Open Chapter 24 Rep in Humans

Chapter 24:
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN
ANIMALS
BIOLOGY O. LEVEL CHAPTER 23: [REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN]
KEY DEFINITION
REPRODUCTION
Is the process of producing new individuals.
KEY DEFINITION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A type of reproduction that involves the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a
zygote and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other.
KEY DEFINITION
FERTILISATION
The fusion between a haploid male gamete and a haploid female gamete to produce a
diploid zygote.
KEY DEFINITION
OVULATION
The release of an ovum, from the ovary, into the oviduct on the 14th day of the menstrual
cycle.
KEY DEFINITION
IMPLANTATION
The attachment and embedding of an embryo to the lining of the uterus.
KEY DEFINITION
MENSTRUATION
The monthly shedding off/breakdown of the lining of the uterus that occurs if no
fertilization takes place at the start of the menstrual cycle.
DR. NADA HATEM 2

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
DR. NADA HATEM 3

PART FUNCTION
▪ The male gonads that produce sperm.
Testes
▪ Lie outside the abdominal cavity in a special sac called the scrotum.
(singular:
▪ The testes consist of a mass of sperm-producing tubes.
testis)
▪ The testes produce male sex hormone known as testosterone.
Keeps the testis outside the body in a suitable temperature that is slightly
Scrotum below the rest of the body to protect the sperm and because at higher
temperatures fewer sperm are produced.
▪ A mass of coiled tubes that lie on the outside of each testis.
Epididymis ▪ Site of the storage of sperm cells.
▪ About 6 meters long!
▪ A muscular tube.
Sperm duct
▪ Carry sperm from the testes to the penis.
Seminal
Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form semen.
vesicle
Prostate
Adds fluid and nutrients to sperm to form semen.
gland
Common pathway for semen and urine to outside the body.
- Carries urine from the bladder to outside the body.
Urethra - Carries sperm from the sperm duct to outside the body.
The urethra has a muscular ring, called a sphincter, at the top, which
contracts, preventing urine from the bladder during erection of the penis.
▪ Organ of copulation that can become erect, firm, and stiff when stimulated.
Penis ▪ Inserted into the vagina of the female during sexual intercourse to transfer
sperm.
Is the mixture of sperm cells and fluids.
Fluids involve:
- Glucose: provide energy that is produced by the process of aerobic
Semen respiration for movement/swimming of the sperms.
- Alkaline solution/bicarbonate: to protect the sperm by neutralizing the
acidity of urine.
- Water and mucus: for lubrication.
[READ WELL]: ERECTION
- When the male is sexually excited, large spaces in the penis fill up with blood. This causes the
penis to become larger and stiffer causing an erection.
- At the same time, a sphincter muscle at the top of the urethra contracts, preventing urine
from entering from the bladder.
- The erection makes it possible for the man to insert his penis into the vagina of the female
for sexual intercourse.
- The rapid muscular contractions of muscles of the penis cause the ejaculation of semen
shooting outside the male’s body and into the vagina.
DR. NADA HATEM 4

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
DR. NADA HATEM 5

Part Function
Two oval bodies lying in the lower half of the abdomen
Bilateral; there is one on each side of the uterus and joined to it by the
oviducts.
Ovaries Contains follicles in which ova are produced.
The ovaries usually produce one egg cell a month.
The ovaries produce the female sex hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.
Funnel of Expanded, funnel-shaped opening close to each ovary.
oviduct Directs an ovum from the ovary into the oviduct.
Narrow tubes that carry ova to the uterus.
Oviduct / Oviducts are also the site of fertilization.
Fallopian tube Contains cilia that aids the movement of ova or a fertilized egg towards
the uterus.
Wide tube that is only about 80mm long without an embryo developing
inside.
Uterus
Present at the lower part of the abdomen.
It is the site of implantation of the embryo and where the fetus develops.
Ring of muscle separating the vagina from the uterus.
Cervix
Dilates during labour.
Muscular tube.
Vagina Organ of copulation that receive the male penis during sexual intercourse.
Sperm are deposited at the top of the vagina.
Vulva The opening of the vagina.
DR. NADA HATEM 6

GAMETES
In human reproduction the two sexes, male and female, each produce special types of
reproductive cells, called gametes.
Male gametes Female gametes
sperm Ova (singular = ovum)
SPERM
Consists of three parts: head, neck, tail.
1. Head:
- Contains a haploid nucleus.
- Acrosome that contains enzymes for digesting a way to penetrate into ova.
2. Neck:
- Contains mitochondria for energy release in the form of ATP by the process of aerobic
respiration. Energy is needed for swimming.
3. Tail (also called flagella) for movement/swimming.
OVUM
▪ Spherical cells.
▪ Larger in size than the sperm.
▪ Immotile/immobile/cannot move
but is swept along by cilia on the
inside of the oviduct.
▪ Contains a haploid nucleus.
▪ Has a jelly coat which becomes hard
after fertilization to prevent any other
sperm from entering.
▪ Contains stored food to be used in growth and divisions later on.
DR. NADA HATEM 7

COMPARISON BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE GAMETE

POINT OF MALE GAMETE FEMALE GAMETE
COMPARISON SPERM OVUM
SIZE Larger in size
Smaller in size
One of the largest cells in the human body
STRUCTURE Has flagellum and acrosome. Has no flagellum and acrosome.
Has no jelly coat. Has jelly coat.
MOBILITY Motile Not motile
Larger in number Smaller in number
NUMBER
Produced in millions One egg is released each month.
READ WELL: PRODUCTION OF GAMETES
SPERM PRODUCTION
1. The lining of the sperm-producing tubules in the testis consists of rapidly dividing cells.
2. After a series of divisions, the cells grow long tails called flagella (singular: flagellum) and
become sperm.
3. Sperm pass into the epididymis.
4. During copulation, the epididymis and sperm ducts contract and force sperm out
through the urethra.
5. The prostate gland and seminal vesicle add seminal fluid to the sperm. Together they
are called semen.
6. Finally, the release/ejection of sperm through the penis is called ejaculation.
DR. NADA HATEM 8

OVULATION
KEY DEFINITION
OVULATION
The release of an ovum, from the ovary, into the oviduct on the 14th day of the menstrual
cycle.
▪ The egg cells are present in the ovary from the time of birth. No more are formed during the
female’s lifetime. But at puberty, some of the egg cells start to mature and are released, one
at a time about every 4 weeks from alternate ovaries.
▪ As each ovum matures the cells around it divides rapidly and produce a fluid-filled sac. This
sac is called a follicle.
▪ When mature, it projects from the surface of the ovary.
▪ Finally, the follicle bursts and releases the ovum with its coating of cells into the into the
oviduct. This is called ovulation.
▪ Ova are immotile/immobile/cannot move but is swept along by cilia on the inside of the
oviduct and the action of peristalsis.
DR. NADA HATEM 9

FERTILISATION
Fertilization takes place in the OVIDUCT.
1. Semen is deposited at the top of the vagina below the cervix.
2. Sperm swim using their tails through the cervix and the uterus.
3. An ovum releases some chemicals to attract the sperm towards it.
4. Many sperm reach an ovum in the oviduct. Many sperms fail the journey.
5. Sperm use the digestive enzymes in their acrosomes to try to digest a way into the ovum.
6. Only one sperm is able to penetrate the ovum wall leaving its tail outside.
7. The male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus.
8. A fertilization membrane is formed around the oviduct to prevent another sperm from
penetrating the ovum.
9. A zygote is formed.
KEY DEFINITION
ZYGOTE
A diploid cell that is formed due to the fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete during
fertilization.
WHAT HAPPENS IF THERE IS NO FERTILISATION?

Menstruation takes place. (discussed later)
WHAT HAPPENS IF THERE IS FERTILISATION?
Implantation, pregnancy, and development of an offspring take place.
DR. NADA HATEM 10

AFTER FERTILISATION
After fertilisation in the oviduct, the zygote will divide repeatedly by mitosis as it travels down
the oviduct towards the uterus. The journey takes about 3 days, during which time a ball of
64 cells is produced and is now called an embryo.
KEY DEFINITION
EMBRYO
A ball of cells formed due to the division of the zygote by mitosis.
IMPLANTATION
- The embryo reaches the uterus and embeds itself in the thickened lining of the uterus. This
is called implantation.
- Cell division and growth continue.
- For the first three months, the embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through
the uterus lining.
- By the end of the three months, the placenta develops for nutrients exchange and other
functions, and the embryo becomes a fetus in which many main body organs can be
identified.
KEY DEFINITION
FETUS
The mammalian embryo in fairly advanced stages of development.
GESTATION
Over the next 28 weeks, the fetus will increase its mass roughly 8 million times. The period of
development in the uterus is known as gestation, and it lasts about 40 weeks in humans,
measured from the time of the woman’s last period.
The rapid growth during this period depends on a good supply of nutrients and oxygen,
provided by the mother.
DR. NADA HATEM 11

ANTE-NATAL CARE
Antenatal care is sometimes called the pregnancy or maternity care.
It is the care that pregnant women get before their babies are born. Health checks are done to
make sure that pregnant women are healthy and to make sure the fetus is developing well.
Plus instructions on what to expect during labour and birth, and on breast-feeding after birth.
HEALTH CHECKS INCLUDE:
SMOKING CHECK
Encouraging the smokers to give up smoking during pregnancy and educating them about the
effects of smoking. Smoking should be avoided because:
- Carbon monooxide reduces the oxygen supply as it combines with the haemoglobin
forming a stable compound called carboxy haemoglobin, this reduces oxygen supply.
- Nicotine excites the foetal heart to beat more rapidly.
- Smoking causes higher chances of miscarriage, and still-birth.
ALCOHOL CHECK
Alcoholic drinks should be avoided because:
- May form abnormalties in the fetus.
- May result in the underdevelopmenet of the baby.
- May result in premature birth.
- May lead to miscarriage.
DRUGS CHECK
Educating the pregnant women about which drugs to be avoided.
Some drugs have to be avoided as they pass through the placenta to fetal blood and harm the
fetus, especially during the first weeks leading to mutations and abnormalities.
DIET CHECK
Pregnant women are advised to follow a balanced diet that includes:
- High protein content for growth, cell divisions, and development of the fetus.
- More carbohydrate and fats for energy.
- Rich in minerals such as calcium and iron.
- Folic acid to avoid development problems in the fetus.
DISEASE
Viral diseases may cause developmental problems in the baby.
EXERCISE
Advice on what exercise is suitable and how to remain fit during pregnancy.
DR. NADA HATEM 12

AMNION
The fetus develops inside a bag of fluid called the amniotic fluid. This fluid is produced from
the amniotic membrane/amniotic sac that forms the outer layer.
AMNIOTIC SAC
Functions of the amniotic sac:
- Produces the amniotic fluid.
- Provides protection.
AMNIOTIC FLUID
Functions:
1- Protects the fetus from mechanical damage as it acts as a shock absorber.
2- Provides a suitable temperature for the fetus.
(Reduces the effect of large temperature variations that would affect foetal development).
3- Facilitates the movement of the fetus.
4- Sterilizes the pathway of the fetus during birth.
DR. NADA HATEM 13

PLACENTA
- The placenta is an organ that is produced by the growing fetus.
- The placenta allows a constant exchange of materials between the mother and fetus.
- The placenta and the uterus wall have a large number of blood vessels that run very close
to each other, but do not touch. So that maternal and fetal blood do not mix.
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PLACENTA:

- Maternal blood from the uterine artery.
- Fetal blood flows through the umblicial artery and umbilical vein of the umblical cord.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA
1) NUTRITION
Nutrients such as glucose and amino acids diffuse from the maternal blood and into the
fetal blood.
2) EXCRETION
Waste products from metabolism, such as urea, diffuse from the foetal blood into the
mother’s blood.
3) GASEOUS EXCHANGE
- Oxygen diffuse from the maternal blood into the foetal blood.
- Carbon dioxide from the fetal blood diffuse into the maternal blood.
4) PRODUCTION OF HORMONES
Secretes progesterone to:
- Maintain the lining of the uterus to mainytain the pregnancy.
- Stimulate the growth of milk-producing tissues in the woman’s breast.
- Prevent any more ova to be released during pregnancy.
5) Prevents mixing of fetal blood and maternal blood.
- To protect the fetus from the higher blood pressure of the mother’s that could damage
the fetal blood vessels.
- To prevent blood coagulation if the mother and fetus have different blood groups.
DR. NADA HATEM 14

WHICH SUBSTANCES CAN CROSS PLACENTA?

▪ Small substances that are dissolved in the plasma such as dissolved food molecules, oxygen,
glucose, amino acids, and other nutrients that the fetus needs for growth diffuse from the
mother’s blood into the feotal blood.
▪ Waste products of metabolism, such as carbon dioxide and urea, diffuse out the fetal blood
and into the mother’s blood.
▪ The structure of the placenta also helps prevent many pathogens and some chemicals from
getting into the feotal blood, BUT some chemicals, such as nicotine of tobacco smoking and
some pathogens are small enough to still cross the placenta and cause harm to the fetus.
UMBILICAL CORD
The umbilical cord carries the blood vessels of the fetus and connects the placenta to the fetus.
Contains:
▪ Umbilical artery carries carbon dioxide and other wastes from the fetus to the placenta.
▪ Umbilical vein carries oxygen and other nutrients from the placenta to the fetus.
DR. NADA HATEM 15

LABOUR & BIRTH

▪ Labour takes hours, sometimes days.
▪ Birth is the final phase of labour!
▪ Labour starts with contractions of the uterine wall and with time, the contractions become
longer, stronger, more often, and more painful.
LABOUR SIGNS:
- Uterine muscles/wall contractions.
- Water breakage which indicates the breaking(rupture) of the amniotic sac.
- A show of blood tinged mucus which is the plug at the enterance of the uterus.
- Sometimes unexpected diarrhoea.
STAGES OF LABOUR
Few weeks before the birth, the fetus has come to lie head downwards in the uterus, with its
head just above the cervix.
FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE THIRD STAGE

- Oxytocin hormone is released
- The umbilical cord is tied
which stimulates the uterine
and cut. This does not
contractions to become
hurt neither the mother
frequent and stronger. The head of the baby is
nor the baby due to the
- The opening of the cervix pushed out by the effect of
absence of nerves in the
gradually dilates. uterine contractions and
umbilical cord.
- Breaking of the amniotic sac the rest of the body slides
- Later, the placenta breaks
and the outflow of amniotic out subsequently.
away from the uterus and
fluid sterilizing and
is pushed out separately
lubricating the pathway for the
as the ‘afterbirth’.
baby through the vagina.
The sudden fall in temperature felt by the newly born baby stimulates it to take its first breath
and the baby usually cries.
DR. NADA HATEM 16

INDUCED BIRTH
When a pregnancy lasts for more than 38 weeks or when examination shows that the placenta
is not coping with the demands of the fetus, birth may be started artificially.
- The start of labour is induced through: Using one way or both approaches together.
➢ Carefully breaking the membrane of the amniotic sac.
➢ Injecting the hormone oxytocin, into the mother’s veins, which
stimulates uterine contractions.
FEEDING AND PARENTAL CARE

▪ During pregnancy, the mammary glands enlarge as a result of an
increase in the number of milk-secreting cells.
▪ After birth, the first milk produced by the mother does not look like milk
but is the watery colustrum, which contains antibodies that protect
the baby from infection in the first few days and months of life. THIS PROVIDES PASSIVE
IMMUNITY.
BREAST FEEDING BOTTLE FEEDING
▪ Contains the proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins, and ▪ Contains artificial requirements but
salts that babies need for their energy may be beneficial in case of
requirements and tissue-building. malnourished mothers.
▪ There is too little iron present in the milk as all
the iron needed for the first weeks or months is
stored in the liver of the fetus during gestation.
▪ Contains antibodies to any diseases the mother ▪ Lacks antibodies.
has recovered so it provides passive immunity.
▪ The consistency is adjusted to the baby’s needs. ▪ Can be used to measure the baby’s
▪ But the volume of milk the baby intakes cannot intake amount daily to avoid
be measured so over feeding can happen. overfeeding.
▪ Free from bacteria and does not require ▪ Has the risk of introducing bacteria
sterilisation. that can cause intestinal diseases.
▪ Offers emotional and psychological benefits to Anyone can feed the baby if the mother
both the mother and baby. is a working or busy.
▪ There is no risk of an allergic reaction to breast There is a risk of an allergic reaction.
milk.
▪ Breast milk is produced at the correct Temperature has to be adjusted before
temperature. every feeding.
▪ There are no additives or preservatives in the Additives and preservatives are usually
breast milk. added in the artificial milk.
▪ There is no cost involved in using breast milk. Expensive over the long run.
▪ Breast milk is readily available and doesn’t Every meal has to be preprepared so its
require to be prepared. more time and effort consuming.
▪ Causes reduction in the uterus size.
DR. NADA HATEM 17

SEX HORMONES
➢ PUBERTY
MALE SEX HORMONE FEMALE SEX HORMONE
Testosterone Oestrogen
SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
MALE 1RY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS FEMALE 1RY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- Production of sperm from the testes.
- Ovulation.
- Development of sex organs.
- Menstruation.
- Erection in case of stimulation.
MALE 2NDRY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS FEMALE 2NDRY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- Enlargement of the testes and penis. - Increase in the size of uterus and vagina.
- Growth of chest, pubic hair, and later on, - Increased growth of the breasts.
facial hair. - Growth of hair in the pubic region and
- Deepening of voice. armpits.
- Broadening of shoulders. - High pitched voice.
- Widening of hips.
In both sexes, there is a rapid increase in the rate of growth during puberty. (growth spurt)
In addition to all the physical changes at puberty, there are emotional and psychological changes
associated with the transition from being a child to becoming an adult, the period of adolescence.
DR. NADA HATEM 18

➢ MENSTRUAL CYCLE
▪ The menstrual cycle is a sequence of changes that occur in a women’s body every month.
▪ The average cycle is 28 days long, but its normal for it to vary in different women.
▪ The cycle begins with the monthly bleeding (menstrual period), which is produced
from the breakdown/shedding off of the lining of the uterus, after which the lining of the
uterus starts to thicken again in preparation of another ovum to be produced.
▪ Ovulation occurs on the 14th day, about halfway through the cycle, in which an egg is
released from one of the ovaries. The egg then travels along the oviduct.
KEY DEFINITION
OVULATION
The release of an ovum, from an ovary, into an oviduct, on the 14th day of the menstrual
cycle.
▪ If the egg is fertilized, implantation ▪ If the egg is not fertilized, menstruation

takes place, and the lining continues to takes place. The uterus lining sheds off
develop for pregnancy. during the start of the next cycle.
MENOPAUSE
Between the ages of 40 and 55, the ovaries cease/stop to release ova or produce hormones.
As a consequence, menstrual periods stop, the woman can no longer have children, and sexual
desire is gradually reduced.
DR. NADA HATEM 19

PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

Mainly, four hormones control the menstrual cycle in women:
- FSH and LH which are produced by the pituitary gland in the base of the brain.
- Oestrogen and progesterone which are produced by the ovaries.
1) On the first day of the cycle, the lining of the uterus that was prepared for the previous egg
starts to shed off/break down. This is called menstruation.
2) At this point, FSH is released from the pituitary gland and stimulates the development of
an egg cell into a larger structure called a graafian follicle, in the ovary.
3) Cells surrounding the developing egg secrete high levels of the hormone oestrogen.
4) The oestrogen stimulates the lining of the uterus to repair and thicken to be prepared
for a possible implantation. Oestrogen also inhibits the production of FSH to prevent the
development of other ova during this period.
5) High levels of oestrogen in the blood cause the pituitary gland to release more LH.
6) High levels of LH cause an egg to be released from the ovary into the oviduct. This is called
ovulation.
7) Once the ovum has been released, the follicle that produced it develops into a solid body
called the corpus luteum which produces a hormone called progesterone.
8) LH also stimulates the ovaries to start to secrete the hormone progesterone.
9) Progesterone inhibits the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland by negative
feedback, to prevent the development of another egg cell during this time.
10) Progesterone stimulates the uterus lining to thicken even more in preparation of
receiving a fertilized egg. Progesterone also maintains the lining of the uterus thick. This
is an especially important function during pregnancy.
11) If the egg is not fertilized, the concentration of oestrogen and progesterone start to fall.
12) The fall in the hormones’ concentration causes the uterus lining to break down and shed
off.
13) Low oestrogen and progesterone levels in the blood cause the pituitary gland to release
more FSH and another egg start to develop in one of the ovaries.
14) The cycle begins again.
If the ovum is fertilized, the corpus luteum If the ovum is not fertilized the corpus
continues to release progesterone and so luteum stops producing progesterone the
keeps the uterus in a state suitable for thickened lining of the uterus breaks down
implantation. and menstruation occurs.
DR. NADA HATEM 20

ROLES OF DIFFERENT HORMONES CONTROLLING THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

FSH - Stimulates the development of a follicle into a graafian follicle.
- Stimulates the production of oestrogen from the ovaries.
OESTROGEN - Stimulates the repair and the thickening of the lining of the uterus to
be ready for implantation.
- Inhibits the production of FSH from the pituitary gland to prevent the
development of other ova during this time.
- Stimulates the production of LH from the pituitary gland.
LH - Stimulates the development of a corpus luteum.
- Stimulates the production of progesterone from the ovaries.
- Stimulates the release of an egg into the oviducts around the 14th day.
This is called ovulation.
PROGESTERONE During menstrual cycle:
- Stimulates the increase in thickness of the lining of the uterus.
- Maintains the lining of the uterus to be prepared for implantation.
- Inhibits the release of the FSH and LH by negative feedback to
prevent the development and the release of other ova during this time.
During pregnancy:
- Maintains the lining of the uterus which is needed for supporting the
embryo.
- Stimulates start of the development of the mammary glands.
DR. NADA HATEM 21

BIRTH CONTROL
Most people do not want, or cannot afford, to have many children therefore, people practice
birth control to space out births and limit/control the size of the family.
METHODS OF BIRTH CONRTOL/ CONTRACEPTION

Abstinence
Avoiding sexual intercourse is the most obvious way of preventing a
pregnancy.
Estimating the fertile window around ovulation
If it is possible to determine when ovulation occurs, intercourse could be
avoided for 3-4 days before and 1 day after ovulation. It is usually 12 – 16
days before the onset of the next menstrual period. There are ways to
estimate the time of ovulation:
▪ CALENDAR METHOD:
Keeping careful records of the intervals between menstrual periods to
NATURAL
calculate a potentially fertile period of about 10 days in mid-cycle.
▪ PHYSIOLOGICAL CLUES:
- TEMPERATURE METHOD:
Examining body temperature: during or soon after ovulation a woman’s
temperature rises by about 0.5 °C. Approximately one day after the
temperature returns back to normal, a woman will be infertile.
- CERVICAL MUCUS METHOD:
Examining cervical mucus: the type of mucus secreted by the cervix
lining of the vagina. As the time for ovulation approaches, the mucus
becomes more fluid.
Condom or sheath
A thin rubber sheath that is placed on the erect penis
before sexual intercourse to trap the ejaculated sperm and
prevent them from getting in contact with the female body.
Condoms also prevent the transmission of sexually
MECHANICAL transmitted infections (STIs)
(BARRIER)
ARTIFICIAL METHODS
Femidom
This is the female condom. It is a thin rubber sheath or a
pouch with a flexible ring at each end.
The ring at the closed end of the sheath is inserted into the
vagina to hold the femidom in place.
The ring at the open end is placed outside the vagina.
A femidom reduces the risk of STIs.
DR. NADA HATEM 22

Diaphragm
A thin rubber disc that is placed in the vagina before
MECHANICAL sexual intercourse to cover the cervix and stop the sperm
(BARRIER) from entering the uterus.
However, a diaphragm does not prevent the risk of
transmission of STIs.
Intrauterine device (IUD)
A small T- shaped plastic and copper device also known as
a coil, can be inserted by a doctor or nurse into the wall of
the uterus, where it probably will prevent implantation of
a fertilized ovum but has a probability of developing
uterine infections and does not protect against STIs.
Spermicides
ARTIFICIAL Chemicals that can kill or immobilize sperm. The
spermicide, in the form of a cream, gel, or foam, is placed
in the vagina.
On their own, spermicides are not very reliable but, in
conjunction with condoms or diaphragms, they are
effective.
Intrauterine system (IUS)
a small T- shaped device that is inserted by a doctor into
the wall of the uterus. IUS releases the hormone
progesterone slowly over a long period of time (up to 5
years). The hormone prevents ovulation but the IUS does
not protect against STIs.
CHEMICAL
Contraceptive pill
The pill contains chemicals which have the same effect on
the body as the hormones; oestrogen and progesterone,
they suppress ovulation and so prevent conception.
Long term use of some pill types may increase the risk of
cancer of the breast and cervix.
The pill does not protect against STIs.
Contraceptive implant
A small plastic tube about 4cm long, which is inserted
under the skin of the upper arm of a woman by a doctor or
a nurse. Once in place, it slowly releases the hormone
progesterone, preventing pregnancy.
It lasts about 3 years and is a very successful contraception
method but does not protect against STIs.
Contraceptive injection
An injection that contains progesterone and stays effective
for 8-12 weeks. It works by thickening the mucus in the
cervix which stops the sperm from reaching an egg.
Contraceptive injections don’t protect against STIs.
DR. NADA HATEM 23

MALE Male sterilization – vasectomy

This is a simple and safe surgical operation in which the sperm
ducts are tied, cut, and the ends are sealed.
This means:
- Ejaculated semen will only contain the secretions of the
prostate gland and the seminal vesicle but no sperm.
- Sexual desire, erection, copulation, and ejaculation are quite
unaffected.
- Testis contains to produce sperm and testosterone.
- Sperm are removed by white cells as fast as they form.
- The testosterone production ensures that there is no loss of
masculinity.
SURGICAL
Sperm ducts can be rejoined by another surgery, but it is not always
successful.
FEMALE Female sterilization – laparotomy
A woman may be sterilized by an operation in which her oviducts
are tied, blocked, or cut.
This means:
- The ovaries are unaffected,
- Sexual desire and menstruation continue as before.
- But sperm can no longer reach the ova.
- Ova are still produced but break down in the upper part of
the oviduct.
This operation cannot usually be reversed.
USING HORMONES IN CONTRACEPTION (CHEMICAL)

Oestrogen and progesterone control important events in the menstrual cycle.
OESTROGEN PROGESTERONE
Inhibits FSH release from the pituitary Inhibits LH release from pituitary gland.
gland.
If FSH is blocked, ova maturation will stop. If LH is blocked, ovulation cannot happen.
WITH AGAINST
Contraception is important in preventing Some religions are against any artificial
unwanted pregnancies and control/limit of forms of contraception and actively
family size. discourage the use of contraceptives such as
Some mechanical methods of contraception sheath and femidom.
prevent the transmission of STDs.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE USE OF CONTRACEPTION:
DR. NADA HATEM 24

SUMMARY OF BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

ARTIFICAL
NATURAL MECHANICAL CHEMICAL SURGICAL
METHODS METHODS
Abstinence = Sheath or condom Spermicides Male sterilization –
avoiding sexual vasectomy
intercourse Sperm ducts tied and/or cut.
Calendar Femidom Intra uterine Female sterilization –
method system (IUS) laparotomy
Oviducts tied and/or cut.
Monitoring Intra-uterine device Contraceptive
body (IUD) pill
temperature
Monitoring Diaphragm Contraceptive
cervical implant
mucus
Contraceptive
injection
DR. NADA HATEM 25

FERTILITY DRUGS
Infertility is a term that usually describes the inability to conceive after a year (or longer) of
unprotected sexual intercourses.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR INFERTILITY DEPENDING ON CAUSES:

(1) USING HORMONES TO IMPROVE FERTILITY
- Failure to produce ova can be treated with fertility drugs.
- These drugs act by increasing levels of FSH and LH to help with the maturation of
follicles and ovulation.
- Administration of the drugs is timed to promote ovulation to coincide with
copulation.
(2) ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION:
(AI)
- In case of failure of the sperms to be of adequate quantity in the semen or sperms
not being mobile enough to reach the oviducts. There are few effective treatments
for these conditions, but pregnancy can still be achieved through artificial
insemination.
- Artificial insemination involves injecting semen through a tube into the top of the
uterus. In some cases, the husband’s semen is used but more often, semen is supplied
by an anonymous donor.
IMPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
PROS/WITH/ADVANTAGE CONS/AGAINST
- Allows the woman the satisfaction of - There are religious and moral objections
bearing her child rather than adopting. against sperm donations as the child can
- Allows a couple to have a baby of their never know their father.
own that is biologically theirs if the man - There might be legal problems about the
is infertile. legitimacy of the child in some countries.
(3) IN VITRO FERTILISATION (IVF)

“in vitro” means literally “in glass”, hence the term “test tube babies”.
This technique can be used where surgery cannot be used to repair blocked oviducts.
➢ The woman may be given fertility drugs, which cause her ovaries to release several
mature ova simultaneously.
➢ These ova are then collected by laparoscopy. (a fine tube that is inserted through the
abdominal wall)
➢ The ova are then mixed with the husband’s seminal fluid (semen) and
observed/watched under the microscope to see if cell division takes place.
➢ One or more of the dividing zygotes are then introduced to the woman’s uterus by
means of a tube inserted through a cervix.
DR. NADA HATEM 26

➢ Usually, only one (or none) of the zygotes develops, though occasionally there are
multiple births.
IMPLICATIONS OF IN VITRO FERTILISATION (IVF)

PROS/WITH/ADVANTAGE CONS/AGAINST
- Allows the woman the satisfaction of - Very expensive.
bearing her child rather than adopting. - Sometimes fails so puts an emotional
- Allows a couple to have a baby of their burden on the couples, especially the
own that is biologically theirs if the mothers.
woman’s oviducts are blocked. - There are religious and moral objections
against discarding the extra “spare”
embryos. Some believe that the spare
embryos also have potential as human
beings, they should not be destroyed or
used for research.
TWINS
FRATERNAL TWINS IDENTICAL TWINS
During ovulation, a woman releases two
A single fertilised egg divides into two
ova instead of one. Both ova are fertilised,
separate embryos, during an early stage of
two zygotes are formed. They grow to form
cell division.
twin embryos.
Each embryo has its own placenta and Both embryos share the same placenta and
amnion. amnion.
The twins must be of the same sex because
It is possible to have a boy and a girl because
they are formed from the same single ovum
the twins come from two different separate
and sperm. (only one sperm X or Y fertilised
ova, each is fertilised by a different sperm.
the ovum)
The twins formed in this way are called
The ‘one-egg’ twins are sometimes called
fraternal twins and are non-identical in
identical twins because they will closely
being no more alike than other brothers and
resemble each other in every aspect.
sisters.
DR. NADA HATEM 27

DR. NADA HATEM 28

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STIs)

KEY DEFINITION
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION

An infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact.
SYPHILIS AND GONORRHOEA

STIs that are caused by bacteria and can be treated with antibiotics if the symptoms are
recognized early enough.
AIDS and HIV

▪ AIDS stand for acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
▪ A syndrome is a pattern of symptoms associated with a particular disease.
▪ The virus that causes AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
▪ The virus may remain dormant in the body for years before symptoms develop but this
patient can still infect other people.
• EFFECT OF HIV ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
- HIV attacks certain kinds of lymphocytes causing their numbers to decrease.
- This makes the body unable to respond to infections efficiently through the immune
system, it becomes vulnerable to pathogens that otherwise might not be life threatening.
- As a result, the patient has a little or no resistance to a wide range of diseases such as
influenza, pneumonia, blood disorders, skin cancer, or damage to the nervous system,
which the body cannot resist nor fight appropriately.
DR. NADA HATEM 29

• METHODS OF TRANSMISSION:
1. Direct infection of the blood.
2. Sexual intercourse with infected partner.
3. Sharing needles.
4. Blood transfusion.
5. From mother to baby through placenta either through placenta, during birth, or from
the mother’s milk.
• PEOPLE AT RISK:
1. Addicts because they usually share needles.
2. Anyone cleaning up dirty needles is at risk of accidentally stabbing themselves.
3. Surgeons carrying out operations on patients with HIV.
4. Homosexual men who practice anal intercourse.
5. Prostitutes who have unprotected sexual intercourse with many sexual partners.
• METHODS OF PREVENTION:
1. Protected sex with condoms or another barrier means.
2. Avoid having many sexual partners.
3. Avoid sharing needles.
4. Surgeons should be careful not to be in contact with the patients’ blood.
• METHODS OF TREATMENT:
There is no cure for AIDS but today, there is a range of drugs that can be given separately or
in combination to slow the progress of the disease.
• METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS:
A range of blood tests designed to detect HIV infection by detecting if antibodies to the virus
are in blood. If HIV antibodies are present, the person is said to be HIV positive.
The tests vary in their reliability and some are too expensive for widespread use.
DR. NADA HATEM 30

Open Chapter 24 Rep in Humans

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Open Chapter 24 Rep in Humans

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 24:

DR. NADA HATEM 2

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

DR. NADA HATEM 3

DR. NADA HATEM 4

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

DR. NADA HATEM 5

DR. NADA HATEM 6

DR. NADA HATEM 7

COMPARISON BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE GAMETE

DR. NADA HATEM 8

DR. NADA HATEM 9

WHAT HAPPENS IF THERE IS NO FERTILISATION?

DR. NADA HATEM 10

DR. NADA HATEM 11

DR. NADA HATEM 12

DR. NADA HATEM 13

BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PLACENTA:

DR. NADA HATEM 14

WHICH SUBSTANCES CAN CROSS PLACENTA?

DR. NADA HATEM 15

LABOUR & BIRTH

FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE THIRD STAGE

DR. NADA HATEM 16

FEEDING AND PARENTAL CARE

DR. NADA HATEM 17

DR. NADA HATEM 18

▪ If the egg is fertilized, implantation ▪ If the egg is not fertilized, menstruation

DR. NADA HATEM 19

PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

DR. NADA HATEM 20

ROLES OF DIFFERENT HORMONES CONTROLLING THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE:

DR. NADA HATEM 21

METHODS OF BIRTH CONRTOL/ CONTRACEPTION

DR. NADA HATEM 22

DR. NADA HATEM 23

MALE Male sterilization – vasectomy

USING HORMONES IN CONTRACEPTION (CHEMICAL)

DR. NADA HATEM 24

SUMMARY OF BIRTH CONTROL METHODS

DR. NADA HATEM 25

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR INFERTILITY DEPENDING ON CAUSES:

(3) IN VITRO FERTILISATION (IVF)

DR. NADA HATEM 26

IMPLICATIONS OF IN VITRO FERTILISATION (IVF)

DR. NADA HATEM 27

DR. NADA HATEM 28

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STIs)

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION

SYPHILIS AND GONORRHOEA

AIDS and HIV

DR. NADA HATEM 29

DR. NADA HATEM 30

You might also like