CIRCULAR WORK in CARPENTRYand JOINERY Annotations and Illustrations by Karl ShumakerCIRCULAR WORK in CARPENTRY and JOINERY This republication of George Collings’ valuable study on circular ‘work offers the architect, carpenter and joiner a practical guide to work vation and restoration, complex, curved work has become more common, though often what passes for curved work is merely faceted work. Collings originally published Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery in 1886. The book met with immediate success and was re- printed numerous times. This updated version is taken from the Sth London edition of 1911. The original text has been its entirety to give the reader inaehe into some of the complex work required of the carpenter in the late nineteenth century. The original text has been anno- tated with over 240 new illustrations added by way of explanation and description. Collings discussesAND JOINERY by George Collings with Annotations and Illustrations by | Karl Shumaker CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY | Edited by Roger Holmes Linden Publishing Co. Fresno, California4689753 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY With Annotations and Illustrations ‘Copyright © 1992 by Linden Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the pub- lisher, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in reviews. Cover illustration by Karl Shumaker. Book production by Comp-Type, Inc., Fort Bragg, CA 95437. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Collings, George. Circular work in carpentry and joinery : a practical treatise on circular work of single and double curvature / by George Collings. 5th ed., reprinted with additions. p. cm. Originally published: London : Crosby Lockwood, 1911. ISBN 0-941936-22-8 (hardcover) 1. Carpentry. 2. Joinery. 3. Curves. I. Title. TH5608.7.C65 1992 694—de20 92-9358 CIP ISBN 0-941936-22-8 Originally published London, 1886 Reprinted with additions, 1992 LINDEN PUBLISHING CO., INC. 3845 N. Blackstone Fresno, CA 93726 In memory of S. Linden, 33 Craven Street, Strand, LondonForeword THE FINEST EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR WORK in carpentry are found in Georgian and Victorian period architecture. Classical forms were revived during these periods, and the craftsman had to translate into wood the forms that had previously been executed in stone. Techniques of layout were developed in England and passed along from master to apprentice over the decades. Towards the end of the 19th century, a taste for simpler forms with less adornment emerged. Thereafter, the modernist movement of the 1920s rejected all adornment. Rectilinear geometries and unbroken planes were in vogue. The Depres- sion put an economic stamp on the trend, and there was no longer any demand for acraftsman with the skills to execute the labor-intensive work in circular joinery that elaborate forms required. In the ensuing 60 years, the skills and techniques demanded by circular joinery all but disappeared, especially the layout methods of forms in double curvature. More recently, as interest in Victorian reproduction, turrets and rotundas have surfaced, carpenters have solved curvature problems by faceting the walls, thereby simplifying the framing difficulties posed by doors and windows with curved surfaces. With the republication of “Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery,” stop-gap methods of dealing with curved surfaces no longer need suffice. George Collings not only provides a wealth of information on circular woodwork, his book offers a peek at some of the finer levels of design in the Victorian vernacular. Because of this, his original text and illustrations are reproduced here without alteration. The annotations are intended to make Collings’ work more accessible to today’s woodworker. The material is presented sequentially, but the book is best used as a reference text to specific applications. While some of the geometry requires concentra- tion, the attentive reader will be amply rewarded. Karl Shumaker 1992 TlGeorge Collings Note on the Annotation Annotations are printed in the outside column alongside corresponding sections of the original text, wherever possible and, in any case, are preceded by the section number (in parenthesis) of the material they augment. Thus, page 15 contains annotations that refer to sections 32 and 34 of the original text. (There is no annotation to section 33 because the editor felt no further comment was necessary.) Because the length of the material varies, annotations and illustrations sometimes precede and sometimes follow the original text. Blank columns are occasionally introduced to allow the annotations and illustrations to catch up with the original text. Note on the Text Some knowledge of geometry is of the very first importance in work of double curvature. Indeed, without such knowledge, it is not possi- ble for any one, however good a mechanic he may _be in other respects, to execute with anything like accuracy a piece of work of this nature. George Collings Kent, England 1886CIRCULAR WORK CARPENTRY AND JOINERY A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CIRCULAR WORK OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE CURVATURE By GEORGE COLLINGS Avriton OF “A PRACTICAL TREATISN O8 MANDRATING" Ellustrated with numerous Diagrams: FIFTH EDITIONa Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery PREFACE. In submitting the following essay upon cir- cular work to the attention of persons engaged in the practice of Carpentry and Joinery, the Author has felt convinced that curved work generally, demanding as it largely does the aid of geometry for its elucidation, and being in a great measure totally different in practice from straight work, is of sufficient importance to be worthy of a separate treatise. Considering the number of men engaged in these trades, comparatively few can be regarded as adepts at circular work, either of single or double curvature. This no doubt is partly in consequence of the small quantity required as compared with the vast amount of straight work used in buildings. It may also be partly owing to the want of a natural aptitude in the ordinary run of workmen, a few only seeming to have a special talent for it from the very commencement of their apprenticeship, while the large majority, try as they may, never seem to be capable of executing a really well-finished piece of curved work. Proficiency, however, so far as the actual execution of the work is concerned, can only be acquired by careful practice; and the Author's more immediate object has been to explain as VIL clearly as possible the construction of moulds, and their mode of application so as to obtain the necessary twist, &e., in a variety of pieces of eurved work of both simple and complex curva- ture. The Author begs to say that he has either executed with his own hands, or has seen executed by other, examples of work similar to nearly every Flece described in the following pages, and can 3ouch for the accuracy of the various methods given for finding the different moulds, and of applying them in practice. It will be evident that the Author could hardly have produced the whole of the various methods herein described unaided, and he begs to acknow- ledge the assistance he has received from several sources, some of the volumes of Weale’s Series having afforded valuable aid. But the only instance in which he has borrowed in foto has been the methods for describing ellipses and Gothic-headed frames, from Newlands’ “Car- penter’s and Joiner's Assistant.” But while he here acknowledges his indebtedness to the above works, he begs to say that the methods borrowed have been described in his own language, and not in that of the books referred to. Dover Roan, Urrzz Wause, Kane, Tune, 1886,CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. 1. Circular Work defined .... 2. Simple Circular Work defined . 3. Example of ditto 4, Bull’s-eye Frame 5. Gothic-headed ditto 6, Wall Plates, Ridge, and Purlins . 7. Segmental-headed Frame . 8. Semi-circular Frame . 9. Bull’s-eye Frame .., 10. Semi-elliptical Frame . 11. Equilateral Gothic Frame . 12. Lancet-headed Frame 13. Drop-arch head ....... 14, Four-centred Gothic head . : 15. Thought and Practice required for this Work . . 16. Adjusting Work by the Eye .. 17. Use of Machines in Circular Worl 18. Work of Single Curvature ... 19. Work of Double Curvature .. . 20. Difference between Simple and Complex Circular Work ............. 21. Examples of Double Curvature ... PARTI, CIRCULAR WORK OF SIMPLE OR SINGLE CURVATURE. Solid-headed Frames. 22, Segment-headed Frame ........... 23. To find the Radius by Calculation . 24. To find the Radius Graphically ... 25. When a Number of Heads are Required . 26. Getting out Top rails of Doors ... . 27. Semicircular Solid-headed Frame . 28, Semicircular in Thicknesses .. 29. Semicircular with a Fanlight . . Elliptical Heads. 30. Semi-elliptical-headed Frames . 31. Methods of drawing an Ellipse 32. Methods of drawing an Ellipse 33. Example of Elliptical Arch ...... 34, Another Method of drawing an Ellipse . 35. Method of Ordinates a“ 36. Ellipse formed of Ci 37. Ellipse when both Diameters are given 2 38. Mould for lining out the Elliptical Head .... . 19 4% Abba www OL 39. To Construct the Cylinder for the Veneer WE AMO wscomarnncs wesnamuncicueenes cys... 20 41. To find the Shape of the Veneer by Geometry 21 Bull’s-eye Frames. 42. Bull's eye Frame with Sash hung on Centres 24 43. Bull's-eye Frame Louvred .. . ne 44, Shape of Louvre Ends ..., 45. To find Mould for Louvres, etc. 46. Application of Mould to ditto . . Gothic-headed Frames. 47. Gothic Frames for Doors and Windows ..... 34 48. Equilateral Frames for Doors and Windows . 36 49. Lancet Frames for Doors and Windows ..... 37 50. Lancet Frames for Doors and Windows .. . 51. Drop Arch Frames for Doors and Windows . . 39 52. Four-centred Gothic-headed Frame .. 53. Four-centred Gothic-headed Frame 54. Four-centred Gothic-headed Frame 55. Four-centred Gothic-headed Frame . . Cased Frames. 56. Segmental-headed Cased Frames .......,. 43 57. Cireular on Plan and Square-headed Cased FAME eee o- soe cmerinenn aris saan vate 43 58. Semicircular-headed Cased Frame, square inside ........ 0... 0000. c ccc cues 45 59. Semicircular-headed Cased Frame, circular inside .. +45 60. Linings of ditto . +47 61. Linings for Stopp: r .. 48 ie % 62. Splayed for Stopping Plaster .. -. 48 63. Geometrical Method of getting out Linings . . 49 64. Apparatus for Bending Bars, ete. .......... 50 Intersection Of Circular And Straight Mouldings, Easing-angles, Etc. 65. To find the Mitre of Circular and Straight Moulding of like Section . . 66. Line Perpendicular to Circ] 67. To draw Perpendicular to Circle . . 68. To find Section of Circular Moulding when Mitre is Straight 69. Ditto Raking Circular Cornice 70. Easing Angles ............. 71, Easing Angles first method . .. 72. Easing Angles second method . . . 3 = BSES BB a a—— a George Collings Circular Angle Brackets And Hip Rafters. 73. Angle Brackets or Ribs .. ‘74. Circular Hip Rafters .. 15. To find Angle Bracket in a Rectangular Room 76. Lining Edges of Brackets for Beveling .... . 77. To find Angle Bracket when one of the Walls is a Convex Curve . 78. To find Section for the Mould .. 79. To find Angle Bracket for Concave Wall . 80. Angle Bracket to Elliptical Cove .. 81. To find Circular Hip Rafter .. 82. Backing for Hip Rafter... 83. Backing for Hip Rafter . 84. To find Hip when the Curv: 85. To find Hip in a Pyramidal Roof with | Curved Sides: sccuciisnscagesswsss ence 70 86. To find the Covering for one Side of ditto .. .72 87. To find the Curvature and Backing of Hip in an Ogee Octagonal Roof . 88. To find the Covering of an Oge Roof . 89. Domes ........ 90. Apsidal Roofs i PART IL. COMPLEX CIRCULAR WORK, OR WORK OF DOUBLE CURVATURE. 91. Remarks on Methods of executing Work of Double Curvature 92. A Practised Eye essential . 93. A Knowledge of Geometry necessary 5 94. Solid Heads of Double Curvature .. 78 95. Lines to be used in setting out ditto . -80 96. General Observations on ditto............ 80 97. Number of Pieces used in Framing ditto ...80 98. To Construct a Solid Semicircular Head, Circular on Plan... ... 0. .eeseeeeeeeeeeee 81 99. To find a Mould for Lining out the Pieces in ditto 100. Jointing the Pieces in ditto .. 101. Working the Outer Side to the Curve in ditto 102. To Describe the Semicircle on ditto 103. To Work the Under Side of the Head ...... 104. Remaining Operations to finish Squaring Up Gite, ois iis tea PSR a Ss ea a 84 105. Framing a Cased Circular Head, Circular on Plan 106. To Work the Opposite Sides of a Piece toaCireular Shape ........:0:eceeee vere 86 107. Mode of Construction of Sash-frame Head . .86 108. Construction of Mould for Lining out ...... 109. Application of Mould ............e0e cere -17 at 78 82 . 82 110, Application of Foregoing Principles to the ‘Construction of Sash-frame Head, ete, .... 88 111. To find Mould for Top Rail of Sash 112, To Line out the Sash-rail 113. Working and Fitting the other parts of Sash and Frame 114, Getting out Curved Sash Bars . 115, Linings for Stopping Plaster ... 116. To find Shape of Veneer for Splayed DT ee er eee eee cea 94 Conical Roofs And Skylights, 117. Conical Roofs . . 5 118. Rails for ditto 101 119. Mould for ditto ... .. 102 120. Quantity of Stuff required in Conical Roofs 103 121. Getting out the Mould by a more economical Method ... 122. Section of a Cone by a Perpendicular to one Side 123. Form of Rails for Skylights 124, Practical Application of Foregoing Methods 107 125. Finding the Curve for the Mould ........ 126, Finding the Curve by another Method 127. Curving the Edges of the Rails .......... 128. Making a Section of Roof for finding PS MGU CG fee ye oa meinmen-enm scm emncenimais 109 129, To find Moulds for Top and Bottom Rails of Conical Skylight .............. 110 180. To find the places of the Rails in ditto .... 110 131. To Construct Mould for Bottom Rail ..... 111 132. To Construct Mould for Top Rail 133. To Line the edges of ditto é 134. To Construct a Mould for lowermost edge of Bottom Rail : 135. Framing the Rails to the Styles . 136. Covering of Conical Roofs, Domes, ete. 187. To find the Covering Boards for a Semi-conical Roof ............0..seeee 115 138. To find the Covering Boards for a Segmental Dome ..........-.00+es00e+ 116 139. To find the Covering Boards for a Semicircular Dome .............0.005 118 140. To find the Covering Boards for a Spheroidal Dome ........... 0.0.00 e eee 119 141, To find Covering for an Ogee Dome of Circtllar plan. oe siseiecck eaees ees 120 142, To find Covering for a Spherical Vault .... 122 143. To find Radii of Curved Edges of the Boards .. 144. To Lay down the aFlat Surface ........-....00eseeeeee0 Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. Skmple-, oF single-clreuler work (1) Simple curves bend in one plane only, com- INTRODUCTION. pound curves bend in more than one plane. 1. Orrcur.an work may be defined as consisting of two kinds, namely, simple or single-circular, and complex or double-circular. 2. By simple-circular is meant any piece of work which, being rectangular in section, is curved on one, or it may be two of its opposite sides only, the two adjacent opposite sides being straight. Examples of this kind are so numerous as to render it impossible to specify more than a few of them. Among the most familiar instances are door and window-frames which are straight on plan, or across their width, and in which the elevation of the head is Segmental (24),* semicircular (27), or semi-elliptical (30). In these cases the curved art is on the under and upper sides of the head : tly ll Wino tks toe vertically mud. hort rd Genel Stee ae eens cere tose atte zontally, being straight. Or it may be that the RP curved part ison the under edge of the sash rail and lining only, as in sash-frames that are made segmental or semicircular on the outside, and square on the inside (56) ; the segmental or semi- cireular part being formed by the outside lining and the under edge of the top rail of sash; the head of the frame itself being square. ‘These are all said to be straight on plan, the meaning of which is that they are straight actoss their width, and that in a horizontal section taken anywhere in the height of the frame the lines would all be straight, and if the scction is taken below the springing, it would give no indication whatever that there was anything eireular about it. So also in a vertical section the lines would be straight, but if the springing is properly marked it would at once indicate that the frame is to have a curved head of some sort, An elevation, however, though not absolutely necessary, is the better way of showing the character of the curve. springing © ‘These figures reier to the paragraphs, (2) A door in a straight wall with a curved headGeorge Collings spring line (2) A sash in a rectangular opening with a curved head rail (4) Bull's-eye frame in a circular opening in a flat ma- sonry wall 3. Another instance of the same kind is sup- plied by a frame that is cireular on plan only, such as is required for » circular wall (57), and may be either for a door or a window; the soffit and upper side of the head being straight, and at right angles to the posts or pulley styles. ‘This is said to be cirenlar on plan and square-headed, and a vertical and horizontal section would indicate the character of the frame without an elevation, 4. The bull’s-eye frame (42) may also be con- sidered as an example of single circular work, the elevation alone giving the form, for no matter which way a section is taken, either vertically, horizontally, or diagonally to the plan, the section lines would all be straight. 5. There are also the various kinds of Gothic- headed (47) door and window-frames, such as the equilateral (48), the lancet (49, 50), the drop (51), and the four-centred gothic (52), all of which may be cited as instances of the same kind of work as the foregoing, the curvaturo being on the upper and under sides of the head only ; the inside and outside faces being straight, both ver- tically and horizontally. 6, We may also mention the wall plates, ridge piece, and purlins of a roof having « civcular plan, all of which are instances of a similar kind, the top and bottom sides of the plates and the edges of the ridge being straight. ‘To include the purlin here, however, its sides must be supposed to be vertical, for if they are made perpendicular to the slope of the roof it would becf double curvature, ‘The different kinds of circular-headed door and window-frames, &e., commonly used in build- ings, may generally be classed under one or other of the following heads :— 7. A segmental-headed frame is one in which the rise above the springing, or chord line, may be anything less than the radius with which the cir- cular segment is described. Buta very general rise is from three to six inches. 8. A semicireular-headed frame is one in which the rise above the springing is equal to the radius with which the semicircle is described, and forms a complete half circle in elevation. 9. A bull’s-eye frame is one that forms either a complete cirele, or an ellipse, in elevation.——_—_ OO eee ner Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery 10. In a semi-elliptica? headed frame the rise is equal to the semi-minor axis, and the width to the major axis of the ellipse, of which the head of the frame forms one-half in elevation. 11. In an equilateral Gothic-headed frame the curves are constructed on two contiguous sides of an equilateral triangle, one of its sides being made the radius for the circular arcs. 12. The lancet-headed frame is more pointed than the equilateral, the rise above the springing being greater in proportion to the width, and the radius for the circular ares greater than the width of the opening. 13. In the drop-arch head the rise above the springing is less in proportion to the width than in the equilateral, the radius for the arcs being less than-the width of the opening. 14. The four-centred Gothic head is, as ita name implies, described from four centres, and consists of four ares, two large and two smaller ones, which are described witb radii of different lengths. The various methods of drawing these Gothic- headed frames are given in Part I. (48 to 55). (7) Segmental (8) Semicircular (10) Semi-elliptical (11) Equilateral gothic (12) Lancet (13) Dropped archGeorge Collings (14) Four-centered gothic (16) Depending on the eye to give final, pleasing shape to a curve is a common practice in many trades. In boat building, for example, this is called “fairing” the curve. Of course, the more crisp and accurate your marking out is, the easier your job will be. (17) When this book was written, shapers and multiple-head moulders were commonly used, though their size and cost restricted them to larger shops. In small shops, shaping and moulding was still hand work. Much of the work done then by hand and with large machines is done today with a portable router. 15. The foregoing examples of single-cireular work, and others which could be mentioned, pre- sent no difficulty whatever, although it is some- times a very difficult matter to get them done in anything like a satisfactory style ; but any ordi- nary mechanic who has a knowledge of what a circle or segment of a circle really is, should be able with a little careful practice to execute satis- factorily any example in single-circular work, The subject matter, however, of these pages de- mands some amount of thinking for its elucida- tion, although some of it is very simple, and is so frequently required that any one by constant prac- tice may easily master the methods of doing it without much thought. But other paris, par- ticularly that on work of double-curvature, is more difficult of comprehension by the ordinary workman, and requires careful attention in order properly to understand it. 16. In executing circular work the importance of properly using the eye should not be forgotten. This is necessary in straight work, but it is much more so where the work is curved. It is well known that stair and hand-rail hands, although they may mark the falling line of a wreathed string or rail ever so nicely, will not work exactly to it if by 20 doing the eye is not pleased and satis. fied. This test should be applied more or less to all curved work, whether simple or complex, al- though in single-circular work the artisan should, not get far wrong if the piece has been lined out truly. But some men in lining-out will make the mark as thick as a good-sized chalk line, and when taking off the superfluous stuff will take the whole of the line out in one place and leave it on in an- other, thereby producing great irregularity in the circular outline, and if left in this state it is easily detected by practised eyes. Still, even when the work is not done so clumsily as this, irregularities will sometimes occur although care may have been taken. These should be adjusted to suit the eye, which, when it has been educated as it were for the purpose by a little practice, will easily detect them. 17. Another matter that may be noticed, and upon which a few words may be said, is, how far the machines will apply in connection with joiners’ work of single and double curvature. In straight work they will in many cases perform almost every operation required, except cleaning up and fixing.ES R® ae Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery For instance, a piece of stuff for a door-frame post wants planing, rebating, beading, and return beading or moulding, &c. This, in its rough stato, is put into the machine at one side, and comes out at the other with all these operations performed by passing it through once only, and the work that would take two or three hours to do by hand-la- bour is done in a less number of minutes by the machine, This is also true of nearly every other piece of joiners’ work that is straight, when its size is such as to permit of it, particularly such as mouldings, architraves, &¢., which ean be passed through a machine by the thousand feet in a very little time. In a limited sense the same may be soid in re- Jerence to work of single curvature. This cannot, however, be passed through a machine in the same way as straight work, but must be held against a fence and one side only operated upon ata time, Extra preparation is necessary even then before it can be applied to the machine. The piece must be worked to the required sweep, or a mould must be prepared on which to fasten it. The machine is then made to operate upon it by holding cither the edge of the piece or the edgo of the mould against the fence, and one edge moulded at a time, when it is the edge that requires moulding. When the moulding is required flatways of the piece a good many of the machines are quite useless for the purpose, and the work must be done by hand. There are others, however, that will mould cither flatways or edgeways of a piece of curved stuff, These, of course, are more expensive than the common sort, too expensive, in fact, some of them, for a shop whore only a limited quantity of this kind of work isdone. In work of double curva- ture the machines are almost useless. The most that can be done with any exactitude at all is saw- ing out the piece roughly by the band saw, all the other operations required having to be done by hand. With the varying curves in a pair of hand- rail wreaths, a moulding machine could do nothing, ag it would be impossible to hold the piece with any certainty in the right position while it was being operated upon by the cutters. ' So also with the works of double curvature described in this book. The whole of the operations, therefore, except the sawing-out by the band saw just men- tioned, that are required for this particular kind of work, must necessarily be done by hand.‘George Collings ‘Complex-, or double-circular work 18. In Part I. of this book, which is devoted to work of single curvature, there is not much (20) You can easily construct a simple model of a that is really new, and the object of the author “semi-circular frame of double curvature.” First, has been rather to collect some of the most familiar draw a square with a semi-circular head on apiece examples of work of this kind and, combining of paper. Cut the figure out of the paper, then stand theory with practiee, to deseribe methods for find- the paper on edge and bend it to acures: Ae you'll ing various moulds and developing curved sur- faces, and the operations necessary for their proper execution in an intelligible and practical manner. Some of the examples in this section might more properly have been classed with those of double curvature, to which they certainly belong. These are the splayed linings for the semi-elliptical and semicircular-headed frames (41 and 62). The reason why they are given here is, because they ave part of, and belong to, the frames in question. 19. In Part IL, on work of double curvature, the matter is new, with the exception of that re- luting to the covering of domes, &c., and these methods of executing this kind of work have never been published before. They are the result of observation and practical application, and it is hoped that their simplicity and practicability will be admitted by all who take the trouble to examine them impartially. Of their superiority over the methods usually taught in more elaborate works, there will be little doubt if the two are fairly com- pared with each other. The methods as usually taught are often very impracticable, and some part of thom, if not impossible, are very difficult of application. These, on the contrary, ean be easily applied, and, if earricd out according to the intructions, the results will be perfectly trac. 20. The difference between simple and con- plex cireular work, or single and double curva- ture, is, that while the former has two of its opposite sides straight the latter has not, all its four sides, when its section is rectangular, being curved lengthways of the piece. When we simply say of a door or window-frame that it is semicir- cular-headed, we mean that it is circular in eleva- tion only, it being taken for granted that it is straight across its width, or on plan. A semi- == cireular-headed frame of double curvature would have the same appearance in elevation as the fore- going, but it would be curved across its width also, and in describing such a frame we should call it eirenlar on plan and semicircular in elevation. see, the frame head curves in two planes. You can use the same technique to model a complex bull's- eye frame. section is rectangular All sides curve along their lengthCircular Work in Carpentry and Joinery Theoretically, the head of such a frame would not be straight for a single inch anywhere round the head lengthways, either horizontally or on the soffit. In fact, there would really be nothing straight at all aboutit, except in section, vertically and across the top and underside. To construct a frame of this sort properly is as difficult a piece of work as one in high class hand-railing, possibly more so, because while the falling line of a hand- rail may be raised or lowered somewhat to suit the eyes and thickness of plank used, the soffit line of the head of this frame cannot be to the same extent, without making a break in the regu- lar continuity of the semicircle. 21. As instances of work of double curvature we may adduce the following, in addition to the window-frame given above. Solid door and case- ment window-frames which are circular on plen, and are intended for the circular corner of a build- ing and other similar situations, frequently have a semicircular head (98). The prineipal difference in the construction of these und the cased sash-frame (105) is, that the inner sides of the posts usually converge to the centre of the plan curves, while the faces of the pulley styles in the sash-frame should be parallel to each other. Bull’s-cye frames, both circular and elliptical, are sometimes cireular on plan. Skylights with a eircular plan (119) which are made in the form of a truncated cone, or semi-cone, and have framed and moulded lights for the reception of the glass: in these the rails of the lights only would be of double curvature. The covering boards for segmental, semicircular, and ellipsoidal domical roofs (136), the soffit lining for a spherical vaulted ceiling (which sometimes consists of match-boardin; ig, with tongued and V-jointed or beaded joints) and the covering-boards fora conical roof, may be regarded as of double curvature, for although they may all be got out of straight stuff, and bent round after being cut to the proper curve edgeways, they aro of double curvature when fixed in their places.George CollingsCircular Work in Carpentry and Joinery PART I. CIRCULAR WORK OF SIMPLE OR SINGLE CURVATURE. In this section, as previously intimated, it is in- tended to give a description of the most familiar examples of this kind of work that are likely to oceur in practice. So.w-neapEp Frames. 22. The Segment-headed Door or solid Window- frame. —Fig. 1 is an elevation of the upper par OL Fig. 1. of such a frame, The rise cD of the segment above the chord or springing line a B, as before stated, may be anything less than tho radius of the circular arc. Usually, however, it is from 6 to 6 inches, sometimes more and sometimes leas. There are several ways of finding the length of radius for the curves, when the width and rise are given. 23, First, to find the required radius by cal- culation or figures, proceed as follows:—To the square of half the chord add the square of the rise, and divide this sum by twice the rise, and the quotient will be the length of the radius. For example, let the width or chord line inside the posts be 3 feet, and the rise to the underside of the head 8 inches; then 18 inches being half the chord, and 8 inches the rise, the rule expressed in figures will be, (18 X 18483) +6 = (324+ 9) +6=333 + 6=55} inches, the radius. Supposo the widih to ba 3’ 04", and the rice Bh". Reducing these to their lowest denomina- tion of } inches, we have (73x 73 + 13 x 13) +26 = (5329 + 169) +26 = 5498 + 26=211} quarter inches nearly. Divide this by four and we get 522 inches for radius. This rule is applicable to all segment-headed door or window-frames and (22) In the constructions referred to here, the “seg- ment” can be a portion of any basic geometry, such as a segment of a circle, an ellipse or an arch. Don’t confuse this use with segmented construc- tion, in which a frame is joined together of wooden segments. R=Radius of the segment YeRise = 3° X=Chord = 36", (All measures must be in the same unit.) Gyv' _, 2Y (23) You can calculate the radius of a segment if you know its rise and its chord (the width of the opening).ES Ti ee George Collings (24) 1. Draw line AB equal to the width of the segmental arches, and when once understood the opening at the spring line. exact radius may be ascertained with very little trouble without drawing a single line. 24. The same result may be obtained graphi- cally thus: Let 4 3, Fig. 2, be the springing and width in clear of the posts, A c and D represent 2. Construct lines AC and BD, both perpendicular ing their inner faces. Midway between a cand to AB, to represent the inner faces of the opening. 8p, and parallel to them, draw F x, making the point B at a distance equal to the rise of the seg- ment above the springing A BB. wo" ‘0° With = and i as centres, and for radius anything greater than half the distance be- tween them, de- scribe arcs a8 shown, and G ie through their intersections draw F G meeting the perpendicular from kine. Then Fig. F will be the centre, and r & or Fr B the radius for the seg- ment A «8, Another method is to describe ares, and draw a line through their intersections, as shown by the dotted lines on the left of the figure, similar to those on the right, the point of intersec- tion F gives the same centre and radius as before. 25. Ifa number of these heads are required a mould should be used for lining them out, but if only one is wanted it might be struck out on the plank and so save the trouble of getting out the mould. Having eut the head out to the required shape, one side of it should be, planed true, and the curvilinear edges squared from it, making ans soe A 8 o F 3° Halfway between AC and BD, construct line EF. The distance between E and AB should equal the segment's rise. them as true as possible. Then the morticing, 4. With E and B as centers, draw arcs with a radius rebating, beading, &c., should be executed, and greater than half the distance between E and B. ‘the badd Framed t0'the poste in: the: etme) mame as in a square-headed frame. 5. Draw a line through the intersection of the two 26. As the operations required in getting out arcs. The point of intersection of that line and EF the top rails for the doors, whether they are establishes the center and radius of the segment, framed, ledged, or panelled, are very similar to AEB. those for the frame head, it will be unnecessary to say anything about them. The difference in framing them is, that instead of the styles being tononed into the rail in the same way as the posta are into the head, the rail is tenoned into the styles in the same manner as if it were straight.Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery 27. The semicircular solid-headed Frame and Fanlight-— e Fig. 3 is an elevation of if the upper part of a a ( B Fig. 8. semicircular- headed solid frame (the setting out of whicoh— being a per- fectly simple matter—will be clearly understood without a detailed description) with a transom framed into it a little below the spring- ing AB. The head of an ordinary sized frame of this kind would be formed with two pieces, the joints being at 4,8, and c. For the joint at o, a ham- mer-headed key of hard wood is frequently used (seo Fig. 4, which is a plan of the joint and key with the wedges for drawing up the joint ata a, the mortice for the key being made large enough to allow of this as at cc, and with cross tongues at Bp), and for those at a and na half key of similar shape is cut out of the solid on the upper Fig. 4. end of the posts, dowels or cross tongues being placed on each side of it. This is nota bad plan when nothing else is obtainable, as with care ir. fitting the wedges the joints can be drawn together fairly close. The best method, howeyer, of execut- ing this work is to employ a good joint or hand- rail bolt. This does not give half the amount of trouble that the key does, and if the nuts fit the bolt as they should do, the joint can be drawn up better and closer, and there will be no danger of F (26) Ledged doors, also called barred or batten doors, consist of vertical planks fastened to hori- zontal bars, called ledges, and diagonal braces. A framed-and-ledged door has a mortise-and- ten- oned frame of stiles, top rail and ledges. Vertical planks run the full length of the door between the stiles; they fit in a rabbet in the top rail and cover the ledges, which are made thinner than the stiles and rail. In a frame-and-paneled door, solid-wood panels are set in grooves cut in the stiles and rails. (27) The transom is framed below the spring line AB to separate the joints fixing the horizontal rail to the posts from the joints at A and B, which fix the ends of the segmented head to the posts.George Collings Cross tongue (grain sei across the W joint) (27) The transom head is formed of two pieces, joined at the apex by a hardwood key. Cross- grained tongues align the pieces; hardwood wedges draw the joint tight. (Today, the tongues could be made of plywood.) (28) The author mentions a laminated head as an inferior alternative to the keyed construction shown above. Overlapping segments eliminate the need for a mechanical joint. The door closes against the members labeled B, which are thicker to withstand the repeated jarring. Double tenons on the post are glued and screwed to mortises cut in members A and B. Post 12 its coming asunder through the shrinking of wooden wedges. If the posts of the frame are wide enough, say five or six inches, a double tenon should be cut on each end of the transom, this being necessary whether a bolt or key is used for the joints at the springing. 28, Sometimes these heads are made up in two or threo thicknesses, glued and screwed or nailed together, so that the heading joints of one thick- ness are crossed by that next to it. This is not a good plan except when tolerably sound dry stuff cannot be had in the solid. If two pieces only are used, they should be put together as shown in Fig. 5, the thinner piece A being of the same thickness as the door or sash, and as much natrower than the piece p as the rebate is deep. If this plan is adopted it will supersede the use of either keys or bolts, for at c, Fig. 3, there will be no joint through the whole thickness, and at 4 and B long straight tenons are cut on the posts, the head being well fixed to them from both sides, with screws or nails, and glue. When, however, sound and dry stuff can be obtained large enough to cut the head out of the solid it should always have the preference. Some architects will insist upon having them like this, and there cannot be a doubt about its making the best work when so con- structed. A mould is the best way of lining the pieces out for this head, for at least two will be required, and sometimes they can be run past each other for some distance, thereby economising the material. 29. Ifthere is a fanlight the joints may be made to suit the width of stuff out of which the curved rail is cut. Thus, instead of one joint, as. at c in the frame head, two may be made ; the rail being in three pieces. In painted work, wood keys of a parallel thickness equal to about one- third or one-fourth the thickness of the rail, and cut to shape, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 6, may be used for these joints, The straight grain of the keys will thus cross the grain in the rail, Fig. 5. dintCircular Work in Carpentry and Joinery and if they are well glued and screwed will make a good strong piece of work, and often pre- vent the rail from warping. If the work is not to be painted, small hand-rail bolts should be used for the joints, with tongues or dowels. When the fanlight is hung to fall inwards, as is almost always the case, the joint between the bottom rail and transom is important, and re- quires to be made in such a way as to prevent the rain-water from running inside. It is often made just the reverse of this, and if only a small space is left for the joint, nearly the whole of the water running down the out- side will find its way in, and cause a great annoy- ance. ‘This can be casily prevented by having a joint similar to that between the bottom rail and sill of a cased sash-frame. The head of the door-frame being re- bated on the inside, the bot- tom rail of the fan should also be rebated inside, and the transom outside, Fig.7 shows the joint in question, from which it will be seen that any water coming down the outside of the fan is not likely to find its way inside. The method of getting out the linings, whether square or splayed, when such are required for these frames, will be fully described in met connection with the semi- circular-headed eased sash-frame (60). (See Figs. 48 to 48.) (29) A fanlight (the window in a circular-headed transom) can be assembled from three butt-joined pieces of wood. For a painted fanlight, the joints can be reinforced with long wooden keys, Vato V2 the thickness of the frame members. The keys would show when an unpainted fanlight was opened, so the author recommends reinforcing those joints with less-obtrusive hand-rail bolts. Key (14 to 1 the thick- ness of the frame) X@ (29) An inward-opening fanlight thatincorporates the weatherproof sill shown in fig. 7 must close against astop, and its bottom rail must be notched as shown here to allow the frame to swing past the stop. Top rail of door frame (29) To prevent water entering an inward-opening transom, the author recommends this construc- tion. In this arrangement, the fanlight must close against a stop, So it's bottom rail must be notched to allow the frame to swing past the stop.2 ——$—$—————— George Collings (30) A section through a cone, not parallel to the Exuirticat, Heaps. cone's base, describes an ellipse. 30, The Semi-elliplical- headed Door - frames, Fanlight, and Splayed Linings. —Work of this kind does not occur so frequently in practice as those that have just been described. The ellipse is ono of the conic sections, being produced by the section of a cone through both of its sides, but not parallel toits base, and although it is not really more difficult of construction than the semicircle, yet it requires more geometrical knowledge. We will therefore describe two or three different methods of drawing the figure be- fore proceeding to consider its practical application. to door-frames. 81. There are numerous methods of describing the ellipse correctly, and also by means of ap- proximations, but the true ellipse is almost always drawn with, or upon the principle of, the tram- mel, This instrument, which is very seldom used (31) A full, true ellipse can be drawn with a tram- by the carpenter or joiner, is made in the form of mel. The distance between the pencil and the 8 cross, with grooves on ono side at right angles nearer hole is half the ellipse’s minor axis and to to each other, in which studs are fitted to slide peak eee freely. ‘To these are attached—by means of the farther hole it is half the major axis. trammel points or:ende-a fod the: outer and of which carries the pencil or tracer for describing the curve. The pencil and the two trammel points are then adjusted by means of screws to distanees corresponding to the semi-axes of the ellipse in the same way as the pins and pencil are arranged in the rod for describing Fig. 8. The figure, however, can be described truly without using the trammel, as will presently be ex- plained. Approximations to the ellipse are made by means of arcs of circles; and it is usually con- structed in this way by the bricklayer, who con- siders that the elliptical brick arch is strongest when it is thus built. It is also frequently shown like this on architectural drawings. This most probably is done to save the draughtsman. a little trouble in drawing it, and not with the intention of having it carried out so in practice. Be this as it may, the ellipse that consists only of ares of ‘ circles always appears broken and irregular in (31) A “semi-axis” is one-half of an axis; the “semi- its contour at the junction of the circular ares. major axis" is half the ellipse’s major axis, the “semi-minor axis” is half its minor axis.EE EEE O_O Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery The young carpenter and joiner, however, is advised to draw the figure truly whenever it is possible to do so, and when the lines of a brick arch have to be followed to do the best he can to make his work look well to the eye. As the curve is a symmetrical one, being divided into four equal and similar parts by its axes, it will be necessary to find one of these only in getting out elliptical moulds. 32, To . describe an Ellipse on the principle of the Trammel without using that Inatrument—In Fig. 8, let a» and » ¢ be two thin straight laths, fastened so as to form a right angle at 8. And let nc and nn equal the semi-minor and semi-major axes of the ellipse. Also let r # p be another lath or rod, the dis- tance F E being equal to 8G, and x p equal to gu. At F and p insert small pins or bradawls to project slightly beyond the under side of the rod, and at Ea pencil or marker. Then to describe the quarter ellipse c , place the rod F & p by the side of m c,and draw the curve by moving the point F towards H, and the point p towards x, keeping the pins F and p gently pressed against the sides of the square AB and no, and the pencil inserted far enough to trace the line while thus moving the rod. It is necessary that the pin and pencil points F £ D should be in the same straight line, 33. Suppose it be required to draw the soffit of an elliptical arch by this method, the width of the opening being 4’ 0°, and the rise 1’ 6", then the distances 8 o and F E should each be 1’ 6’, and the distances 8 1 and =p each 2' 0", ve & being the semi-minor, and £p the semi-major axes of the ellipse. Or suppose that this quarter ellipse is intended for the soffit line of a mould for a door-frame head. Then to complete it, we Fig. 8, (32) This is a method for drawing a quarter of an ellipse with three straightedges. Fix two straight- edges at right angles to each other and insert pencil and pins in the third, as shown here. Make A equal to the semi-minor axis and B equal to its semi-major axis. Moving the pins against the fixed straightedges traces one quarter of an ellipse. For example, to lay out a semi- elliptical head rising 1 ft. 6 in. above the spring line in an opening 4 feet wide, make A 1 ft. 6 in. and B 2 ft. (half the opening's width). Flip the instrument over to draw the other half of the head. (34) This method requires only a single straight- edge to lay out a full or partial ellipse. Keeping point 1 on the minor axis and point 2 on the major axis, make a series of marks at point 3; join these marks to establish the ellipse.George Collings (35) Figures 10 and 11 show methods for generat- ing an ellipse from one half or one quarter of a circle whose diameter equals the ellipse’s minor axis. The example below is for a semi-elliptical head rising 1 ft. 6 in. in an opening 4 ft. wide: 1. Draw a semicircle 3 ft. in diameter. 2. Divide the diameter into any number of equal segments. (More divisions produce more points with which to establish the ellipse.) 3. Project a line at 90° to each division point. 4. Choose a point A on the base line then find point B on the top line such that the distance from A to B equals 4 ft, Draw a line connecting A and B. ¢ 16 draw another curved line, as shown, at its proper distance from, and parallel too u.* And if it should be considered advisable to have a mould for the whole head in one, all that is necessary is to turn the quarter mould over, bring the point 1 to, the other extremity of the major axis, and draw @ 3 and its parallel curved line as shown. c 34. Another al method on the same principle, and equally true, is by finding points through which the curve may be traced, as fol- lows:—Draw the diameters a 8 and c pv, Fig. 9, at right angles to each other, as shown. Take a thin strip of wood & F, and mark on one edge the point c. From set off the distance o H, equal to half the minor axis, and c 3, equal to half the major axis. That ig, make G H equal to DK, z sndasequal topx, Then to find pointsin the curve, place zon the axis minor ¢ 2, and m on the axis major a B, and by carrying the lath round thus, Keeping the points # and 3 one on each diameter as directed, o will give any number of points through which the ellipse may be traced by the hand. 85. A semi-ellipse with both axes given may also be described by ordinates. Let the length of the major axis be 4’ 0", and of the minor axis 3’ 0". ‘With radius 1’ 6”, equal to half the minor axis, deseribe the semicircle 48 ¢, Fig. 10, having ac for its diameter, and divide its circumference into any number of equal parts, at 1,2, 3, 8, 4, 5,6; and from the points of division draw the ordinates 1 F, 2 e, &., at right angles to ac. From aandc draw + This paratel garg, however, is not « true llipse, ond cannot bo drawn with tho trammel, which is one reaton why ares of circles are so often. uted in preference, expecially whet ‘the arch has to be moulded.mpc eee te Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery ADand c & indefinitely and perpendicular to a c. From p—which may be anywhere on 4 p—as a centre, and 4’ 0", the major axis, as radius, de- scribe an are cutting the perpendicular from ¢ at , and draw p kr, which will be the Major axis of the somi-ellipse. Produce the ordinates 1 r, 2c, &., to ent the major axis px in the points X,0,?,@,R, 8,17. Then draw, at right angles to » F, the ordinates v1, 02, P 3, &., making them equal to the corre- sponding ones | r, 2 a,3 n, &e., and through the points trace the curve D u' ®, which will be the semi - ellipse required. A quar- ter ellipse, with the semi-diameters given, may be described in the same way, as shown at Fig. 11, The method of procedure being the same as in the last example, a description will not be necessary." 36. The following methods of drawing a figure resembling the ellipse are given 4 because the practical man is sometimes compelled to make use of arca of circles for the purpose. Let An, Fig. 12, be the major axis, which divide into three equal parts by the points ¢ and p, From these points as centres, and with radius a c, describe circles intersecting each other, and from the points of intersection through ¢ and p draw the diame- ters EoF and E DG. Then from E a8 a centre and with £ as radius, describe the are FG, and . the — semi- ellipse will be completed. ‘The other half may be described in a similar way. * For other methods of drawing an elli Fig. 1 F & Fig. 12, ‘the reader is roferred ta Tarn’s “Practical Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Mecharic.” Crosby Lockwood & Co, 5. At each intersection of AB and a division line, project a line at 90° to AB. 6. Use the measurements 1, 2, 3 and so on from the semicircle to’establish points on the lines pro- jected from AB. Join these points to form the ellip- tical are. (36) In figures 12 and 13, methods for approximat- ing an ellipse with ares of circles, only the major axis may be specified—in figure 12 it is AB, in figure 13 it is AE. The rise resulting from the method in figure 12 will be about 38% of the major axis; for the method in figure 13, it will be about 32%. (37) To approximate an ellipse in which the major and the semi-minor axes (the width and rise of the head) are specified, the author provides the method below, (The example is for a head rising 1 ft. 6 in. in an opening 4 ft, wide.)George Collings (37) 1. Lay out the major and semi-minor axes. 2. Divide the semi-minor axis in three equal parts. YH 1-643 = 6" 3. With the end points of the major axis as centers, draw circles with a radius equal to two of the divisions of the semi-minor axis. , & ’ - ‘\ , X , / 4, ; Vel | vy \ t I % ! / ‘ \ a Se a 6x2 = 12 4. Draw a line joining the center of one circle and the lowest division (A) on the semi-minor axis. §. From A, draw an are with a radius equal to that of the circles. Another method is shown by Fig. 13. Divide the major axis az into four equal parts by the points 8, c,p. On BD construct an equilateral triangle B DF, and produce the sides ¥ Band ¥ p indefinitely as to. and x. Then from the centres nand p, with radius a 8, describe the circles AG c and £ Hc, and from the centre F, with radius rc, describe the arc. H to complete the semi-ellipse. The other half may be described in the same way. 87. In the two foregoing methods only one dia- meter can be decided upon before drawing the figure. In the follow- ing both may be given, and astill nearer approxima- tion to the true ellipse will be produced. Let a c, Fig. 14, be the major axis, and np the semi-axis minor. Divide 8 p into three equal parts by c and F, and make a u and Jc each equal to two of theso parts, Join m 0, and from m and 3 as centres, with radius a #, describe the circles a 1, ¢ M. Bisect the line u a by the perpendicular x, meet- ing the axis pp produced in x. From x through nu draw the line K # L, meeting the cirele a1, and from « as a centre, and with the radius K 1, describe the arc L p Mm, which will complete the semi-ellipse. Fig. 14.88. Understanding clearly any of these methods 6. Draw a line through the two points of intersection of describing the curve, the young mechanic will of the arc and circle. Extend this line and the semi-minor axis until they intersect (B). | h aimed sc a ihe -Gevathecad 7. Draw a line from B through the center of the i ave no difficulty in drawing the elevation of an circle. Using BC as a radius, draw an are with elliptical-hesded door-frams, such se is shown in center at B joining the two circles. Figs. 15 and 16, Fig. 15 being the plan and Fig. 16 the internal elevation of the frame, splayed linings, grounds, and architraves.George Collings (38) “Stuff” refers to the lumber or stock used to make the frame. Backing blocks Lining veneer Straight edge Outer form Inner form Stripped inner tubes for clamps. Minor axis minus the ‘amount of splay Major Axis minus twice the amount of splay (39) The lining—trim that covers the rough opening between the inset door frame and the ground and archtrave on the wall surface—is splayed. The lining for the head, therefore, must be glued up of veneer and the “mould” or “cylinder” is the form for doing so. The inner and outer “ribs,” or forms, are joined by thin boarding, on which the veneer is laid. (The edges of the ribs are beveled as shown in figure 17 to accomodate the boarding.) (39) After the veneer is cut to shape (see para- graphs 40 and 41), it is laid up on the mould and reinforced with narrow backing blocks. Strips of rubber hold the assembly in place on the mould while the glue sets. Today, linings meant to be painted would be built up of layers of thin bending ply, which would be strong enough without backing blocks. (41) The shape of the veneer for splayed linings can be laid out geometrically. The process is com- plicated; the repetition required to generate all the points has been omitted in these sketches. The proper way of lining out the curved pieces for the head is by a mould, which can be found by any of the aforesaid methods. The head of the frame should be in the solid, if possible, and in two pieces, with joints at the springing and crown, and put together in the same way as the somicircular door-frame head. ‘The grounds end architraves should, if possible, be also in two pieces, but the stuff should be thoroughly dry, and the joints very carefully made. The only difficulty is with the linings, when their splay, as shown on the plan, is continued round the head. ‘This must be formed by a veneer being bent round a prepared centre or semi- cylinder, and pieces glued on the back across the grain. 89. To Construct the Cylinder—This should be made with two ribs, covered with thin boarding to receive the veneer. The major-axis of the largest on its longest side will be equal to the dis- tance between the faces of the linings on their outer edge, as shown at c p, Fig. 15, and the major axis of the smallest on its ehortest side will be equal to the distance between the faces of the linings. close to the frame as at AB, the splay giving the difference of their minor axes. When putting the cylinder together, the dis- tance outside the ribs must be equal to the per- pendicular distance between the lines a B and c p. The edges will require bevelling roughly to receive the covering boards, This can be done separately by setting a bevel to the angle a up, or, after nailing a piece across each end on the under side, by applying a straight-edge to both at the same time, as shown in Fig. 17, which is an enlarged section on B F in Figs. 15and 16. Thisbeing the same splay as on the plan, a » will be the semi-axis minor on the shortest side of the smaller rib, and cp the semi-minor axis on the longest side of the larger rib. ews 40. To Find the Shape of the Vencer.—This might be done approxi- mately by wrapping a sheet of paper round the above semi-cylinder, and lining it round by the outside of each rib. Then laying the paper out straight, the shape and size of the veneer will