Topic 2 – Basic Concepts

Dr. Rui Fan

Electrical & Computer Engineering
University of Denver
Winter 2021
Illustration of a Protective Relaying System

2
Two main issues

• There are two main issues associated with the objectives of the
protective relaying:
• (a) monitoring and identification of an intolerable condition
for which protection must be provided and
• (b) selection of protective action so that the minimum
possible part of the system will be affected.

3
• A protection system monitors specific quantities of the power
system, typically three voltages and three currents, and it is
expected to determine from the collected data the status of
the system and whether an action should be taken.
• Some conditions are easily determined (for example a short
circuit)
• while others require more sophisticated processing of the data
(for example transformer over-excitation, generator out of step,
etc.).

4
Protection Zone

• The relaying protection problem is very complex.

• To simplify the problem, the overall protection problem is
partitioned into smaller problems with the use of the
protection zone concept.
• A protection zone is a small part of a power system (for
example a single transmission line, a single generator, etc.).
• The design of a protection system for one protection zone
(zone protection) is a relatively simpler problem.
• Assuming that any part of a power system will belong to one
protection zone, then the overall power system is protected.

5
Example

6
Typical Protection Zones

7
• The design of a protection system for a protection zone is
focused only in abnormal and intolerable conditions that are
caused by faulty conditions in the protection zone alone.
Therefore, the zone protection system is designed to respond
to abnormal and intolerable conditions in its own zone alone.
• This protection system design approach covers the majority of
the abnormal and intolerable conditions in the power system
for which protection should be provided.
• However, there are some phenomena that involve system
abnormal and intolerable conditions that are not local to any
single protection zone or may not involve a fault.

8
• For example system wide oscillations triggered by a fault that has been
successfully identified and cleared. These oscillations (or follow-up
disturbed conditions) may or may not be tolerable. In case that they are not
tolerable, the protection system should be designed to protect the system.
For these cases, information is needed from the overall system together
with the ability to determine that the oscillation will be intolerable and then
action should be taken.
• We refer to these types of problems as “system protection”. Therefore the
protection design problem can be viewed as consisting of two sub-
problems:
• (a) design of the protection system for a protection zone (zone
protection), and
• (b) design of system protection schemes for system abnormal conditions
(system protection).

9
A history of relay

10
Electromechanical – 1900s
• Initially, electromechanical relays were introduced at the early stages of the
electric power industry. Electromechanical relays are electromechanical
systems that are designed to perform a logic function based on specific
inputs of voltages and currents.

11
Solid State – 1960s
• The invention of the transistor in the late 40’s and the subsequent solid
state technology provided an opportunity to replace the bulky
electromechanical relays with solid state based relays. The attractiveness
was not only size reduction but the ability to implement even more complex
logic functions.

12
Digital or Numerical – 1980s
• The development of solid state relays was very slow because of concerns of
how solid state technology will perform in the harsh electromagnetic
environment of electrical installations. By the time that solid state relays
started becoming acceptable to the industry, the first effort to develop
digital (numerical relays) was introduced in the late sixties and early
seventies.
• The first computer relay was developed in 1970 with a trial implementation
in a substation in California.
• Computer relays appeared to be expensive at that time. However, the
computer relaying efforts coupled with the introduction of the
microprocessor in the early 1980s led to the development of the
microprocessor based relay (numerical relay).
• The microprocessor provided the capability to implement extremely
complex logic functions in a very small package and at a low cost. In
addition, it provided the capability to implement multiple logic functions
with only a single microprocessor. This capability was recognized in the early
stages of the microprocessor technology.
13
Modern Protective Relay

14
Metrics of Protection
• Dependability
Reliability
• Security
• Selectivity
• Speed
• Economy

15
Review of Complex Number
• An arbitrary complex number

z = x+i× y
= r × ( cosq + i × sinq )
Im

r = x2 + y 2
y = r × sinq
𝑟 y
q = arctan
x

𝜃 Example: x = 1, y = 3

x = r × cosq Re
16
Review of Complex Number
• Here we can use either ‘i’ or ‘j’ to represent the imaginary part

i = j; i 2 = j 2 = -1
• Euler’s Formula: eij = cosj + i × sinj

z = r × ( cosj + i × sinj )
Rectangular form

z = r × eij
Polar form

17
Single-Phase AC

• V and I in steady state are v(t ) = Vmax cos(wt + qV )

sinusoidal functions with
constant frequency i(t ) = I max cos(wt + q I )
25

20
æ pö
v(t ) = 20 cosç 2p 60t + ÷
15

10

5
è 2ø
æ pö
i (t ) = 5 cosç 2p 60t + ÷
0

-5

-10 è 4ø
-15

-20

-25
-1/120 0 1/120 1/60
t

18
Phasors
• In the steady-state operation of an electric circuit, voltages and currents are
sinusoidal signals, with the same angular frequency ω (as the source’s
angular frequency), and different amplitudes and phase angles.
v 𝑡 = 𝐴!"# cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼
= 2𝐴$!% cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 = 2𝐴$!% 𝑅𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼
= Re { 2 Arms e ja e jw t }
• We convert the circuit to the phasor domain where for the variable
quantities (voltage and current) we only retain the magnitude and the
phase angle:

𝑽 = 𝐴∠𝛼 = 𝐴𝑒 &' = 𝐴(cos 𝛼 + 𝑗 sin 𝛼)

𝐴: Magnitude of the phasor; in power applications it is the rms value

𝛼: Phase angle, usually defined in degrees
19
Arithmetic of Complex Numbers

• Resistor: v = R ×i V = R×I

• Inductor: di
v = L× V = jw L × I
dt

• Capacitor: dv I = jwC × V
i =C× Phasor
dt

20
Phasor Extraction - Magnitude and Phase Computation

• A periodic waveform can be expanded in terms of its Fourier series.

Specifically a voltage waveform va(t) can be written as:

•
• Assume that the above waveform is uniformly sampled at a rate of N
samples per period. Assuming that the fundamental frequency ω is known,
the parameters a1 and a2 can be computed by computing the following two
sums:

21
• Note that the right hand side sums evaluate to:

• Thus:

• Given the parameters a1 and a2, the phasor magnitude and phase are
computed as follows:

22
93.89 kV Voltmeter (V)

-93.89 kV
31.36 V Phase_A (V) = PHASE(Voltmeter,60,1)

-3.422 V

93.88 kV Maganitude_A (V) = 1.414*RMS(Voltmeter,60)

4355.6 V
0.000 s 0.400 s

23
COMTRADE
• COMTRADE:
• Common format for Transient Data Exchange for power systems
• COMTRADE is a file format for storing oscillography and status data
related to transient power system disturbances.

24
Instant Power

i(t )
+ v(t ) = Vmax cos(wt + qV )
v(t ) Network
i(t ) = I max cos(wt + q I )
-

• Let p(t ) = instant power at t absorbed by the network

• Then,

p(t ) = v(t ) × i(t )

= Vmax I max cos(w t + qV )cos(w t + q I )
1
= Vmax I max [cos(qV - q I ) + cos(2wt + qV + q I )]
2
25
Instant Power Plot

100

80

60

40 p(t ) = v(t ) × i(t )

20
æ pö
0 i (t ) = 5 cosç 2p 60t + ÷
è 4ø
æ pö
v(t ) = 20 cosç 2p 60t + ÷
-20
-1/120 0 1/120 1/60
t è 2ø

26
Average Power

2p
• Average power over one period T=
T
w
1
P = ò p(t )dt
T0
T T
1 1 1
= ò Vmax I max cos(qV - q I )dt + ò cos(2wt + qV + q I )dt
T 02 T0
1 Vmax I max
= Vmax I max cos(qV - q I ) = cos(qV - q I )
2 2 2
{
= Re V rms e jqV I rms e - jq I }
= Re{VI } *
=> Real Power (Watts)

27
 Power Factor
• The phase angle differences between V and I is called
‘Power Factor Angle’:

• Power factor is defined as

PF º cos f
• Terminology:

I
V V
-Ф

+Ф

Power factor is lagging. Power factor is leading.

28
Complex Power

• Define complex power (VA),

S = VI * = V I e j (qV -qV ) = V I e jf = V I cosf + j V I sin f

P = Re{S} Q = Im{S}
• Thus, S = P + jQ
• Q is called reactive power (VAR- Voltampere reactive).

• S is called apparent power (VA).

S
Q
Ф
P
29
Complex Power Calculation

• From, V = ZI
• We have

S = VI * = (ZI )I * = Z I = I (R + jX ) = I R + j I X
2 2 2 2

2 2
P= I R Q= I X

2 2
P = I Z cos F Q = I Z sin F

S = P + jQ P = S cos F Q = S sin F
30
Three-Phase AC

31
Balanced Three-Phase Voltage
Va = V cos(w t) Phasor form
2p V Ð0°
Vb = V cos(w t - )
3 V Ð - 120°
4p
Vc = V cos(w t - ) V Ð - 240° or V Ð + 120°
3

In this course, the 𝟑𝝓 means balanced

32
Y and 𝛥 Connections

33
 Three-Phase Voltage

• Line-line voltage:Vab , Vbc ,Vca Also called phase-phase voltage

• Line-neutral voltage: Van , Vbn , Vcn

• KVL: Vab = Van - Vbn = 3VanÐ30° VLine -Line = 3 VLine -neutral
Ia
+
A + - Vbn Vab
Van Vcn
- Vab
n n Van
B C Ic
Ib Vbn
-

• Voltage is given as line-line voltage by convention34

 Three-Phase Current

• Phase current: I ab , I bc , I ca
• Line current: I a , I b , I c
• KCL: I a = I ab - I ca = 3I abÐ - 30° I Line = 3 I Phase

Ia Ic
A
I ab I ca I ca
I ab
Ic n
C
B Ia
I bc Ib - I ca
Ib I bc
• Current is given as line current by convention
35
Summary of Y and 𝛥 Connections

VLL = Vf VLL = 3Vf

I L = 3 If I L = If

36
Δ-Y Load Transformation

ZD ZD ZY
ZY ZY

ZD

ZD
ZY =
3
37
Three-Phase System

• It is possible to connect the negative ends of these three single-

phase generators and loads together, so that they share a
common return line (called the neutral).
• Now only four wires are required to supply power from the
three generators to the three loads.

I n = I a + Ib + Ic

38
Power Relationships In Three-phase Circuits
• Consider a balanced Y-connected load 𝑍∠𝜑. If the three-phase voltages
applied to this load are given by

van (t) = 2 V cos(w t)

vbn (t) = 2 V cos(w t - 120° )
vcn (t) = 2 V cos(w t + 120° )
• then the three-phase currents flowing in the load are given by

ia (t) = 2 Icos(w t - j )
V
ib (t) = 2 Icos(w t - 120 - j )
°
I=
Z
ic (t) = 2 Icos(w t + 120° - j )
• How much power is being supplied to this load from the source?

39
Power Relationships In Three-phase Circuits
• The instantaneous power supplied to one phase of the load is given by
p (t) = v(t)i(t)
• Therefore, the instantaneous power supplied to each of the three phases is

pa (t) = v an (t)i a (t) = 2VI× cos(w t)cos(w t - j )

pb (t) = vbn (t)ib (t) = 2VI× cos(w t - 120° )cos(w t - 120° - j )
pb (t) = vcn (t)i c (t) = 2VI× cos(w t + 120° )cos(w t + 120° - j )
• A trigonometric identity states that
1
cos(x)cos(y) = [ cos(x - y) + cos(x + y) ]
2
• Therefore,
pa (t) = VI× [ cos(j ) + cos(2wt - j ) ]
pb (t) = VI× éëcos(j ) + cos(2wt - 240° - j ) ùû
pc (t) = VI× éëcos(j ) + cos(2wt + 240° - j ) ùû 40
Power Relationships In Three-phase Circuits

• The total power supplied to the entire three-phase load is the

sum of the power supplied to each of the individual phases.
• This power is given by the equation:

P3f = pa (t) + pb (t) + pc (t) = 3VI× cos(j )

àthe total power supplied to a balanced three-phase load is
constant at all times.
àThe fact that a constant power is supplied by a three-phase
power system is one of its major advantages compared to
single-phase sources.

41
Power Relationships In Three-phase Circuits

• The single-phase power apply to each phase of a Y- or Δ-connected

three-phase load, so the real, reactive, and apparent powers supplied
to a balanced three-phase load are given by

P3f = 3VI× cos(j )

Q3f = 3VI× sin(j )
S3f = 3VI

• The angle 𝜑 is again the angle between the voltage and the current
in any phase of the load (it is the same in all phases), and the power
factor of the load is the cosine of the impedance angle 𝜑.

42
Power Relationships In Three-phase Circuits

P3f = 3VLL I L × cos(j )

Q3f = 3VLL I L × sin(j )
VLL = Vf VLL = 3Vf
S3f = 3VLL I L
I L = 3 If I L = If

43
Analysis Of Balanced Three-phase Systems

• If a three-phase power system is balanced, it is possible to

determine the voltages, currents, and powers at various points
in the circuit with a per-phase equivalent circuit.

44
One-line Diagrams
• A balanced three-phase power system has three lines connecting each
source with each load, one for each of the phases in the power system. The
three phases are all similar, with voltages and currents equal in amplitude
and shifted in phase from each other by 120°.
• Because the three phases are all basically the same, it is customary to
sketch power systems in a simple form with a single line representing all
three phases of the real power system.

• These one-line diagrams provide a compact way to represent the

interconnections of a power system.
• One-line diagrams typically include all of the major components of a
power system, such as generators, transformers, transmission lines, and
loads.
• The voltages and types of connections of each generator and load are
usually shown on the diagram.

45
46
Balanced 3Ф Circuit: Example 2

• Given a one-line diagram,

IS j5
j2.5 2 3
1 Load 2, Y-Connected
Inductive: ZL = j10
IC
Source,Δ-Connected
Load 1, Δ-Connected
Capacitor: ZC = -j15

If the voltage source is VLine -Line = 3 . Find,

1. Current supplied by source, I S , and,
2. Current through a capacitor, I .
C
• Equivalent 3 phase diagram,

IS
j2.5 j5
1a 2a 3a

Vca - + Vab -j15 -j15 IC j10

+ - -j15
j10 j10

1b 2c 2b 3b
1c -+ 3c
V bc
j2.5 j5

j2.5 j5
• Convert from Δ → Y,

Z D - j15 Use voltage source

ZY = = = - j5 as angle reference
3 3
Vab 3Ð0°
Van = Ð - 30° = Ð - 30° = 1Ð - 30°
3 3
IS
j2.5 j5
1a 2a 3a
Van +
-j5 j10
-
Vcn Vbn -j5 -j5 j10 j10
+- -+ 2c 2b 3b
3c
1c 1b j2.5 j5

j2.5 j5
• 1-phase diagram

IS
j2.5 j5
1a 2a 3a

+
Van = 1Ð - 30° -
-j5 j10

IS =
Van
Z eq = j 2.5 +
( j10 + j5)(- j5)
Z eq ( j10 + j5) + (- j5)
V2 a = Van - j 2.5 ´ I S We will use this to calculate IC
Symmetrical components method

• The method of symmetrical components, first developed by

Fortescue in 1918, is a powerful technique for analyzing
unbalanced three-phase systems.
• Fortescue defined a linear transformation from phase
components to a new set of components called symmetrical
components.
• The advantage of this transformation is that for balanced
three-phase networks the equivalent circuit obtained for the
symmetrical components , called sequence networks, are
separated into three uncoupled networks

51
Symmetrical components method

•Symmetrical components can be used to determine any

unbalanced three-phase current (Ia, Ib and Ic) and three-phase
voltage (Va, Vb and Vc):
ØPositive sequence components (1): three phasors with equal
magnitude, b lagging a 120° and c lagging b 120° (clockwise a-
b-c).
ØNegative sequence components (2): three phasors with equal
magnitude, b leading a 120° and c leading b 120° (counter
clockwise a-b-c).
ØZero sequence components (0): three phasors with equal
magnitude, and with zero phase displacement (in phase).

52
Symmetrical components method

Balanced positive sequence three-phase systems only

have positive sequence components, negative and zero
sequence components are zero.

53
Symmetrical components method
• For three-phase voltages Va, Vb and Vc, we will only use phase a positive,
negative and zero sequence components Va1, Va2, and Va0, but call them V1,
V2, and V0.
• a-b-c and 1-2-0 transformation for three-phase voltages Va, Vb and Vc:

éVa ù é1 1 1 ù éV0 ù ìVa = V0 + V1 + V2

êV ú = ê1 a 2 ï
ê bú ê a úú êêV1 úú Þ íVb = V0 + a 2V1 + aV2
êëVc úû êë1 a a 2 úû êëV2 úû ïîVc = V0 + aV1 + a 2V2
where
a = 1Ð120°, a 2 = 1Ð120°×1Ð120° = 1Ð240°
j120°
a=e
1 + a + a2 = 0
54
Symmetrical components method

ì éVa ù é1 1 1 ù éV0 ù
ïê ú ê
ï êVb ú = ê1 a2 a úú êêV1 úú Vabc = TV012
é1 1 1ù
ïïëêVc ûú ëê1 a a 2 ûú ëêV2 ûú
T = êê1 a 2 ú
aúÞí
ï é I a ù é1 1 1 ù é I0 ù
êë1 a a úû
2
ï ê I ú = ê1 a2 a úú êê I1 úú I abc = TI 012
ïê b ú ê
ïî êë I c úû êë1 a a 2 úû êë I 2 úû

55
Symmetrical components method

56
 Symmetrical components method

ì éV0 ù é1 1 1 ù éVa ù
ïê ú 1 ê
ï ê V1 ú = ê1 a a 2 úú êêVb úú V012 = T -1Vabc
é1 1 1ù 3
1 ïïëêV2 ûú ëê1 a2 a ûú ëêVc ûú
T -1 = êê1 a 2ú
a úÞí
3 ï é I0 ù é1 1 1 ù é Ia ù
êë1 a 2 a úû
ï ê I ú = 1 ê1 a a 2 úú êê I b úú I 012 = T -1I abc
ïê 1 ú 3 ê
ïî êë I 2 úû êë1 a2 a úû êë I c úû

57
Symmetrical components method

• a-b-c and 1-2-0 transformation For three-phase voltages Va, Vb

and Vc:
ì 1
ï 0 3 (Va + Vb + Vc )
V =
éV0 ù é1 1 1 ù éVa ù ï
êV ú = 1 ê1 a ï 1
ê 1ú 3ê a 2 úú êêVb úú Þ íV1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc )
ï 3
êëV2 úû êë1 a 2 a úû êëVc úû
ï 1
V =
ï 2 3 a
î
(V + a 2
Vb + aVc )

• There is no zero sequence component in a balanced three-

phase system:
1
V0 = (Va + Vb + Vc ) = 0
3
1
I0 = ( I a + I b + I c ) Þ I n = 3I 0
3
58
Symmetrical components method
• The negative sequence is

1
V2 = (Va + a 2Vb + aVc )
3
Va = Ve j 0° , Vb = Ve - j120° , Vc = Ve - j 240°
1
V2 = (Ve j 0° + a 2Ve - j120° + aVe - j 240° )
3
1
= (Ve j 0° + e j 240°Ve - j120° + e j120°Ve - j 240° )
3
V j 0°
= ( e + e j120° + e - j120° )
3
=0
59
• Positive Sequence

1
V1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc )
3
1
= (Ve j 0° + aVe - j120° + a 2Ve - j 240° )
3
1
= (Ve j 0° + e j 240°Ve j120° + e j120°Ve j 240° )
3
V j 0°
= ( e + e j 0° + e j 0° )
3
= Ve j 0° = Va

60
Example – Reverse Sequence
• A Y-connected load has balanced currents with acb sequence given by:

é I a ù é10Ð0° ù
I abc ê ú ê
= ê I b ú = ê10Ð + 120°ú Aú
êë I c úû êë10Ð - 120° úû
• Calculate the sequence currents.

1
I 0 = [10Ð0° + 10Ð120° + 10Ð - 120°] = 0
3
1
I1 = [10Ð0° + 10Ð(120° + 120°) + 10Ð(-120° + 240°) ] = 0
3
1
I 2 = [10Ð0° + 10Ð(120° + 240°) + 10Ð(-120° + 120°) ] = 10Ð0° = I a
3

61
 Example – Unbalanced System
• A three-phase line feeding a balanced-Y load has one of its phases (phase b)
open. The load neutral is grounded, and the unbalanced line currents are

é I a ù é10Ð0° ù
I abc = êê I b úú = êê0 ú A
ú
êë I c úû êë10Ð120°úû
• Calculate the sequence currents and the neutral current.

1
I 0 = [10Ð0° + 0 + 10Ð120°] = 3.333Ð60° A
3
I n = (10Ð0° + 0 + 10Ð120° )
1
I1 = [10Ð0° + 0 + 10Ð(120° + 240°) ] = 6.667Ð0° A = 10Ð60° = 3I 0
3
1
I 2 = [10Ð0° + 0 + 10Ð(120° + 120°) ] = 3.333Ð - 60° A
3

62
Impedance loads
• Balanced impedance load: the impedance of each phase is the same.
• A balanced Y-connected impedance load:

Vag = ZY I a + Z n I n
= ZY I a + Z n ( I a + I b + I c )
= ( ZY + Z n ) I a + Z n I b + Z n I c

63
Impedance loads

Vbg = ZY I b + Z n I n = ZY I b + Z n ( I a + I b + I c ) = Z n I a + ( ZY + Z n ) I b + Z n I c
Vcg = ZY I c + Z n I n = ZY I c + Z n ( I a + I b + I c ) = Z n I a + Z n I b + (ZY + Z n ) I c

éVag ù é( ZY + Z n ) Zn Zn ù é Ia ù
ê ú ê ú êI ú
V =
ê bg ú ê Z n ( Z Y + Z n ) Z n úê bú
êVcg ú êë Z n Zn ( ZY + Z n ) úû êë I c úû
ë û

64
Impedance loads

é ( ZY + Z n ) Zn Zn ù
Z abc = êê Z n ( ZY + Z n ) Z n úú
êë Z n Zn ( ZY + Z n ) úû
Vabc = Z abc I abc
Vabc = TV012
I abc = TI 012

TV012 = Z abcTI 012

V012 = T -1Z abcTI 012

65
 Impedance loads

V012 = Z 012 I 012

where Z 012 = T -1Z abcT

The impedance matrix Z012 is called the sequence impedance matrix.

é1 1 1 ù é ( ZY + Z n ) Zn Z n ù é1 1 1ù
1
Z 012 = êê1 a a 2 úú êê Z n ( ZY + Z n ) Z n úú êê1 a 2 a úú
3
êë1 a 2 a úû êë Z n Zn ( ZY + Z n ) úû êë1 a a 2 úû
é1 1 1 ù é ( Z Y + 3Z n ) Z Y ZY ù
1
= êê1 a a 2 úú êê( ZY + 3Z n ) a 2 ZY aZY úú
3
êë1 a 2 a úû êë( ZY + 3Z n ) aZY a 2 ZY úû
é ( ZY + 3Z n ) 0 0ù
= êê 0 ZY 0 úú
êë 0 0 ZY úû
66
Impedance loads

éV0 ù é( ZY + 3Z n ) 0 0 ù é I0 ù
êV ú = ê 0 ZY 0 úú êê I1 úú
ê 1ú ê
êëV2 úû êë 0 0 ZY úû êë I 2 úû
V0 = ( ZY + 3Z n ) I 0 = Z 0 I 0
V1 = ZY I1 = Z1 I1
V2 = ZY I 2 = Z 2 I 2

• Positive sequence impedance: Z1 = ZY

• Negative sequence impedance: Z2 = ZY
• Zero sequence impedance: Z0 = ZY+3Zn

67
Sequence networks (Y grounded by Zn)

• Positive and negative sequence

currents do not flow in the neutral
impedance Zn.
• Only zero sequence current flows
in the neutral impedance Zn.

68
 Sequence networks (Y connection)

When Y ungrounded, zero sequence current cannot flow.

When Y solidly grounded, zero sequence current can flow.

69
Sequence networks (∆ connection)

70
Example balanced-Y and balanced-∆ loads
• A balanced-Y load is in parallel with a balanced-∆-connected capacitor bank.
The Y load has an impedance ZY = (3 + j4) Ω per phase, and its neutral is
grounded through an inductive reactance Xn = 2 Ω. The capacitor bank has a
reactance Xc = 30 Ω per phase. Draw the sequence networks for this load
and calculate the load-sequence impedances.

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72
Instrument Transformers
• Transformer Polarity

73
Phase Shifts in Transformers
• Transformers may be connected in a variety of configurations, especially
those with multiple windings. The connection configuration may introduce a
phase shift between the various sides of the transformer. This phase shift
should be accounted for in any application.

74
 Three-Phase Voltage

• Line-line voltage:Vab , Vbc ,Vca Also called phase-phase voltage

• Line-neutral voltage: Van , Vbn , Vcn

• KVL: Vab = Van - Vbn = 3VanÐ30° VLine -Line = 3 VLine -neutral
Ia
+
A + - Vbn Vab
Van Vcn
- Vab
n n Van
B C Ic
Ib Vbn
-

• Voltage is given as line-line voltage by convention75

Analog Zero Sequence Waveform Synthesis

76
Analog Positive/Negative Sequence Waveform Synthesis

77
Analog Positive/Negative Sequence Waveform Synthesis

ì 1
ï 0 3 (Va + Vb + Vc )
V =
éV0 ù é1 1 1 ù éVa ù ï
êV ú = 1 ê1 a ï 1
ê 1ú 3ê a 2 úú êêVb úú Þ íV1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc )
3
êëV2 úû êë1 a 2 a úû êëVc úû ï
ï 1
ï
î
V2 =
3
(Va + a 2
Vb + aVc )

j120° 1 3
a=e = cos120° + j sin120° = - + j
2 2
1 3
a =e
2 - j120°
= cos ( -120 ) + j sin ( -120 ) = - -
° °
j
2 2
78
Analog Positive/Negative Sequence Waveform Synthesis

79
Network Solutions
• Nodal Analysis
• Nodal analysis is a powerful method for circuit analysis. It applies to any
circuit consisting of passive elements and current sources.

Example: Figure Below illustrates a three-phase power system which

consists of a wye connected source, a delta connected motor, a delta
connected load, and two transmission lines. For simplicity the internal
impedance of both source and motor is assumed to be zero.

80
Nodal Analysis

81
82
83
Loop Analysis
Consider the example problem, compute the same quantities using loop
analysis

84
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