Clinical Optics and Refraction A Guide for Optometrists, Contact Lens Opticians and Dispensing OpticiansContributors viii Preface ix Acknowledgements xi Part | Optics of the Eye, Ametropia and its Correction Chapter | Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter <} Chapter 5 Chapter 5 Chapter / eS Chapter Chapter !) Chapter | 1) Background Optical Principles 2 Schematic Eyes, Emmetropia and Ametropia 20 Emmetropia and Ametropia 25 The Correction of Spherical Ametropia 31 The Basic Retinal Image 43 Spectacle Magnification and the Corrected Retinal Image 49 Astigmatism 56 Retinoscopy 71 Visual Acuity and the Measurement of Visual Function 88 Subjective Refraction: Principles and Techniques for the Correction of Spherical Ametropia 10!‘Chapter contents + Refractive index * Relrsetion = Wergence = Sign convention + Surface curvature and surface power + The caleulstion of surface power + Thin lens power = Thin lens form ‘The fundamental paraxial equation = Lens sysvems and thick lenses + Ray-tracing + Stop-baek ray-sracing = The equivalent thin lens = The nodal points Refractive index Much of the theory relating to optics, ophthal- mic lenses and visual apticsis based on the laws of refraction and reflection. Basically, light is considered to travel in straight lines, called rays, until it meets a polished surface separating two transparent media, e.g, a spectacle lens. When light is ineident at such a surface, some is reflected but most is refracted at the surface and passes into the new medium, The percentage of light that undergoes reflection depends on the refractive index of the medium and the light that is refracted undergoes a change in velocity. This change in velocity is important because the ratios of the velocities in the first and second media are used to define refractive index. As is ‘often the case, there are several variations to understand. Absolute refractive index is given the symbol 1 and is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light ina vacuum to the velocity of light in the mecium. The velocity of light in a vacuum is inter- nationally recognised as 209792.458kms". As refractive index is a ratio, it is not given a unit. The refractive index ofa particular material, e.g. ass, is given by: 9, — Nelocity of light in vacuum ==" Velocity of light in glass The refractive index of the glass would be given the symbol 1, the subscript ¢ denoting glass. Again, as refractive index is a ratio, it is, not given a unit,Although the absolute refractive index of air is 1.00029, it is generally acceptable to state that the refractive index of air is 1.0, When fight passes from one optical medium to another, eg, from air to glass, glass to water, the refrac tive effect is the result of the ratio of the velocity of light in ane medium divided by the velocity of light in the other. This ratio defines the term relative refractive index (Figure 1.1). Typical refractive index values are given in Table 1.1, So what is the importance of refractive index in optometric practice? Essentially, the refractive index of a lens material has a major influence on the appearance and thickness of a lens. In general terms, the higher the refractive index, the thinner the lens, This is achieved by the fact that a lens made using a higher Table 1.1 Typical refractive index vahies Relesetion —Trahepavnt mec (09 gles) surounded tyanoher eoneparent mecium (29 af) ——— Fest Feat Figure 1.1 A ray of light is incident ae the surface of a glass block (fast) passes through (slow) and emerges (fast) from the block The ratio of the velocities determines the refractive index of the glass. The incident light iz ascumed to be travelling from left t0 right refractive index material requires flatter curves to produce the required power when compared with a lower refractive index material, Flatter curves mean smaller sags and ultimately a thinner lens. The definitions of refractive index given above were, in fact, somewhat simplified. Strictly speaking, refractive index is defined as the ratio of the Velocity of light of a given fre- quency in air to the velocity of the same frequency in the refracting medium. The use of the word frequeney means that this definition includes a reference to the wavelength of the light used to determine the refractive index. It is therefore important to note that the refractive index of an optical material varies with the wavelength of light used, This is illustrated in Figure 12, When stating the refractive index of a lens material, ophthalmic lens manufacturers com- monly use two wavelengths: The helium d-line (wavelength 587.62) is used in the UK and the USA whereas the mercury e-line (wavelength 546..1nm) is used in continental Europe. For crown glass, the d-line produces a refractive index of 1.523, whereas the e-line gives a refrac tive index of 1.525 (Table 1.2), The materials are of course identical. When working in optomet- ric practice it is therefore important to know to which wavelength a particular manufacturer is Visible spectrum pe 36 ‘Yellow igh $87.0 nm) ny = 1.500 Redlight (65630) m= 1498 Blunfight (486 erm) ny = 1505 Figure 1.2 The refractive index of a material varies with the wavelength of the incident light.A macerial will display many refractive indices, depending on the wavelength ured,Table 1.2 Refractive index of various glasses Material me ne 15 white 523 1.525 Ve white 1.600 1.604 17 white 1,700 1.705 18 white 1.902 1.807 1? white 1.985 1.892 “The refractive index of a material varie with the wavelength of the fncidere igh. Table 1.3 The chssificacion of refractive index ‘Normal index 148 but < 1.54 PMidsindex. 154 bur < Let High index 164 bur < 174 Nery high index 1.74 and above From BS 7394 Part 2: Specification for prescription spectacles. working, Strictly speaking, all the values given in Table 1.1 should have a stated wave- length, eg. 11, = 1.523. The classification of mate- rials in terms of refractive index is given in Table 1.3, Refraction ‘When light is incident obliquely at the bound- ary of a plane surface separating two media with different refractive indices, its direction changes on passing from the first medium into the second. This change in direction is caused by the change in the velocity of the refracted light asiit enters the new medium and is known as refraction; the surface being referred to as a refracting surface, In Figure 1.3 the angle i is known as the angle of incidence and the angle J is the angle of refraction. The angle of inci dence i of the refracting surface is the angle contained between the ray of light at the point of ineidence and the normal (or perpendicular) to the surface at that point, The angle of refrac tion #' is the angle contained between the ray of light in the second medium at the point where the light enters this medium, and the normal to 4 the refracting surface at that point. Snell’s Law Normal tothe sustace is thareocive nda ofthe mec Figure 1.3 Refraction at a plane surface. is a statement relating the angles of incidence and refraction, and the rofractive indices of the two media, and may be stated as follows: ‘The incident and refracted rays and the normal to the surface at the p of incidence lie in the one plane on opposite sides of the normal and the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant for any two media for light of any one wavelength In other words: Snell’s lav is one of the most important laws in geometrical optics and although Figure 1.3 illustrates refraction at a plane Surface, Snell's law also holds good for curved surfaces because the point of incidence by light on a curved surface may be considered as a minute plane surface. By means of Snell's law and the appli- cation of geometry, the effect of lenses and pri s can be determined, Vergence The term vergence, symbol |. (or, morecotrectly, recluced vergence), is used to describe the cur- vature of a wavefront incident at a refracting, surface. A spectacle lens is often described as a device for altering the vergence of light trans- mitted by the lens to the eye. When discussing, the concept of vergence, three common terms are used: parallel light, divergence and conver gence (Figures 14-16). Figure 14 shows adiverging pencil of light. The group of rays (or pencil of light) arising from a point source becomes larger as it gets further away from the source, Light in this pencil is divergent. Figure 16 shows convergent light as the pencil illus- trated in the diagram is getting smaller along, the direction of the light up to point £”, Beyond F the pencil becomes divergent. Parallel light is, illustrated in Figure 15. Figure 1.4 Divergent (from F). (After Freeman and Hull 2003, with permission of Elsevier Led) igure 1.5 Parallel. (Afcer Freeman and Hull 2003, with permission of Elsevier Ltd) e Figure 1.6 Convergent (up to F). (After Freeman and Hull 2003, with permission of Elsevier Led.) Sign convention To calculate the positions of objects and images, it is necessary to adopt a standard way of mea- suring distancesand angles. Objects and images that ate-in front of a lens or mirror have to- be: distinguished fram those that are behind, This can be achieved by the use of positive and nega tive signs. In ophthalmic optics all measure- ments follow the Cartesian sign convention; the following are the main points: * Distances are measured from the reference point or plane (lens, refracting surface, mirror etc.) fo the point in question. © Light is assumed to travel from left to right. + All measurements are taken from the lens, mirror or surface. Measurements to the left of the lens, mirror or surface are megatize, and those to the right of the lens, mirror or surface are positive. + All measurements are taken from the axis, Measurements taken to objects below the axis are megalite and those taken to objects above the axis are positive. © Angle measurements are taken front the ray to the axis where clackwisé angles are megative and anticlockwise angles positive. The optical sign convention is illustrated in Figure 1.7 in which aspherical refracting surface is receiving light from an object O, In this illus tration, the object distance ! is measured from the surface toO and has a negatize value because is to the left of the surface, whereas the radius of curvature r has a positive value because C is to the right of the surface Surface curvature and surface power Aplane oroptically flat surface may be described asa surface where normals at all points on it ie parallel to each other, whereas a spherical surface is one where all normals pass through a single point. Most optical elements (including, the eye) have curved surfaces that can be 5Figure 1.7 Sign convention. (After Freeman and Hull 2003, with permission of Elsevier Ltd) described as either convex or concave. The optical effect of a curved surface is to alter the vergence of incident light. The optical effects of curved surfaces are described in terms of their surface power and the power of a curved surface can be described as ‘the vergence that ‘the surface impresses on incident light’, or ‘how the surface changes the vergence of incident ight’ It is important to note that these dese: tions apply to both lenses and the eye. Ophthal- mic prisms as commonly found in an optometrist’s trial case have plane surfaces. Such devices alter the direction but not the ver- gence of incident light. The power of any curved surface depends on two Factors: 1. The refractive index of the material used to form the curved surface 2. The radius of curvature of the curved surface. ‘Once again, the above applies to both lenses art the eye. In their simplest from, curved surfaces are considered to be part of a spherical surface (Figure 1.8). Spherical surfaces are either convex or concave to incident light, A convex surface causes parallel incielent light to become conver- gent (Figure 19}, whereas a concave suriace causes parallel incident light ta become diver- gent (Figure 1.10). I is important to note that a spherical surface has the same cur- valure (and therefore power) in all meridians 6 (Figure 1.11), > JS Figure 1.8 The sphore:a spherical surface has the same curvature (shape) along all meridians. CCorvergent emergent ight Pra ncdent it ‘The surtace is carver tone igh Figure 1.9 The converging effect of a convex refracting surface,Paral inidere ght “Thosurace is concave toinidert ight Figure 1.19 The diverging effect of a concavo refracting surface, Figure 1.11 A spherical surface has the same curvature in all meridians: rand r; have the same length but, according to the optical sign convention. ; is positive (because C is to the right of the surface and r; is negative because C Is to the left of the surface) The calculation of surface power A spectacle lens always consists of two surfaces, one of which must be curved. Light is assumed to be incident at the front surface of the lens (the surface away from the eye) and leaves the back surface (the surface facing the eye). Light assumed to travel from left to right Front surface power The power of the front surface of a spectacle ens can be calculated using the equation: won hi where: * Fis the power of the front surface of the lens in dlioptres (D) © is the refractive index of the lens material * ris the refractive index of the surrounding medium * ris the radius of curvature of the front surface of the lens in metres, Back surface power The power of the back surface of a spectacle lens can be calculated using the equation: now Be where: * Fr is the power of the back surface of the lens in dioptres, © is the refractive index of the lens material + ris the refractive index of the surrounding, medium s the radius of curvature of the back surface of the lens in metres. When dealing with ophthalmic lenses, 1 usually taken to be the refractive index of air and is given a value of 1.00. However, this is often not the case when dealing with the eye: and care must be taken when substituting values into equations. When using the surface power equations given above, the value for r must be substituted in metres and given the appropriate sign (+ or -). Always ensure that n and 1 are in the correct order forthe required surface power. Remember that 1’ is the refractive index that the light is about to enter and 1 the refractive index that the light is about to learw. The above surface power equations can be applied to the surfaces of spectacle lenses and the various refracting, surfaces of the eye. The SI unit for the surface power of a spectacle lens is the dioptre, which is also the unit usec! when describing the power of the eye,Thin lens power A spectacle lens has two surfaces, the front surface, F; (the most positive value), which is taken to be the surface facing away from the eye, and the back surface, F, (the most negative value), which is taken to be the surface next to the eye. [Fthe two surfaces are assumed to be in close contact, the thickness of the lens can be ignored and the spectacle lens is referred to as athin lens. The power ofa thin lens, , is simply given by the sum of its surface powers, ie. Foh+h ‘The unit for both surface and lens power is again the dioptre (D). Thin lens form If the thickness of a lens is ignored, the total thin lens power of the lens is simply the sum of its surface powers, As an example, if a lens has a front surface power of +6.00Dand a backsurface power of -2.00D, then the sum of the surface powers and therefore its thin lens power is +4,00D. These stated surface powers determine the form of the lens. In theory, this +4.00 lens could be made in any form. The fundamental paraxial equation ‘Thin lenses, thick lenses, lens systems, mirrors and single refracting surfaces all, in some way, form an image of an object. In the study of visual optics it is often necessary to determine mn of an image formed by stich optical n discusses the use of the fundamental paraxial equation, which can be to thin lenses {and mirrors) as well as a single refracting surface. Thick lenses and complex systems require a different approach and are considered later, The word paraxial refers to a restricted region of a curved surface where only rays near the axis form the image. This ‘restriction’ of the aperture of a curved surlace, so that only rays near the axis form the ‘image, is a simple ‘cure’ for a defect in the imaging properties of the surface known as 8 spherical aberration. This restricted region is known as the paraxial region and rays within this region are known as paraxial rays. For such, rays, the angles of incidence and refraction are small and it is possible to calculate the positions of images using approximate expressions with- out incurring major errors. The fundamental paraxial equation is: LsL+k where: * Lis the incident vergence arriving at the surface from an abject (object vergence) © Fis the power of the thin lens or single refracting surface + Lis the vergence leaving the surface, which goes on to form the image (image vergence). iven by: where Fis the object distance (in metres) and» is the refractive index of the medium containing the object. If the abject is placed in air theexpres- sion becomes: 1 bey If the object distance is required and the object vergence known, the above can be rewritten and if the object is in air the above expression becomes: ‘The process of changing from an object dis- tance to an object vergence is therefore very straightforward, If Land Fare known, the image vergence L’ can be found using the fundamental paraxial equation given above, The image posi- tion "can then be found using the expression;where 1" is the refractive index of the medium containing the image or: vd rep if the image is formed in air, Example 1.1 An on-axis object is placed 50 u Ii =d (step-along) The terms used in the step-along procedure are given below: + Lis the vergence of light (D) incident at the first (front) surface of a lens © Lj is the vergence of light (D) leaving the first (front) surface of a lens * dis the distance between the surfaces of a Jens system (m) and is always positive; in the case of a thick lens ¢ is the centre or axial thickness (m) © 11s the refractive index of the medium separating, the two surfaces; in the case of a thick lens, n! is the refractive index of the Jens material * Lzis the vergence of light (D) incident at the second (back) surface of a lens * Lois the vergence of light (D) leaving the second (back) surface of a lens. If parallel light (L, = 0) is incident at the fizst surface of a thick lens of lens system, then the vergence leaving its second surface (L) is equiv- alent to the BYP of the thick lens or lens system, If the system of thick lens is reversed so that parallel light (L, = 0) is incident at the second surface of the lens (F,), then the vergence leaving, its second surface (L!) is equivalent to the EVP of the thick lens or lens system. Example 1.3 Two thin lenses in air are used te form a lens system. The two thin lenses are in alr (n= 1) andare separated by a distance of 20mm. F, 48.00 D and F; =—5.00D. Assuming a distant object, calculate the back and front vertex Powers of the thin lens system, Refer to igure 1.12. Both vertex powers can be calculated using a step-along ray-trace: Vergences (D) 1, =0.00 +8,00D Li =L.+F,=+800D 3 Distances (m) B Ly = 49.52 + (-5.00) = +4.52D As L, = 0.00, Ls= BYP = +4.52D ‘The BVP of this thin lens system in air is therefore +4.52D. The usual symbol for BYP is FS and n/F, gives a distance known as the back vertex focal length (symbol !). This distance is measured ty=0000 : & BP Figure 1.12 Diagram for the back vertex power (BVP) from the final lens (or back surface of a thick lens) to the image formed by the lens or lens. system. The FVP isalso found using a step-along ray trace, but this time with the system reversed. Parallel light is now incident at the second surface (F:) and leaves the first surface, Refer to Figure 1.13. Vergences (D} 1, = 0.00 Distances (m) = 4.54 + (48.00) = +3.45D As L, = 0.00, Li = FVP =+345D The FVP of this thin fens system in air is therefore 43.45 D. The usual symbol for FYP is F. and -n/F,, gives a distance known as the front vertex focal length (symbol f.). The minus sign is necessary F,=-5000 208000 tomo er & Figure 1.13 Diagram for the front vertex power (FVP): system reverteda because the ray trace was performed with the lenses reversed. This distance is measured from the first lens (or front surface) to the image formed by the lens or lens system, As always, if a vertex power or vertex focal length is given, parallel incident light is assumed Please note that the only time a lens or a lens system is reversed in this way is when the FVP is required. You are not required to calculate a EVP very often in visual optics. Step-along ray: tracing can also be used to find the back surface power of a thick lens or lens system Example 1.4 A thin lens system consists of two thin lenses in air separated by a distance of 8mm. The BVP of the system is +5.00D and the power of the firet thin lens (Fi) is $8.00. Find the power of the second thin lens (F). As always, if'a vertex power is specified a dis- tance object is assumed, and if parallel light {L; =0) is incident at the first surface of the lens the vergence leaving its second surface (L!) is, equivalent to its BVP. Ray-tracing takes us from. ‘one side of a lens (or a lens system) to the other and step-along takes us from left to right, In this example, the unknown walue (F,) is to the left of the system soa step-along ray-trace is required. iways, the computation takes place in two ‘Vergences (D) Distanees (m) b=0.00 F,=4800D Li ="-d 0.008 = +0.117 m Fz = 45.00 ~ (48.55) = The back surface power of this thin lenssystem in air is therefore -3.55D. Step-back ray-tracing The technique of step-back ray-tracing takes us from right to left and is used when the unknown value is situated to the left of a lens or lens system. It does stat require the system to be reversed. A revision of the procedure for step= back ray tracing is given below. As before, the calculation takes place using, two columns, one for vergences (D) and one for distances (mm): Vergences (D) Distances (m) Example 1.5 A lens system consists of two thin lentes in alr separated by a distance of 10mm. The BYP of the system Is -6.00D and the power of the second thin lens (F,) is -10.00D. Find the power of the first thin lens, F,.Assumo a distance object. Aswithall lens system and thick lens problems, if parallel light (L, = 0) is incident at the first surface of the lens, the vergence leaving its second surface (1!) is equivalent to its BVP. Remember that ray-tracing is simply a method of getting from one side of a lens (or a Tens system) to the other and that there are two ray- tracing procedures: step-along and step-back. Step-along takes us from left to right, whereas step-back takes us from right to Teft. In this problem the unknown value (F)) is to the deft of the system So the ‘tool’ to solve the problem is therefore step-back. As usual, the calculation takes place in two columns: Vergences (D) Distances (m) Li = -6.00D Ly=L-F; 6.00 ~ (-10.00) = +4.00 L=400D > hk 0.250m +4.00 I+ d (step-back)fj =+0.250+0.010 = As Ly = 0.00, Li =F; F,=43.85D The front surface power of the lens system is, therefore +3.85D. The above examples have both rised a system of separated thin lenses in ait, However, if the vertex powers or surface powers of a thick lens are required, the ray tracing procedure is almost identical. The only difference is that for a thick lens, the equivalent air distance (EAD) t/n is used for the separation or distance between the two surfaces instead of d, The EAD is also known as the reduced distance and is as usual stated in metres. The equivalent air distance is, simply given by: t EAD " If the EAD is used the refractive index between the two surfaces can be assumed to be the same as air (1 = 1). This approach can sim- plify ray-tracing with a thick lens and is espe- cially useful when ray-tracing through multiple surfaces. The equivalent thin lens The optical effect of any thick lens or lens system can be replaced by an equivalent thin lens, 2, 4 which is an imaginary lens and does not really exist! Figure 1.14 shows parallel light being, refracted by a thick lens, As the lens is thick there are two distinct refractions; D; and D:, for the light coming from the distant object before it intersects with the axis at point F’, the second prineipal focus, By extending the ray paths as shown in Figure 1.14, it can be seen that these two refractions are equivalent toa single refrac tion, taking place at H’, This suggests the idea. that a lens, placed in the plane of H’, performs the same function as the thick lens, i.e. mimics the BYP and produces a focus at F’. This equiva- Jent thin lens can be seen in Figure Ld te have an equivalent focal length f and therefore has an equivalent pawer Fy. HP’ is known as the second principal plane and P* the second prin- cipal point. The distance Az?” is usually given. the symbol e’. In Figure 1.14 f, is the back vertex focal length. Figure 1.15 shows the same thick lens, this time with an object placed at the first principal focus F. As before, light arising from the abject has two refractions at the actual lens surfaces. Once again, the ray paths can be extended to- show the position of the equivalent refraction, H, A thin lens placed in the in plane of H dupli- cates the effect of the FVP. The position HP of the equivalent thin lens is called the first prin- cipal plane and P is the first principal point, As long as the refractive indices in front of and behind the thick lens or system are the same, the equivalent focal length fi is the same value as ff but of eppasite sign. The equivalent power Ds Figure 1.14 Thick lons:cistans object. (After Freeman and Hull 2003, with permission of Elsevier Led)> k Figure 1.15 Thick lens: distant image. (After Freeman and Hull 2003, with permission of Elsevier Ltd) also the same as before. The distance A,P is usually given the symbol e. In Figure 1.15 fois the front vertex focal length. ‘There are several methods of calculating the power of the equivalent thin lens. For a two-lens system u R=Rxy- or +B dF For a thick lens 4 Rene Ree hth (t/whh For a multi-lens system The equation above can be extended to include further vergences, It is suggested that the ver- gences in the equations be taken from the BYP. step-along computation 1g. p._Ie second equivalent focal length fis given by: ‘The first equivalent focal length fe is given by: The position of the second principal point AP" is given by: ADP = fl- fee The position of the first principal point A\P is given by AP. The nodal points When dealing with a thick lens or lens system there are two final items to consider: the nadal points. The nodal points of a thick lens or thin lens system are equivalent to the optical centre ofa thin lens. Ifa ray of light is directed towards the first nodal point (N) ofa thick lens orsystem, it emerges as if from the second nodal point (N’) and parallel to the original incident ray. If the refractive index in front of the system is the same as the refractive index behind the system, the nodal points and the principal points coin- cide, ie, N coincides with P and N’ with P* if m= If the refractive indices on either side of a thick Jens or system are not equal, the twoequivalent thin lens focal lengths ff and fare of different magnitudes. This leads to the nodal pointsand the principal points being separated. If n #1 the nodal points are always displaced towards the medium with the higher refractive index. The displacement of the nodal points is, given by: PN= YN’ = f+ fe To summarise the preceding materialon thick lenses and systems of separated thin lenses, we have essentially reviewed the calculation of six individual points. Collectively, these are known as the eardinal points and are listed in Table 14, Example 1.6 A system of two thin lentes in air ie specified a follows: Find: The back and front vertex powers ‘The equivalent thin lens power The positions of the principal and nodal points. ly straightforward example because the refractive indices in front, behind and in between the lenses are all the same as the system in air (11= 1.00). Both vertex powers can be calculated using a step-along ray trace. Refer to Figure 1.12. The first step is to find the BYP; Table 14 The cardinal poines Vergences (Dy Distances (m) Ly = 0.00 Fy,=41250D Lis +f.=41250D 3 nea B= pgp 100m held +0.08 - 0.05 = +0.03m Lf = 433.33 + (-28.00) = +5.33D As L,=0.00,Li=BVP Fi =45.33D The BVP of this thin Tens system in air is therefore +5.33D. The back vertex focal length of the system is given by: wot sea 875m The FVP is also found by using a step-along, ray-trace but with the system reversed, Parallel light is now incident at the second surface (F:) and leaves the first surface, Refer to. Figure 1.13, Vergences (D) Distances (mi) 1, = 0.00 F,= 28000 i= Lit Fr=-28.00D > i=, uy Name Symbol ‘Comment ' Front vertex focal point E Position is specified by stating the distance f, 2 Back vertex focal point R Position is specified by stating the distance f, a Firse principal poine . Position is specified by stating the distance & 4 Second principal point Pr Position is specified by stating the distance ” 5 Firse nodal point N ‘Will coincide with P and Pita = a? Ifme nt, M and N’ are displaced cowards the higher refractive indexLe=Z © kp=-00357— 0.0500 = -0.0857m 1 2s = -1167D. 0.0857 IaL+F, Lf =-11.67 + (412.50) = +083D. As L,=0.00,L}=FVP F,=4083D ‘The FVP of this thin lens system in air is there- fore +0.83D, The front vortex focal longth of the system is given by: used because the system was (The minus sigh reversed.) The power of the equivalent thin lens can be found using the expression: iain L Taking values from the BVP ray-trace: Fe= 412.50 1533 333.33 2.00D The seconel equivalent focal length fz is given by: n As the system is in ait: = 10.50m fl= 42.00 The first equivalent focal length f- is given = fer FR ‘And again as the system is in air: 1.00 = = 050m 3.00 The position of the second principal point AP" is given by: A,P's fi-fr=e ce” = 40.1875 (+0.5000)= -0.3125m_ The position of the first principal point A\P is given by e= 1.20 (40.50) 170m As the refractive indices in front of and behind the systemare thesame, the nodal points coincide with the principal points, ie. N' coin cides with P and N’ with P’. The cardinal points for this system are illustrated in Figure 1.16. Example 1.7 A thick biconvex lens has a front surface radius of +22.500mm and a back surface radius of 21.122 mm. The front surface is bounded by alr and the back surface by water with a refractive index of 1.333.The refractive index of the lens is 1.650 and ite centre thickness ie 6.6mm. Find: The powers of the two surfaces ‘The equivalent thin lens power The positions of the cardinal points This isa more complicated example because we have to deal with three refractive indices. Also, as a thick lens is given as opposed to a system of thin lenses, ifr must be used instead of tracing. Both vertex powers can be using a step-along ray-trace. The first task is to calculate the two surface powers. The radius of curvature r must be sub- stituted in metres and the appropriate sign used, Care must be exercised when using the given refractive indices! To find surface powers, we must use: neta" and h 1.650 1,000 0.082500)