise risk of leakage
Can use small diameter lightweight pipes that can be installed
without a continuous fall
I Vertical lifts are possible I I
I Ability to easily separate grey and black water I I
High turn around time - no need for cistern to refill for
subsequent flushes I
Table 2 - Advantages arid disadvantages of vacirirni drainage systenis

0 in hospitals, hotels, office buildings or other

areas where congested usage occurs when
flexibility in pipe routing is required to drain Controller
appliances or where frequent pipe layout
changes are expected Level sensor
Pipe
0 building refurbishment
lncomina
0 where drainage by gravity becomes impractical gravity- \
drain
0 in complex building structures, and
0 in penal installations where isolation and
control of the appliances is necessary to prevent
concealment of weapons and drugs. I I
Collection Chamber
Emptying
The advantages and disadvantages of vacuum
drainage systems are contrasted in Table 2. Figure 1 - Siriirp receiving wastewater fioin gravity systeiiis

1.4.1 Black a n d grey water

The collection arrangements and small bore
pipework of vacuum drainage systems provide the
possibility of easily separating grey and black water.
This was one of the original aims of the invention
by Mr Liljendhal. This would be of particular
advantage if sewerage capacity was at a premium as
the grey water could be run to a water course after
appropriate treatment. Also, it would be of
advantage if there was a requirement to use the grey
water for reuse or irrigation.
1.4.2 Retrofit a n d new build flexibility (See F i p r e I )
When conventional gravity drainage systems are
extended as in refurbishment work, the existing
gravity drainage system can be fed into the vacuum
drainage system. This may be achieved by the use of
a sump into which the wastewater from the gravity
2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTIONS
An analogy of a vacuum drainage, or sewerage,
system is shown in Figure 2 as an inverted water
supply system in which the water flows backwards.
The usual operating vacuum range of a vacuum
drainage system is -0.5 to -0.7 bar gauge.
2.1 Definitions of terminology
A selection of the fundamental definitions that are
required to understand the terminology of vacuum
drainage systems are listed below. A complete set of
definitions are contained within the European
Standard EN 12109.
SUPPLY TANK
WATER OUTLET VALVES
1
7

system drains. When sufficient water has

accumulated in the sump, an interface valve will I Valves Pressure plpes Tank Pump

open allowing the wastewater to enter the vacuum

drainage system. This arrangement, as shown in
Figure 1, can also be used to collect rainwater or as I VACUUM INTERFACE VALVES
COLLECTION TANK
an interface between a building with conventional
drainage and a vacuum sewer. Figure 2 -Analogy of a vacuum draitiage systet?i
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Buffer volume The storage volume of the
interface unit which balances
the incoming flow of
wastewater to the output
capacity of the discharge
valve.
Controller The device which, when
activated by its level sensor,
opens the interface valve and,
after the passage of
wastewater and normally air,
closes the valve.
Interface valve A valve which admits the
flow of wastewater only, or
wastewater and air, into the
vacuum drainage system
pipeline.
Lift Section of vacuum pipeline
with an increase in invert
level in the direction of flow.
Reforming pocket A low point in the piping
profile installed intentionally
to produce a controlled
slug flow.
Service connection The section of vacuum
pipeline connecting an
individual interface unit to
the vacuum main.
Slug An isolated quantity of
wastewater flowing full bore
through the vacuum pipeline.
Vacuum Any pressure below
atmospheric.
Vacuum station An installation comprising
vacuum generator(s), a means
of discharge and control
equipment, that may also
incorporate vacuum
vessel/holding tank(s).
2.2 The vacuum transport process
An understanding of the vacuum transport process is
helpful to the system designer. As long as n o interface
unit is operating, little wastewater transport takes
place. All wastewater remaining in the vacuum
pipework will drain, by gravity, into the reforming
pockets when all upstream interface valves are closed.
When an interface valve opens, the differential
pressure between the vacuum in the system and
atmosphere forces the wastewater into the vacuum
pipework. Whilst accelerating, the wastewater is
transformed into foam and soon occupies only part of
the vacuum pipe cross section so that the momentum
transfer from air to water takes place largely through
the action of shear stresses. The magnitude of the
propulsive forces starts to decline noticeably when the
interface valve closes, but remains important as the
admitted air continues to expand. Eventually, friction
and gravity bring to rest the wastewater at the low
points of the pipework system; such as reforming
pockets and at the bottom of pipeline lifts.
The vacuum drainage system transports wastewater by
means of atmospheric pressure acting against vacuum.
The operation of the system is described below.
2.3 Operation of system
When an interface valve is opened, the difference in
pressure between the main pipeline and the interface
unit drives the water out of the buffer volume and
into the pipeline. A quantity of air, several times the
volume of water, follows the water into the pipework
before the valve closes. This creates a large local
pressure differential that accelerates the water
vigorously in the service connection. This movement
of water takes place in the direction of lower pressure,
so initially the flow is both upstream and
downstream, but the connection angle and gradient
have directional effects on the water flow. Within
any low points, or pockets, in the pipework slugs of
water will form.
After a number of repeated accelerations of slugs of
water, the air has lost most of its kinetic energy and
cannot create any more pumping action. This is
called the Reach of the Interface unit. The reach
depends upon many things, e.g. buffer volume, valve
timing, aidwater ratio, pipe diameter and length.
For many systems, the transportation distance is
normally within the reach of every interface unit.
However, for longer systems (i.e. greater than lOOm
pipe length), and for further transport, several
interface units may be required to operate in
sequence to supply the necessary volume of air.
At low flow conditions, for example in the middle
of the night, sequential operation might not occur.
Some vertical lifts may then become full, or almost
full, of water. To restore the required dynamic flow
regime necessary for vacuum transport, one or more
adjacent interface units have to operate to supply
the air, or a separate valve unit that will supply air
on demand only must be installed.
When designing systems greater than lOOm in
length (from the valve to the vacuum station), a
series of reforming pockets must be used. These
minimise the break-up of the wastewater slug and
reform that portion of the slug that remains in the
piping between interface valve discharges. The
reformed slug is then propelled by the air admitted
during the next discharge.
Once the interface valves have operated, the
discharge travels to the vacuum station, normally
located at ground or basement level. Air is
discharged to atmosphere only from the vacuum
station. From the vacuum station, the wastewater is
pumped automatically to the building outfall
connection, to discharge into the external drainage
system by gravity.
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To design a reliable and economic vacuum drainage
system, it is necessary to generate sequentially high
acceleration and self-cleansing velocities with the
least amount of energy.
NOTE: A vacuum drainage system is NOT a reversed
pressure system where all the water would be
accelerated simultaneously.
3 BASIC COMPONENTS
The vacuum drainage standard considers the
Vacuum Drainage System in four system elements:
0 the automatic interface units (AIU)
0 the vacuum toilets
0 the pipework, and
0 the vacuum station.
3.1 Interface units
3.1.1 Description
The valves that form the interface between the
vacuum drainage lines and the appliances can be
used directly with some appliances and with buffer
volumes for others. When used with buffer volumes,
level sensors and controllers the valves are termed
interface units. Most interface units operate
automatically and are known as automatic interface
units (AIUs). Although AlUs are operated by air,
non-automatic units may use electricity to control
their operation.
There are various sizes of interface valve up to about
100mm bore. The larger valves are used in vacuum
sewerage systems.
Typically a complete interface unit is composed of a
buffer volume of varying size, a sensor to sense the
wastewater level in the buffer volume, a controller
which operates a pilot valve to open and close a
vacuum supply line to the interface valve. In many
designs of interface unit, level sensors and
controllers are combined into one device.
3.1.2 Operation
Normally, interface valves would be operated by
vacuum but may be operated by electricity if
appropriate. Although the operation of all automatic
interface valves is similar, vacuum toilets operate
differently (see section 3.2). A typical sequence of
operation for an automatic unit, with an air tube
level sensor and combined controller/sensor unit, is:
0 liquid enters the holding tank by gravity, as the
liquid level rises in the sump it pressurises air in
the sensor pipe
0 this air pressure is transmitted through a tube
to the controller/sensor unit
0 the air pressure operates the controller/sensor
unit, which operates a pilot valve to open the
vacuum supply line to the interface valve's
operating mechanism
0 this opens the interface valve and activates a
timer in the controller
0 after the set time period has expired, the buffer
volume will have been drained and sufficient
air to transport the wastewater will have been
admitted
0 the controller/sensor unit operates the pilot
valve to close the vacuum supply line to the
interface valve and to admit air to the valve
operating mechanism
0 the interface valve closes.
The arrangement of the components may vary
according to the design of the installation. In
general terms, the buffer volume gets larger as the
inflow rate increases. The buffer volume can be a
separate tank of various materials suitable for the
application. It may also be possible to use part of
the gravity drainage system that feeds the interface
valve as a buffer volume.
There are several types of interface valves suitable
for vacuum drainage, e.g. piston valves, pinch valves
and diaphragm valves. All interface valves are
normally closed and require vacuum to be applied
to open the valves.
3.1.3 Pinch (See Figure 3)
The pinch valve comprises a flexible tube running
between the inlet and outlet of the valve body, a
spring-loaded closing mechanism that requires
compression to release the tube, an airtight body
with flexible sleeved ends that are attached to the
ends of the closing mechanism.
Rubber Sleeve
Vacuum
Side
~ ' Rubber Sleeve'
INTERFACE VALVE
Figure 3 - Pirich valve
3.1.3.1 Operation
The valve is opened when the controller applies
vacuum to the inside of the valve body. The external
air pressure then compresses the closing mechanism
which allows the tube to return to its natural open
state and connect the appliance to the vacuum
system. Air at atmospheric pressure then forces the
wastewater through the open pinch valve and into
the piping.
When the controller disconnects the vacuum from
the inside of the body, it allows air to enter the body
which assists the spring to return the ends of the
mechanism to their rest positions and pinch the
flexible tube closed.
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3.1.4 Spoon (See Figure 4) 3.1 S . 1 Operation

The spoon valve comprises a ridged tube with a
movable, spoon shaped obturator that is held closed
by a spring-loaded piston. The spoon’s back is
against the appliance side of the valve and its tip
locates in a depression in the tube. Around the
piston is an airtight chamber that contains servo
valves which will admit air or vacuum to the piston.
Spring
- - -_-_-_-_-_-_-
In the closed position, the two chambers are
maintained at atmospheric pressure by a controller
(1).The vacuum in the pipelines and the spring in
the upper chamber hold the piston on its seat.
When the controller receives a signal (6) from the
sensor pipe (5) due to a high level of wastewater in
the pump, applies vacuum to the upper chamber,
the diaphragm is forced into the top chamber,
Valve controller pulling the piston and opening the valve. Air at
atmospheric pressure then forces the wastewater, up
the suction pipe (4),through the open piston valve
and into the piping.
The controller has an adjustable timer that controls
the valve’s rate of closing by slowly admitting air to
the upper chamber until the spring returns the
piston to the closed position.

Piston 3.1.6 Modified diaphragm (See Figure 6)

A diaphragm valve uses a shaped flexible diaphragm
to seal against an angled seating. The means of
1 Figure 4 - Spoon valve on the outlet of a vacuum toilet
retracting the diaphragm varies between designs.
The modified diaphragm valve uses a spring for
3.1.4.1 Operation
rolling the diaphragm onto the seating while a
When the controller applies vacuum to the piston’s
conventional diaphragm valve may use a less simple
servo, a valve will open in the chamber and the
rod mechanism.
applied vacuum will cause the spoon valve to open,
compressing the spring. Air at atmospheric pressure
then forces the wastewater through the open spoon
valve and into the piping.
When the controller ceases to apply vacuum to the
piston servo, another valve opens in the chamber to
admit atmospheric pressure air into the chamber.
This allows the spring to return the spoon to its
closed position.

3.1.5 Piston (See Figure 5)

The valve consists of a Y fitting, with a straight path
between the inlet and outlet. At the end of the angled
arm are two chambers separated by a diaphragm
Figure 6 - Diaphragm valve
connected to the sealing piston. In the upper
chamber is a spring. The piston is angled so that it will
The modified diaphragm valve comprises a straight
not obstruct the pipe when it is raised and also so the
rigid tube with a diaphragm attached to one side,
seating will not cause a constriction in the pipe.
over which is a chamber that supports a closing
spring and can be connected to vacuum. One end
Q of the spring is attached to the diaphragm’s sealing
face and the other is located onto the chamber so
that the naturally straight spring is held in a

-
curved state.

1. Controller
3.1.6.1 Operation
2. P a l under vacuum
3. Pal at atmospheric wwsure Wastewater wm In the closed position, the diaphragm is held against
4. Suction pipe
5. sensorpipe Air 0 the vacuum seating by the spring and atmospheric
5 Depth signal
Q Vacuum I
7. Wfstewater inlet pressure. When the controller applies vacuum to the
chamber over the diaphragm, the diaphragm seating
face retracts into the top chamber. This creates a
clear passage opening the valve. Air at atmospheric
pressure then forces the wastewater through the
open diaphragm valve and into the piping.
The controller has an adjustable timer that controls
Figure 5 - Automatic interface unit with piston valve
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the valve’s rate of closing by slowly admitting air to emptied by a 50mm or 75mm valve into the

-
the chamber. This allows the spring to return the vacuum collection tank. An isolation valve may be
diaphragm to its closed position. fitted between the vacuum tank and the interface
valve.
3.2 Vacuum toilets
3.3.2 Standby generator
A vacuum toilet uses air instead of water to remove
Unlike most gravity drainage systems, vacuum
the contents of the bowl, and is a form of interface
drainage systems require electrical power for
valve. Usually, it includes a rinse rim and the toilet’s
operation. Hence, there may be a requirement to
controller may have a memory function so that it
provide an alternative power supply to operate the
will operate as soon as there is sufficient vacuum
system in case of a primary power supply failure.
available. A typical vacuum toilet is shown
diagramatically in Figure 7. A vacuum drainage system should require only one
air inlsf liner source of power located at the vacuum generation
plant room. The standby generator is usually rated
to provide 100%)standby power for discharge
pumping and vacuum generation. The generator
nnse ring should be arranged for automatic start upon failure

1177
\ / of the main power supply.
loilef bowl
3.4 Ejector unit (See Figures 8 and 9)
Ejector units are used on small systems, which
vacuum hose require approximately 40m3 of air an hour at peak
vacuum pipe
flow. They have the advantage of having a lower
capital cost, being small in physical size and with
Figure 7 - Vacuum toilet controls and operation fewer working parts than vacuum pumps, and are
easy to maintain and operate. However, they are less
3.2.1 Operation of dry vacuum toilet power efficient than a vacuum station and, therefore,
Where minimal water use is required, a dry vacuum are more expensive to run. The control of this kind of
toilet may be used. The water consumption of this vacuum station is similar to a conventional pumping
type of toilet is typically 0.2 to 0.4 litre per flush. station. These units can also receive discharges from
The dry vacuum toilet retains n o water in its bowl, gravity drainage systems directly into the tank.
as the flush valve closes before the discharge valve However, wastewater containing high levels of
closes. The cleansing of the bowl is usually inferior detergents may cause foaming problems.
to that of a wet vacuum toilet.
3.4.1 Operation (The ntiinhers refer to Figure 9)
The ejector unit creates a vacuum in the pipework
3.2.2 Operation of wet vacuum toilet

-
by means of an ejector (2) and pump (3).
Typically, when operating a flush button, pressurised
Wastewater is pumped from the tank (1) through
water is introduced into the bowl through a water
valve and a rinse ring with holes to clean the bowl. the nozzle of the ejector creating a venturi effect,
whereby air and waste are inducted from the
Simultaneously the discharge valve opens and the
pressure differential in the piping forces the ,, Vacuum drainage pipeline
contents through the valve. Before the discharge
Check Valve
valve closes, air is drawn into the pipe. The flush
water valve stays open for about two seconds to
re-establish the water pool in the bowl. The typical
water consumption for this timing sequence would
be 0.8-1.5 litre per flush. Vacuum toilets may be re- B
flushed in less than a quarter of the time taken for a Figure 8 - Schematic of ejector
conventional WC to refill, on average, a vacuum
toilet will take 3 seconds to complete a flush cycle.

3.3 Collection tanks and vacuum generation

These have three functions:
0 generate vacuum
a receive and forward the wastewater, and
0 control and nionitor the system.
1. Atmospheric lank 6. Vacuum drainage pipeline 10. Low level switch
3.3.1 Station sump valve 2. EVAC ejector 7. Discharge valve, automatic 11. S h u t 4 valve
The plant room containing the vacuum generator 3. EVAC discharge pump or manual 12. Shut-oH valve
4. Pressure switch 8. High level switch 13. Control equipment
may be provided with a sump to collect 5 Vacuum gauge 9. Sewage -discharge line

washdown water. The sump is automatically

Figure 9 - Ejector unit
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vacuum drainage pipework, mixed with the
wastewater jet and passed to the collecting tank.
The induction of air from the drainage pipework
creates the vacuum within the pipework. When the
level of water in the tank reaches the high level
switch (8), the collected wastewater is transferred to
the sewer by using the same pump(s), and by
diverting the flow through a discharge valve (7).
When the water level in the tank has dropped to the
level of the low-level switch, the discharge valve will
close. When the set vacuum has been developed in
the pipework, the vacuum switch (4) will cause the
pump(s)(3) to stop. The vacuum will be maintained
in the pipework by the check valve at the end of the
vacuum drainage pipeline, within the ejector. As the
tank is vented to atmosphere, wastewater from a
conventional gravity system can be introduced into
the tank and then pumped to the sewer during the
normal discharge cycle.
3.5 Vacuum station (See Figures 10 and 1 1 )
Figure 10 - Vacuum station
Although vacuum stations may be used with simjlar
systems as the ejector unit, they are used mainly for
larger systems, i.e. greater than 40mRof air. They are
large units with a higher capital cost but typically
are cheaper to run than ejectors.
The machinery installed is similar to that of a
conventional wastewater pumping station or lift
station, and consists of a collection tank, wastewater
forwarding pumps, vacuum pumps, controls and
I VACUUM &.TEM 3 COLLECTON
SYSTEM z FORWAMNG
SYSTEM
Figure 11 - Vacurrm station
alarms, and where required a standby generator.
Vacuum stations may be built from a package of
equipment provided by the manufacturer of the
system. Package vacuum stations may be pre-
fabricated on a skid at the manufacturer's plant and
delivered to site fully assembled and tested.
The vacuum receiver tank size and/or number of
tanks depends on the number of appliances
connected to the system and the excepted frequency
of discharge. Each tank incorporates level indicator
switches that control the discharge pumps
automatically, vacuum regulator switches which
control the vacuum pumps and level alarms which
can be audible or connected to the building
management system.
3.6 Vacuum generating and forwarding pumps
3.6.1 Vacuum generating pumps
Vacuum pumps of the liquid ring and sliding vane
types are both suitable for use in vacuum drainage
systems. Vane-type vacuum pumps are
recommended for most projects, as they are more
efficient, i.e. they have a greater throughput of air
and are less temperature sensitive than similarly
powerful liquid ring pumps.
The maximum vacuum provided by a liquid ring
pump often will not exceed -0.8 bar gauge, whilst
the maximum vacuum of a vane pump will typically
be closer to -1 bar gauge. This will affect the choice
of pumps where vacuum levels of a greater
magnitude than the normal -0.5 to -0.7 bar gauge
operating range will be required, or for projects at
high elevations where atmospheric pressure is lower.
A vacuum switch attached to the pipework and
adjustable timer are used to control the vacuum
pumps. A second vacuum switch may control a low
vacuum alarm signal. These switches are fitted with
stainless steel bellows to protect against corrosion
from any gases evolving from the wastewater.
3.6.2 Forwarding pumps (See Figure 12)
Forwarding pumps are required to discharge the
collected wastewater to the external gravity sewerage
Figure 12 - Balance line for forwarding pump
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system. These pumps are designed to operate with a
large pressure differential across them with their
inlets under vacuum. The size of the forwarding
pump is a function of the following: design peak
flow, volume to be discharged, and the permissible
discharge rate for the receiving sewer.
To enable some forwarding pumps to work, a vacuum
balance line may be required downstream o f the
discharge pump to reduce the pressure difference
across the pump (a balance line is not required with
an ejector systems). To prevent loss of vacuum when
the pump is not discharging, a check valve is required
in the discharge pipework downstream of the
connection of the balance line see Figures 11 and 12.
3.7 Controls
3.7.1 System controls
I
The vacuum drainage system control panel contains
the main power switch and the pump operating
system, which includes magnetic starters, overload
protection, control circuitry and hours run meters for
each vacuum and forwarding pump. A data recorder
may be built into this panel, as well as the collection
tank level control relays.
Alarm and telemetry systems may be included if
also required.
3.7.2 Pump controls
I The controls should be designed so that, where
standby pumps and collection tanks are installed,
both the vacuum and forwarding pumps alternate
their use and are interconnected and controlled to
allow them to be used with either tank automatically.
The pump controls will include logic controllers
that will be connected to the various level and
vacuum sensors. The signal to start the discharge
comes from the high-level switch in the collection
tank, the stop function is either controlled by a low-
level switch or timer. For example, when the high-
level sensor indicates to the logic control that water
has risen to the high level, this sequence of
operation will commence:
0 the controller will close automatic valve in
balance line, where fitted, and start the
forwarding pump
0 if level does not fall within the pre-set time,
a second pump will be started or an alarm
generated
0 if level reaches the high level alarm sensor,
then an alarm is given and the vacuum system
is shut down
0 when the water level has fallen to a low-level
sensor or after a pre-set time period, the
controller will stop the forwarding pump(s)
and open the automatic balance line valve,
if fitted.
In systems where only black water is being collected,
it is prudent to use the second forwarding pump as
a circulation pump. This circulates sewage within
the collection tank and breaks up any solids which
may have formed on the surface of the wastewater.
This operation should be programmed into the logic
system as the first step in the discharge cycle.
3.7.3 Collection tank level controls
Level detectors are available in various forms, some
are float switches, others are fixed probes that may
be conductive, inductive or capacitative. Where a lot
of condensate is being collected, for example in
supermarkets with chiller cabinets, the mineral
content of the water may affect the operation of the
system and conduction probes may need to be used.
Level detectors, of some form, are fitted to all
collection tanks. The signals from the six common
detectors control the discharge pumps and alarms as
follows, in ascending order of height from the base
of the tank:
1. earthing probe, or sensor float switch or similar
2. both forwarding pumps stop
3. lead forwarding pump start
4. assist forwarding pump start
5. high-level alarm
6. high-level cut-off - stop vacuum pumps.
3.7.4 Vacuum gauges
It is important that all vacuum gauges be specified
to indicate gauge pressure and have stainless steel
bourdon tube and socket.
Vacuum gauges should be provided at the following
locations:
0 the side of the vacuum moisture removal
tank (where fitted)
0 the collection tank, and
0 one gauge on each incoming vacuum main
or header.
It is important that these gauges are located above the
incoming pipes and in a position that is easily viewed
wc WC
Separator
Water column
Trap sump wlumn
To sewer
Column Tank
Figure 13 - Column tank installation
 Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled
from the operating position of the isolation valves.
3.8 Column tank (See Figure 13)
Wastewater may be forwarded by other means than
forwarding pumps, e.g. by gravity if a sufficiently
high water column can be arranged to prevent
backflow of air into the vessel. This is the principal
employed in the column tank. For example, if the
system is operating at -0.5 bar, the height of the
column needed to balance the vacuum would be
5m. The volume of the sump of the trap would
need to be 5 x 7Lrz m3, where r is the internal radius
of the column pipe.
At the top of the column is an air water separator, and at
the bottom a water trap sump of sufficient capacity to
balance the volume of the water column created by the
negative pressure (vacuum). The wastewater is forwarded
to the gravity sewer continuously. This system is useful
particularly when the negative pressure is below 0.6 bar.
Column tanks of about 2m may be used in apartment
buildings when using small vacuum generators such as a
combined vacuum generator and forwarding pump and
discharging into gravity drainage stacks.
3.8.1 Vacuum reservoir/moisture removal
It is important to prevent moisture entering the
vacuum generating pumps to protect their
mechanisms and prolong their service life. This is
particularly a problem with vane-type vacuum pumps
which often have a low tolerance of any moisture
carried over into them. Moisture carryover from the
collection tank can be prevented by using a moisture
removal tank or an automatic condensate trap.
I 3.9 Combined vacuum generator and forwarding
p u m p (See Figure 14)
, the vacuum to the pressure side. Air and wastewater
Figure 14 - Diagram of comblnedgenerator and
forwarding pump installation
A combined vacuum generator and forwarding
pump or ‘vacuumarator’ is a screw vacuum pump
with liquid ring seal with a macerator for breaking-up
any solids passing through it. The macerator consists
of one rotating knife fixed to the shaft and one
stationary knife fixed to the suction chamber.
The combined vacuum generator and forwarding
pump:
U generates vacuum
0 macerates solids, and
0 pumps wastewater in the same operation.
A combined vacuum generator and forwarding
pump can generate vacuum directly on the pipeline
to an appliance and discharge to a gravity system in
the same operation. Vacuum tanks or collecting
tanks are not required normally. Combined vacuum
generators and forwarding pumps can be used for all
size of systems. The size and number of combined
vacuum generator and forwarding pumps to be used
depends upon the required capacity. Combined
vacuum generators and forwarding pumps have a
small footprint compared to conventional vacuum
stations and can be located in small ducts. A
combined vacuum generator and forwarding pump
is more power efficient than an ejector system, but a
large number of combined vacuum generator and
forwarding pumps would be more expensive to
purchase and run than a comparable vacuum-
station-based system.
3.9.1 Operation
When the combined vacuum generator and
forwarding pump is filled with liquid and started, a
liquid ring is created around the rotor. The depth of
the liquid ring is governed by the size of the
opening in the end plate on the pressure side. This
opening is arranged such that the created liquid ring
touches the rotor hub on one side and the rotor tips
on the other. This arrangement creates a series of
progressive crescent-shaped cavities travelling from
are drawn into these cavities and transported
through the vacuumarator. Any solids within the
wastewater are macerated by the integral macerator
before it enters the pump body.
3.10 Check and isolation valves
A check valve is installed in each vacuum pump
suction line to maintain the vacuum in the system.
Check valves are also fitted on the discharge from a
vacuum discharge pump, and often are fitted on the
service connection from an appliance.
Isolation valves are fitted to all forwarding and
vacuum‘ pumps to allow their removal without
disrupting the system. Also, they are fitted in
strategic locations to enable sections of a system to
be isolated for service. Isolation valves should be
suitable for vacuum use and may be of the eccentric
plug type or resilient face gate type and have a clear
opening of not less than the nominal diameter of
the pipe. Both check and isolation valves must be
capable of withstanding 0.8 bar gauge vacuum,
when open, and a differential pressure of 0.8 bar,
when closed on a functioning system.
Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled
3.11 Pipework
Usually, stainless steel and thermoplastics (ABS,
HDPE, PVCU or MDPE) pipes are utilised for the
construction of the vacuum pipelines - the selection
of pipeline material is dependent upon its location
and the characteristics of the wastewater. All pipes
used should be suitable for vacuum, and the
minimum pressure rating for thermoplastics should
be 10 bar, but higher ratings shall be used if the pipe
has an initial ovality; if progressive deformation or
long-term loss of strength due to high temperature
is likely to occur. The velocities of water within the
pipework and the resulting percussive effects at
changes of direction lead to the requirement for
such pressure rated pipe.
Standard manufactured fittings are used where
available; Y junctions for incoming branches should
be 45" and reducers be concentric.
Generally, joints should be smooth and protrusion
free to ensure full bore flow conditions.
Not all rubber ring pipe joints are suitable for
vacuum systems. The manufacturer should supply a
guarantee along with the test certification that the
products are appropriate for vacuum drainage
applications.
4 DESIGN
4.1 Design requirements
The system should be designed to accept discharges
from all appliances planned to be connected to the
system. The designer should take into consideration
any known possible future additions or
modifications to the system to avoid future
installation and operating constraints.
There are seven factors that must be considered by
the designer and the equipment supplier when
designing a vacuum drainage system. They are:
0 health and safety
0 availability
0 reliability
0 maintainability
0 noise and odour control
0 energy economy, and
0 fire resistance.
4.1.1 Health a n d safety
The design must be such as to reduce hazards to an
acceptable level and be subject to a risk assessment.
This may be achieved by the use of safety devices,
warning devices or, if n o other option is available,
by the use of special procedures such as always
having two operatives to check an operation.
4.1.2 Availability
Availability is the ratio of operating hours to
operating hours plus hours out of service. This
measure can be applied to the whole system, part
of the system or just a component. The aim is to
achieve high availability by having high reliability,
redundancy for key components, i.e. duplicate
back-up pumps and tanks, and a system that is
simple and straightforward to maintain. In
practice, isolation valves may be fitted to each
interface unit. Interface valve cycle times are
normally limited to less than about 10 seconds
so that the system's vacuum recovery time is
minimised.
4.1.3 Reliability
Reliability is dependent upon the number of valve
cycles per day and the quality of the interface
valves and the vacuum station equipment. For
example, an automatic interface unit would be
expected to have a reliability of 250,000 mean
cycles between failures when installed in a correctly
maintained system.
4.1.4 Maintainability
Maintainability is an important factor in the design
and calculation of the overall running costs. It
includes the provision of access to interface valves,
units and any tank or pipework cleaning eyes, the
maintenance schedules an.d estimated repair times.
(See section 4.3 for more details.)
4.1.5 Noise a n d odour control
Noise from the system is dependant upon the choice
of pipe material, the method of fixing, the air to
water ratio and the operating vacuum. Secure
pipework brackets with rubber inserts will reduce
noise. The air discharge from the system should be
sited to discharge externally (in accordance with
National Building Regulations).
4.1.6 Energy economy
Vacuum drainage systems consume little energy,
but by careful design and commissioning the
consumption can be minimised. To minimise
energy consumption, the design should avoid high
lifts and high air to water ratios, use high efficiency
components, and use a control system which will
detect air leaks.
4.1.7 Fire resistance
Any system that includes pipes and frequent
penetration of walls could contribute to the spread of
fire. By the appropriate selection of materials and,
where needed, firestops, the design can made resistant
to fire. However, as an operating vacuum system is
maintained below atmospheric pressure, it would not
contribute to the spread of fire in the same manner as
a conventionally ventilated gravity system.
4.2 Design criteria
In order to design a vacuum drainage system, the
following basic parameters should be determined
and obtained:
0 service life expectancy
0 type of building
Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled
0 number of people the system is to serve
0 types, number and location of appliances to be
connected
0 wastewater temperature range (high
temperature grey water discharges shall be
specified concerning temperature, flow, batch
volume and frequency)
0 ambient temperature range within which the
system shall operate
[7 minimum vacuum level required to operate the
interface units and vacuum toilets
0 air to water ratios required for the interface units
0 air consumption of vacuum toilets, and
0 permissible leakage factors.
The following parameters are required to calculate
the pipe sizes and system layout. They should be
determined by the designer and equipment supplier
for each system:
0 total wastewater flow
0 vacuum toilet flush frequency
[7 dynamic losses between the vacuum station
and the furthest appliance on each pipeline
0 static losses between the vacuum station and
the furthest appliance on each pipeline
0 required operational value of vacuum
0 required vacuum generator capacity
0 required forwarding pump capacity, if utilised
0 required collecting tank capacity, if utilised
0 pipe sizes, and
0 vacuum recovery time.
4.2.1 Pipework design
Vacuum systems are designed to operate on two-
phase air to liquid flows. The air in the pipework is
not, as in a conventional horizontal gravity system,
flowing above the wastewater but is entrained into
the wastewater where its expansion propels the
I Wash hand
basins Vacuum ww
60 m m
vucuum line
T L
wastewater and lowers its bulk density. These factors
enable the wastewater to behave more like a gas
than a liquid and in particular flow uphill.
The strength of thermoplastics is affected by
temperature. In industrial installations where high
wastewater temperatures are anticipated, care must
be taken in the selection of pipe materials. Wastewater
temperatures greater than 70°C should be notified to
the designer, so that the design can limit, by pipework
design and buffer volume sizing, possible boiling due
to pressures lower than atmosphere.
Installation of vacuum pipes and fittings follow
current water system practices. Isolation valves are
installed in branches and mains to allow portions
of the main to be isolated for repairs or
troubleshooting.
Although most drainage systems only have
relatively short distances between the appliances
and vacuum station, long vacuiim pipelines are laid
with a series of reforming pockets (see Figure 18).
When the propulsion effect of the air has
diminished, the wastewater remaining within the
pipework will drain under gravity into the reforming
pockets. When the next interface valve opens, the
movement of the air will remove the water from the
pocket and transport it as a slug further towards the
vacuum station. This enables the wastewater to be
transported to the vacuum station in a series of
interface valve operations.
Figure IS - Typical long system pipework layout
Typical vacuum pipe
installation at
obstruction
Obstecle (ductwork.
Pocket line
Vent from
65 mrn
vacuum
header
Vecuum
discharge
line
Figure 16 - Typical short system pipework layout
Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled

4.2.2 System layout

(Figures 15 and 16 show examples of long and
short system layouts.) The pipes can be tun in
II n CORRECT] I
lightweight suspended ceilings rather than being

klxiKL
slop 0 5%
cast integrally with the concrete floor slab or floor >.?Qm

structure. This allows appliances to be located

virtually anywhere in a building.
Air entering the interface units at atmospheric
pressure is released from the vacuum drainage Check valve
I
system at a suitable point downstream of the
Sbpe O S %
vacuum generator.
The risk of water leakage is counteracted by the I 1
Standard dser plpe 3m
I I
vacuum prevailing in the pipes, coupled with the
fact that the amount of water in the piping system NOT CORRECT
is minimal.
Most of the large vertical ducts for conventional
gravity stacks and multiple ventilating pipes are
eliminated due to the smaller diameters of vacuum
pipework and the reduced ventilation requirements.
The pipes are installed in a near horizontal profile,
without backfall (0.2-0.596 fall) to a suitably located
Figure 17 - Connections must always enter from the top
vertical pipe. Once the vertical pipe (stack) is
installed all horizontal pipes may be connected at are common, however greater lifts may be achieved
each level in the building in the void between floor in consultation with the specialist system designer.
and ceiling, subject to lift height restrictions. All
In mixed black and grey water systems, a check
service connections from the interface units could
valve should be fitted on all risers in excess of 2n1
either be lifted to the pipeline in the ceiling above or
at the connection to the horizontal pipeline.
dropped through the floor to the pipeline below. This
makes installation one floor at a time possible, which Pockets can be used to negotiate obstacles such as
is particularly valuable in building refurbishment. beams and ducting. If the obstacle is greater than
l m in length, then a reforming pocket must be
Preferably, connections to horizontal pipelines
placed at the lift (see the detail in Figure 18).
should be arranged so that the branch pipe enters
from the top by way of a Y-fitting (see Figure 17).
As a minimum it shall connect into the top sector
of the vacuum main pipeline contained within the
angle of +/- 60" about the vertical axis. Vertical lift
piping connecting to horizontal pipelines should
enter from the top by way of a Y-fitting. Precautions
should be taken, e.g. the use of a check valve I I
suitable for vacuum drainage, to prevent filling the Figure 18 -Pockets
riser with wastewater by back surges. Horizontal
piping connecting to vertical stacks should enter Pipe profile changes or lifts are accomplished by
by way of single Y-branches. Multiple connections using two 45" elbows joined by a section of pipe -
should be at staggered levels where practical. or, for shallow lifts, a single elbow may be used.
For efficient use and in situations where the
For a larger building, it is customary to divide the
available energy supply is limited, profile changes
system into smaller sub-systems, possibly with a
should be limited, wherever possible to around
crossover, if not cost prohibitive, so that, in the event
300mm or less.
of failure of part of the system, each sub-system could
operate as a standby for the other. The crossover
4.2.4 Isolation measures
pipework would be located between the vacuum
Isolation valves shall be installed in the pipelines in
station and pipework manifold of each sub-system.
order to permit repairs or to locate faults at branches
An isolation valve, the crossover valve, located
off the stack connections and where the pipeline
within the crossover pipework would, for normal
exceeds 200m in length.
operation, be closed.
4.2.3 Lifts a n d reforming pockets All near horizontal pipelines should have 0.2-0.5%)
Generally, when toilets and interface valves are fall in the direction of flow, however on long runs
required to discharge into an overhead vacuum this loss of height can be recovered at a reforming
pipeline, the lift should be made immediately after pocket, bringing the pipeline back to its original
each toilet and interface valve. Vertical lifts of 4m invert level.
Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled
4.2.5 Cleaning eyes
Cleaning eyes (see Figure 19) are only required
where other forms of access are not available.
The use of readily demountable fittings and large
diameter (>60mm) pipework minimises the need
for cleaning eyes. Eyes may be fitted to dead ends
of pipes and may be used for points for subsequent
expansion of a system. It should be noted that
when the pipework is opened for maintenance, and
the system is operating, wastewater will not escape.
Any liquid in front of the blockage will be evacuated
by the vacuum, and as the pipework is open to the
atmosphere, the discharge valves will not operate,
hence no more liquid will be admitted into that part
of the system.
4.3.1
End 01 a horizontal line
Upper end 01 a ve&d line
_____
Figure 19 - Cleaning eyes
4.2.6 Appliance traps
The fitting of water seal traps on appliances will
depend upon the type of installation. If a low
vacuum system is used and the interface unit is
adequately ventilated, conventional appliance traps,
or self-sealing waste valves, may be installed if the
length of pipework between the appliance and the
interface valve may retain material, such as urine
deposits or vegetable matter, that could decompose
and produce odours.
If a high vacuum system is used, or the interface
unit is not adequately ventilated, air will be drawn
into the system through the waste pipes of the
appliances. Such an airflow would displace the water
seals of any conventional traps, hence they should
not be fitted to such appliances.
4.3 Maintainability
System maintainability affects not only maintenance
4.4
costs but also availability. The following aspects are
the minimum that should be addressed as part of
system design:
[7 fault-finding procedures
0 access to all interface units, isolation valves,
cleaning eyes, check valves and other items that
need inspection andlor service
[7 procedures for removal of interface units and
their temporary effect on system performance,
if any
0 maintenance schedules for interface units in
relation to cycle frequency and endurance
0 estimated repair or replacement times of
interface units
0 maintenance schedule for vacuum station
equipment
0 procedures for removal or repair of vacuum
station equipment and their temporary effects
on system performance, if any
0 estimated repair or replacement times for
vacuum station equipment
U precaution routines if system performance is
temporarily lost or reduced
0 training of maintenance personnel
0 recommended stocking of spare parts, and
estimated cost of maintenance per year.
Operation and maintenance manual
A detailed operation and maintenance manual
(OMM) must be supplied with each system. It should
contain detailed instructions on the items shown in
the box on page 16 (the frequencies and tasks are
examples only).
In addition, the OMM should contain details of:
operation and handling
special procedures for the vacuum station
0 safety equipment in the vacuum station
0 safety instructions
0 vacuum generators
0 forwarding pumps
0 instrumentation
0 part lists and part numbers
0 assembly drawings
0 layout and wiring diagrams
0 interface valve mechanism and adjustments
0 sensor/controller mechanism and adjustments
0 vacuum toilet flushing mechanism and
adjustments
0 troubleshooting guide
0 system malfunctions and alarms
c] record keeping, and
0 details of equipment suppliers and
manufacturers.
Noise control
Normal noise control procedures should be applied
to the system, such as securing the pipework and
careful direction of the exhausted air from the
system. The noise generated by the air entering the
interface units can be minimised by appropriate
adjustment of the timings and air to water ratios.
Noise characteristics of appliances and pipework
fixings may be evaluated using the tests specified
in I S 0 5135.
Licensed copy from CIS: rennes.desamparado@arcadis.com, Hyder Consulting Middle East Ltd, 12/01/2020, Uncontrolled

EXAMPLE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE TOPICS

AIUs
Annually - visual inspection, and cleaning of buffer volume, sensor and valve. Check the function of the unit and
carry out maintenance if necessary.
Five yearly - remove, dismantle and examine the interface valve and renovate or replace, as appropriate.

Vacuum toilets
Annually - inspect, clean and check the function of the toilet and carry out maintenance if necessary.
Remove and replace the rinse ring.
Five yearly - remove and replace the components of the water inlet valve and the discharge valve. Inspect the
functional control flushing mechanism and carry out maintenance if necessary.

Vacuum station
Weekly - visual inspections; record hours run by vacuum generators and forwarding pumps (inspect data on
chart recorder).
Monthly - routine operational maintenance.
Annually - mechanical and electrical maintenance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sources of reference: British Standards

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the USA BS EN I S 0 5135: 1999 ‘Acoustics. Determination of sound
intemet sites and manufacturers’ literature. power levels of noise from air-terminal
devices, air-terminal units, dampers and
Standards valves by measurement in a reverberation
(Note: single part standards are dated, multiple part room‘
standards are not. BS EN 12109: 1999 ‘Vacuum drainage systems inside
buildings’
International Standards 1997 ‘Vacuum drainage and sewerage
BS EN 1091:
I S 0 5135: 1999 ‘Acoustics. Determination of
systems outside buildings’
sound power levels of noise from air-
terminal devices, air-terminal units, BS EN 752 ‘Drainage and sewerage systems outside
dampers and valves by measurement buildings’
in a reverberation room’ BS EN 12056: ‘Gravity drainage systems inside buildings’
BS 8301: 1985 ’Code of practice for building
European Standards drainage’
EN 12109: 1999 ‘Vacuum drainage systems inside BS 8005 ‘Sewerage‘
buildings’
EN 1091: 1997 ‘Vacuum drainage and sewerage National Regulations
systems outside buildings’ The Building Regulations for England and Wales
EN 752 ‘Drainage and sewerage systems outside (Parts G and H)
buildings’ The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
EN 12056 ‘Gravity drainage systems inside The Scottish Water Fittings Byelaws
buildings’ The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations: Technical
Standards (Part M)
The Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) Technical
Booklet N

BRE The Chartered Institution of Institute of Plumbing

Garston Building Services Engineers 64 Station Lane
Watford (CIBSE) Hornchurch
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