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Green Marketing Strategies: An Examination of Stakeholders and the

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Article  in  Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · February 2011

DOI: 10.1007/s11747-010-0227-0

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J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
DOI 10.1007/s11747-010-0227-0

Green marketing strategies: an examination of stakeholders

and the opportunities they present
J. Joseph Cronin, Jr & Jeffery S. Smith &
Mark R. Gleim & Edward Ramirez &
Jennifer Dawn Martinez

Received: 31 December 2009 / Accepted: 15 September 2010

# Academy of Marketing Science 2010

Abstract As green marketing strategies become increas-
ingly more important to firms adhering to a triple-bottom
line performance evaluation, the present research seeks to
better understand the role of “green” as a marketing
strategy. Through an integration of the marketing, manage-
ment, and operations literatures, an investigative framework
is generated that identifies the various stakeholders poten-
tially impacted through the environmentally friendly efforts
of a firm. Specifically, the inter-connected nature of the core
business disciplines of marketing, management (both strategy
and human resources), and operations are examined as
controllable functions within an organization from which
strategies can be enacted to affect a firm’s stakeholders. The
prior research in these areas is examined to identify potential
research opportunities in marketing while also offering a
series of representative research questions that can help guide
future research in marketing.
Keywords Green marketing strategy . Environmental
strategy . Stakeholder analysis

This research was supported by the Institute for Energy Systems,

Economics and Sustainability (IESES) at The Florida State University. Introduction
J. J. Cronin, Jr (*) : J. S. Smith : M. R. Gleim
The College of Business, Department of Marketing, As firms note the positive gains that can accrue through
The Florida State University, environmentally friendly marketing strategies (e.g., Luo
Rovetta Business Annex Room 307, P.O. Box 3061110,
Tallahassee, FL 32306-1110, USA
and Bhattacharya 2006) and the potential pitfalls associated
e-mail: jcronin@cob.fsu.edu with non-environmentally friendly strategies, going green is
J. S. Smith
beginning to take center stage in boardrooms around the
e-mail: jssmith@cob.fsu.edu world. There is a growing interest among top managers,
M. R. Gleim
stakeholders and academics regarding green marketing
e-mail: mgleim@fsu.edu strategies and the potential impact on the triple-bottom
line. Firms are increasingly adhering to a triple-bottom line
E. Ramirez performance evaluation, a concept coined to reflect the
College of Business Administration,
Department of Marketing and Management,
growing tendency of stakeholders to evaluate organizational
The University of Texas at El Paso, performance on the basis of economic prosperity (i.e.,
Business Room 230, profits), environmental quality (i.e., the planet), and social
El Paso, TX 79968, USA justice (i.e., people)1 (Elkington 1997).
e-mail: eramirez29@utep.edu
The recent BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico typifies the
J. D. Martinez impact that an environmental disaster can have on a firm’s
Fogelman College of Business & Economics, triple-bottom line. Not only has BP’s stock price plum-
Department of Marketing & Supply Chain Management, meted and credit rating been lowered (Guitierrez 2010), but
The University of Memphis,
FAB 302,
1
Memphis, TN 38152, USA For the remainder of the paper, we use the triple-bottom line and
e-mail: jmartine@memphis.edu people/profit/planet (or 3P) concepts interchangeably.

consumer boycotts continue to spread while the environ-
mental damage to the Gulf continues to devastate. Further,
the recent miscues by BP have led to even greater scrutiny
by governmental and other non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) as a consequence of the lack of environmental
strategies.
This example provides glaring evidence of the growing
importance of going green as a viable organizational strategy
with specific implications for marketing as well. Specifically,
firms are expected to commit to green marketing strategies as
(1) the cost of materials and energy continue to rise, (2) public
pressure continues to increase, (3) there is increasing
awareness that subscribing to triple-bottom line practices can
increase consumer demand, and (4) consumers’ growing
antipathy to globalization is leading to strengthening NGO
activity relative to green performance (Kleindorfer et al.
2005). In addition, while the costs of such efforts can be
substantial, improved environmental performance has been
linked to greater financial performance, competitiveness, and
innovation benefits (Kassinis and Vafeas 2006; King and
Lenox 2002; Klassen and Whybark 1999; Majumdar and
Marcus 2001).
As a result, organizations worldwide are recognizing the
appeal of environmentally friendly products and strategies.
Organizations are increasingly focused on developing
internal and external strategies that are green. Specifically,
it is suggested that efforts will be made internally to recover
pollution causing outputs, to develop substitutes for non-
renewable inputs, and to redesign products to reduce material
content and energy consumption. Similarly, external strategies
will likely focus on developing core competences in products,
processes, and other supply chain activities that emphasize
long-term sustainability throughout the entire supply chain
(Kleindorfer et al. 2005).
Given the prominence the green movement has risen
to in recent years, it is surprising the marketing literature
has paid relatively scant attention to the efficacy of
green marketing strategies (see Baker and Sinkula 2005;
de Ruyter et al. 2009; Drumwright 1994; Grinstein and
Nisan 2009; Menon and Menon 1997 for notable
exceptions). Defined as “doing business while avoiding
harm to people and the planet” (Center for Sustainable
Enterprise 2010), and identified as an actionable response
to calls for organizations to focus on their “triple-bottom
line performance” (i.e., measuring performance based on
the effects of strategies on people, the planet, and profits),
green is clearly an area of increased concern for organizations
worldwide. Unfortunately, marketing research that evaluates
such strategic initiatives is lacking in comparison to other
disciplines.
The need for additional green research is not limited to
purely theoretical concerns as today more than 75% of
consumers routinely report that they are green, or prefer
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
environmentally friendly products (Saad 2006). While the
vast majority of consumers claim to be green, green
products account for less than four percent of the global
product market share (UNEP 2005). This alone suggests the
need for marketing research to address the massive
disconnect between attitudes toward green products and
businesses and actual purchase behaviors. Early research on
marketing orientation noted the important role marketing
can play in developing the inter-functional coordination
needed to meet the wants and needs exhibited in markets
(Hurley and Hult 1998; Jaworski and Kohli 1993; Slater
and Narver 2000). As the key link between organizations
and markets, marketers represent the lynchpin in moving
firms toward a true triple-bottom line orientation.
Thus, the purpose of the current research is to review
and integrate the literature surrounding green initiatives in
various business disciplines and offer a series of guiding
research opportunities to advance the marketing discipline.
Given that green research in other academic disciplines
exceeds the attention given to green strategies in the
marketing literature, the central topical areas from the core
business disciplines (i.e., management, operations, and
marketing) are identified and utilized as a foundation from
which a series of research opportunities are generated. To
accomplish this goal, we generate an overarching frame-
work (see Fig. 1) that is based on stakeholder theory in
terms of the 3P concept as the basis for the literature
investigation. More concretely, we denote how the research
opportunities can be used in the generation of specific
research questions that can act as a springboard for future
marketing research on green marketing strategies. In other
words, we offer a tangible guide as to how to recognize the
gaps in the current literature while providing opportunities
for future studies. We believe that this article can serve as
encouragement for marketing scholars to undertake research
that evaluates how best to satisfy market needs and wants for
green products.
Conceptual framework and methodology
As noted above, the goal of this article is to advance the
marketing discipline in investigations addressing the con-
cept of green marketing strategies. To guide our investiga-
tion, we generated an overarching model (see Fig. 1)
whereby research in the core business disciplines (i.e.,
marketing, management, and operations) is reviewed in
order to identify the main themes that emerge. The themes
are then integrated in order to determine what is known
about each topic. We then employ a stakeholder analysis to
determine how marketing research can address the gaps in
the literature (i.e., what research opportunities exist) in
terms of the 3P perspective. More specifically, we denote
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
Fig. 1 Conceptual investigation
framework
External
Stakeholders
Society
Consumers
how the marketing discipline can reach the relevant stake-
holders to increase emphasis on green-related issues. In the
following sub-sections, we offer a brief overview of
stakeholder theory and the 3P concept followed by a
description of how we employed our framework as a tool to
identify the research opportunities. We also outline the
process we employed to identify the relevant studies that
have been conducted on green concepts as they pertain to
the business community.
Stakeholder theory and the 3P perspective
An overarching tenet has emerged that the organization
should conduct business beyond the base consideration of
only making a profit. In essence, the mindset has shifted
from doing whatever it takes to make money to a more
balanced approach whereby firms consider the multitude of
possible effects a specific decision may have. This
multifaceted perspective has been mainly addressed in
terms of making decisions while addressing the needs of
divergent groups of relevant stakeholders (Freeman 1984).
The concept is broadly entitled stakeholder theory and
suggests that a firm should pursue strategies that consider
the parties affected by decisions while trying to minimize
damage or maximize benefits to the representative groups
(Freeman 1984). While there has been debate over the
specifics of the theory (see Brummer 1991; Donaldson and
Government
and NGOs
Human
Resources
Internal
Functions Competitors
Strategy
Investors
Marketing Operations
Management
Supply Chain
Partners
Preston 1995), it has become commonly accepted that
organizations need to be aware of the totality of their
decisions.
The core tenet of stakeholder theory is to think beyond
just financial performance. It can be seen that this meshes
neatly with the 3P (or triple-bottom line) paradigm of doing
business while avoiding harm to people and the planet
(Center for Sustainable Enterprise 2010) as both propose
considering the range of potential ramifications of environ-
mentally related decisions. It is through the overlap of the
3P concept with stakeholder theory that the groups that
could be affected by green strategies are identified. The
core stakeholders that are considered within this study are
consumers, competitors, government and NGOs, investors,
supply chain partners, employees, and society as a whole
(Donaldson and Preston 1995). These stakeholder groups
are included as research suggests that the characteristics of
specific groups impact their ability to influence organiza-
tional strategies, of which green is one (e.g., ability to
generate political support, access to unique resources,
expertise, and personal preferences or value) (Kassinis
and Vafeas 2006).
From the marketing perspective, previous research has
not been effective at reaching these specific stakeholder
groups. The dearth of research originating in marketing has
focused mainly on the end consumer (e.g., Luchs et al.
2010). In contrast, other fields have begun to utilize aspects

of the 3P-stakeholder overlap to guide investigations. For
example, the operations literature has focused on sustain-
ability across supply chain relationships that range from
back-end purchasing (Carter and Carter 1998) through
front-end distribution (van Woensel et al. 2001) and
concluding with the retrieval and re-use of post consumer
components (Guide 2000). Operations has even explored
the internal aspects of employees (Gattiker and Carter
2010), managers (Klassen 2001; Pagell and Gobeli 2009),
and systems (Melnyk et al. 2003) while also investigating
the performance impacts of reducing waste (King and
Lenox 2001; Rothenberg et al. 2001). In conjunction, the
management discipline has addressed the larger-scale
impacts of pursuing a green strategy. In particular, the
potential impact of environmental technologies as a
competitive force (Shrivastava 1995a), the linkages
between environmental strategy and stakeholder manage-
ment (Buysse and Verbeke 2003), and the impact of a
firm’s competitive environment on the development of a
business-natural environment interface (Aragón-Correa
and Sharma 2003) have been addressed. Since marketing
is currently lagging behind these other disciplines, it is
imperative that marketers investigate how the different
stakeholder groups can potentially affect and/or influence
a firm’s green strategies.
Framework utilization
As research outside the realm of marketing, particularly
management and operations, has focused greater attention
on green strategies, it is our intent to use these studies,
along with those in marketing, to help stimulate future work
on the topic. In order to do so, we produced the
investigative model (Fig. 1) to guide the generation of the
set of research opportunities from which research questions
can potentially flow. The model identifies both internal and
external components in order to identify the relevant
business literature while considering all the affected stake-
holders (Banerjee 2002; Bohlen et al. 1993). The internal
portion of the model demonstrates the inter-connected
nature of the core business disciplines of marketing,
management (both strategy and human resources), and
operations. This portion of the diagram is intended to
denote the facets that an organization can directly control
and is the origin of the vast majority of the academic
literature on green strategies within the firm. In contrast, the
external section highlights all the relevant stakeholders that
could be affected by the decisions an organization makes in
regard to green issues.
After the model was developed, the goal was then to
utilize it as a tool in the generation of the specific research
opportunities. In order to do so, we reviewed the literature
across the business disciplines (the article identification
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
procedure is explained below) with the goal of determining
the main topics that have been studied. These core topics
were then integrated in order to gain a full understanding of
what is known about green related areas. Once established,
we then considered each topical area in terms of how
marketing could use what is already known to more fully
address the research needs of each stakeholder group.
Every core topic was considered in terms of how
marketing could serve as the coordinating unit that links
the specific organizational strategies to each stakeholder.
For example (the complete explanation is included in the
results section), one area that was identified was environ-
mental certification (mainly noted in terms of ISO 14000).
It was determined that most studies on the topic originated
in the operations literature, where the crux of what is
known mainly addresses why firms choose to pursue
certification and what operational benefits accrue. In
accordance with the framework, there appears to be a
significant gap in the understanding of what certification
means to an organization relative to the majority of
stakeholders. We see that there is an opportunity to explore
the potential marketing implications in that there is
potential to use certification as a branding or promotional
strategy for the general consumer base or for potential
supply chain partners in a B2B setting. There is also the
potential to use certification as a signal to investors or
society as a whole that the organization is taking a pro-
environmental stance from which the image of the firm
could be enhanced. It is with this logic that each topic was
investigated so as to denote the research opportunities
highlighted below.
Article identification
To identify important issues surrounding sustainable busi-
ness practices, a large-scale integrative literature review
was conducted. First, to gather data for this review, a
rigorous keyword search of the literature using ABI/Inform
Global using Proquest® Smart Search was undertaken. The
keywords “sustainability,” “green,” and “environmental”
were initially used to generate more than 500 articles for
review. To ensure the validity of our review, we also
searched the top-tier journals in the core business disci-
plines for any article that addressed a green concept. As our
search procedure resulted in some un-related articles (i.e.,
those dealing with topics such as a “sustainable competitive
advantage” or the “environment” in a traditional business
sense), we trimmed the dataset to only the truly green
investigations resulting in a total of 311 articles, spanning
105 unique journals, being used for the final integrative
review. Each article was examined by at least two
researchers with knowledge of the subject matter, and only
the articles that were approved by both judges were
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
accepted. If an agreement could not be reached, the article
was discussed between the judges and a third member was
asked to judge the article as well.
In the second stage, two researchers grouped the articles
according to multiple criteria, including the main subject
matter, methodological approach, and business sub-
discipline. With regard to the subject matter, the integration
used our framework of relevant stakeholders considering
people, the planet, and firm profits in identifying important
themes across each business discipline. More specifically,
the articles were grouped into three broad thematic
categories (green performance, green strategy, and the
green consumer) followed by the classifying into relevant
sub-categories. For example, it was determined that inside
the green strategy section, the topical areas of green
innovation, green alliances, and internal greening of the
organization emerged. Further sub-classifications were
generated inside each of these categories in order to more
fully recognize the themes in the environmentally-oriented
literature. This classification scheme was then used as the
basis for the generation of the presented research opportu-
nities to guide marketing research in the future.
Beyond the article classification scheme, it should be
noted that any disagreements in the classification process
were resolved by a third member of the research team. The
inter-rater reliability for the classifications exceeded the
recommended 0.70 level (Perreault and Leigh 1989). With
a data set of this size, the analysis paralleled a grounded
theory approach whereby we sought a saturation approach
to indicate when the core set of themes had emerged
(Strauss and Corbin 1998).
Research opportunities for marketing
This section provides the result of the literature integration
from which the main research topics were generated.
Accordingly, a series of research opportunities are pre-
sented which denote specific areas that are ripe for
investigation from the marketing perspective. As the link
to the stakeholders of an organization, the marketing
function is a key component in communicating green
efforts. Therefore, it is imperative that marketers be
knowledgeable of these topics while being able to effec-
tively reach the intended stakeholder.
Green performance
Encouraging firms to utilize “green” as a marketing strategy
would be a difficult task for practitioners and academics if
financial incentives of going green were lacking. When
examining the triple-bottom line, the benefit to people and
the planet is evident through green marketing strategies;
however, if superior profits are not present as well, it is
likely firms will choose to not engage in such a strategy.
Thus, a vast amount of research in management has focused
on the impact socially responsible initiatives (which
encompass green concepts) can have on financial perfor-
mance, with conflicting views resulting. The first view
contends that organizations that employ socially responsi-
ble initiatives incur additional costs and are therefore at a
financial disadvantage (Aupperle et al. 1985; Ullmann
1985; Vance 1975). The opposing view asserts that the
costs of implementation are minimal and the benefit of
improved employee morale and productivity offsets any
additional costs that an organization may incur (Moskowitz
1972; Parket and Eilbirt 1975). Given the varying perspec-
tives regarding the potential impact of social responsibility
on financial performance, it is not surprising a plethora of
studies on the topic exist.
Research examining social responsibility and financial
performance has yielded mixed results. Both short-term and
long-term financial results suggest a negative relationship
(McGuire et al. 1988; Wright and Ferris 1997), a positive
relationship (Russo and Fouts 1997; Waddock and Graves
1997), a selective relationship (Jacobs et al. 2010) or no
relationship (Aupperle et al. 1985; Teoh et al. 1999). Thus,
early work by Narver (1971) suggests that such efforts may
not be a strategy for increased short-run profits for
organizations, but rather a strategy that firms may utilize
to maximize the long-term welfare of the firm. Manage-
ment must adapt to the demands of social pressure and
regulation to maximize the present market value of the firm
by instilling confidence in stakeholders that the organiza-
tion will not encounter sanctions down the road.
Similarly, more recent research provides an indication
that socially responsible initiatives may not increase
revenues for the firm, but rather decrease risk for an
organization (McGuire et al. 1988). Potential risks, such as
lawsuits, are expected to decrease due to the socially
responsible initiatives of the firm. Further, research sug-
gests that the impact of socially responsible initiatives on
stock price are directly associated with any positive or
negative effects of the initiatives (Alexander and Buchholz
1978). The findings suggest that the stock market is
efficient, thus any positive or negative effects of socially
responsible initiatives will be immediately reflected in the
price of the stock. The recent oil spill by BP sheds light on
the potentially devastating impact that the lack of green
strategies can have on the short- and long-term performance
of the firm, as BP’s stock price and credit rating have
plummeted (Guitierrez 2010).
More recent findings related to social responsibility and
firm performance suggest that the link may be more
complicated than originally expected. Hillman and Keim
(2001) suggest that building better relationships with

primary stakeholders (e.g., employees, customers, sup-
pliers) leads to superior firm performance. However,
investing in socially responsible initiatives that do not
directly impact the primary stakeholders will likely not
create additional value for the firm (Hillman and Keim
2001). Similarly, research suggests that socially responsi-
ble actions and firm performance are negatively related;
however, the causal relationship is unknown (Bansal
2005). It is not clear if social responsibility leads to poor
firm performance or if poorly performing firms are less
likely to engage in socially responsible behaviors. Simi-
larly, the impact of firm financial performance has been
shown to impact perceptions of social responsibility as
financially superior firms may appear to be more socially
responsible than their economically-depressed counter-
parts (Brown and Perry 1994).
Recent research in marketing suggests that organizations
engaging in green practices may be able to benefit in
multiple ways. First, firms that have a green orientation are
likely to achieve greater financial gains and market share
(Menguc and Ozanne 2005), high levels of employee
commitment (Maignan and Ferrell 2001), increased firm
performance (Pujari et al. 2003), and increased capabilities
(Baker and Sinkula 2005). Further, results suggest that
socially responsible actions lead to increased customer
satisfaction and greater firm value (Luo and Bhattacharya
2006) and can reduce undesirable firm-idiosyncratic risk,
which can lead to greater firm valuations (Luo and
Bhattacharya Luo and Bhattacharya 2006). While benefits
are noted, Mathur and Mathur (2000) find that green
promotional efforts by firms yield negative stock returns.
Organizations may also benefit from green practices
through cost savings. As pollution is a sign of waste, firms
that curb pollution and reduce inputs that may lead to waste
should see cost saving advantages (Lash and Wellington
2007; Porter and van der Linde 1995). Improved energy
efficiency and waste reduction can enable green firms to
quickly recover the financial outlay needed to fund green
initiatives. Through gains in energy efficiency and waste
reduction, firms can quickly recover the financial outlay
needed to fund green initiatives. For example, DuPont spent
$50 million in 2008 on energy saving initiatives and was
able to recover the financial outlay after only 12 months,
thus creating future cost saving advantages for the firm
(Winston 2009). Thus, given the results of green directed
initiatives on firm performance, it is evident that green
strategies can be a benefit to firms. However, a more
thorough understanding of the effect green marketing
strategies can have on firm performance is needed.
Therefore, the following research opportunity is identified.
RO1: Investigate the link between green marketing
strategies and firm performance.
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
Green strategies
When attempting to achieve the goals of an organization,
there are various avenues by which firms can pursue green
strategies in order to address the needs of the various
stakeholder groups. Three main types of green strategies are
gleaned from the literature: (1) green innovation, (2)
greening the organization, and (3) green alliances. These
three strategies, and related categories within each strategy,
are detailed below. The first commonly utilized strategy is
the development of new or innovative green products. It is
believed that the development of new products or services
sends a positive signal to each stakeholder that the
organization is, indeed, a green company. Another potential
strategy is to focus on environmental aspects within the
firm itself. In this case, the initiatives are more focused on
greening the processes associated with the production of a
good or the delivery of a service. Beyond producing new,
green products or greening the organization’s processes, a
company can also choose to utilize an alliance or
partnership to enhance the green orientation, which is
another way to send a signal that the company is going
green. As these are three main strategic directions with
specific sub-components, we use them as the overarching
categories under which the more detailed topical areas are
contained. However, the large-scale effectiveness of any of
these strategies has yet to be addressed either as a stand-alone
option or in specific bundles. Therefore, research is needed to
assess which of these strategies is most effective in terms of
affecting the orientation of a company as a green firm. Thus,
the following research opportunity is offered:
RO2: Investigate the relative effectiveness of various
green marketing strategies.
Green innovation
Developing environmentally friendly goods and services is
critical to the success of firms that are attempting to create
innovative products to meet the needs of the ever-
increasing environmentally conscious consumer. As recent
polls suggest that 77% of Americans are concerned about
the environment (Saad 2006), it is not surprising that firms
are introducing green products at a tremendous rate with
over 1,500 new products in 2009 (Makower 2009). While
environmental standards can trigger product innovation
(Porter 1991), firms that utilize green as an innovative
strategy are likely to develop effective ways to reduce
waste, create new packaging and production processes, and
develop better ways to deliver goods and services to
consumers (Coddington 1993; Mirvis 1994).
A concept that has been put forward to help firms better
capitalize on green is the enviropreneurial marketing
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
strategy (Menon and Menon 1997; Varadarajan 1992).
Enviropreneurial marketing is an entrepreneurial and envi-
ronmentally friendly strategy that organizations can utilize to
satisfy economic and social objectives (Varadarajan 1992).
Enviropreneurial marketing is based on the idea that green is
a market opportunity rather than an obstacle that firms must
merely overcome to operate in the marketplace (Coddington
1993; Hunt and Auster 1990). As such, enviropreneurial
activities are proactive; that is, organizations are actively
trying to stay ahead of the competition and accept the risk
associated with being a market pioneer. Such a strategy
likely generates innovative and technological advances that
allow firms to capitalize on both the entrepreneurial and
environmentally-friendly strategies rather than merely meet-
ing legal or regulatory standards (Shrivastava 1995b).
The development of green products, whether in the
context of human resources, operations, or marketing,
requires new ideas while dealing with added constraints of
environmental and consumer pressures. Green innovation
strategies are needed in order to satisfy the expectations of
the wide range of stakeholders that have ambiguous, and
sometimes conflicting, demands (Hall and Vredenburg
2005). All stakeholders stand to benefit from successful
innovation. Whereas other literatures investigate the roles
played by various stakeholders in green innovation
(Shrivastava 1995b), the marketing literature fails to
consider whether the development of green products or
services is considered innovative by any organizational
stakeholders (e.g., directors, investors, managers, or
employees), let alone by consumers. As the roles played
by various stakeholders in the development, evaluation, and
implementation of innovative green products and strategies
can dramatically impact the frequency and success of green
product innovation, the following research opportunity is
identified.
RO3: Understand the developmental process, and associated
performance (or outcomes), surrounding the genera-
tion of new green products.
Greening of the organization
Admittedly, the ability of an organization to move toward a
more green orientation is a difficult task that can traverse a
multitude of paths. For the sake of this review, we used the
main points from our literature integration while grouping
them into three general sub-categories; green champions,
green processes, and supply chain management. Each of
these is described below with the relevant research
opportunities noted.
Green champions The potential for an organization to truly
be green requires that the company accept the mantra and
fully integrate green initiatives across all aspects of the
business. However, this transition typically does not simply
occur. Instead, there is an individual or group of individuals
that drive program implementation. These individuals are
known as green champions. Past research suggests that
members within an organization play a critical role in the
green efforts and success of the firm. In fact, Drumwright
(1994) suggests that the policy entrepreneur (i.e., a green
champion) within the firm plays a critical role in instituting
organizational policies. Thus, policy entrepreneurs that are
concerned with the state of the planet are likely to engage in
behaviors that promote green strategies within the organi-
zation. However, it is quite common that the person or group
leading the green initiative lacks the authority required to
implement new environmental policy (Carter and Jennings
2004; Drumwright 1994). Unlike top management, often
policy entrepreneurs lack the positional power to mandate
strategic change related to the green efforts of the firm.
Further, as new environmental policy often requires change
to business practices and reward systems, it is often met with
resistance from other functional areas within a firm (Carter
and Dresner 2001; Carter et al. 2007).
Thus, while research suggests managers with high levels
of managerial responsibility demonstrating responsibility
for environmental matters are the most effective in
improving buy-in from others involved in the process
(Aragón-Correa et al. 2004; Drumwright 1994; Ramus and
Steger 2000), achieving such commitment from manage-
ment is not always guaranteed. Unless management
recognizes the importance of environmental issues to
stakeholders, and the benefits offered from such a strategy,
it is likely that they will not champion new environmental
initiatives (Hunt and Auster 1990; Klassen 2001; Lawrence
and Morell 1995). Thus, while it may be preferred for
organizations to utilize the pressure of top management to
encourage organizational buy-in, it may not be the case if
there is no one within the organization with the rank
required to champion the initiative. Accordingly, research
suggests that acquiring buy-in from others within the
organization is critical to the success of new environmental
policy (Carter and Jennings 2004; Drumwright 1994;
Handfield et al. 1997; Willard 2008). Therefore, firms
may be well served in identifying the most logical
champion prior to pursuing a green transformation. As
research is scant regarding the methods of increasing
organizational buy-in towards new environmental policy,
research opportunities exist.
RO4: Investigate the role of green champions in the initiation,
enactment, and evaluation of new green strategies.
Green processes Another aspect of moving the organiza-
tion toward a green orientation is associated with the

processes and practices utilized within the firm (Kassinis
and Soteriou 2003; Montabon et al. 2007). Along this line,
there are two main topics that have been extensively
covered in the literature. Namely, past research has focused
on the manner in which waste (when viewed as non-green
activities) can be reduced to achieve improved environ-
mental performance. The other main area in the process
literature addresses environmental management systems
(EMS) with a specific emphasis on the certification of
these systems. The specifics of these two process-related
themes are discussed below.
Waste Reduction. As the problems associated with the
disposal of waste become more visible and widespread, the
reduction of waste grows in importance for academics and
practitioners. Accordingly, the need to reduce operational
by-products is a common point of interest. The predomi-
nant viewpoint in waste reduction stems from the belief that
an organization can view environmentally unfriendly
practices as a form of waste from which lean systems thinking
can guide process improvement (Pil and Rothenberg 2003;
Rothenberg et al. 2001). The “lean is green” concept has also
been viewed as being part of a total quality management
system (Angell 2001; Isbell 1991). Prior research has
demonstrated that focusing on reducing waste through a lean
systems approach has a positive effect on environmental
performance (King and Lenox 2001). Similarly, King and
Lenox (2002) note that managers underestimate the value of
waste reduction strategies, thereby presenting a gap between
actual strategies versus potential value-maximizing strategies.
Thus, managers typically do not enact organizational strate-
gies incorporating such concerns. However, improving
organizational processes that reduce waste, as opposed to
treating waste once produced, increases efficiency, thereby
increasing demand from environmentally sensitive consumers
(Ashford and Heaton 1983; Porter and van der Linde 1995).
Essentially, the operations literature concludes that waste
reducing processes are viewed as a more positive green
strategy than simply recycling waste (Lapre et al. 2000).
For example, hazardous waste disposal creates extreme
environmental problems that, in turn, produce exorbitant
costs for organizations, the government, and often society
as a whole (Porter and van der Linde 1995). Green
strategies that prevent damage to the environment and save
the time and money typically invested in the disposal,
storage, and clean up of waste are likely to be viewed with
great favor in boardrooms around the world.
Similarly, the operations and supply chain literatures
consider how integrating waste reduction into green
strategies can lead not only to pollution reduction and
environmentally responsible behaviors, but also greater
firm profitability (Hart 1995; Porter and van der Linde
1995; Reinhardt 1999; Russo and Fouts 1997). In the
operations literature, King and Lenox (2002) dissect
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
pollution reduction into its component parts to identify the
link between waste reduction strategies and positive
financial results. Accordingly, marketing scholars can
create value for organizations if research is undertaken to
answer similar questions. Specifically, research that exam-
ines how consumers view waste reduction or whether
organizations can create loyalty through the utilization of
green processes and practices are potential avenues of
research.
RO5: Evaluate the effectiveness of waste reduction
initiatives on the perceptions of stakeholders.
System Certification. The second major theme associated
with business processes is the manner in which the entire
system is managed. Research has shown that firms with
formalized environmental management systems (EMS)
achieve significantly higher performance when compared
to informal systems (Melnyk et al. 2003). The overarching
belief is that providing formal guidelines for the EMS
provides tangible accountability for the people and pro-
cesses involved. Beyond simple formalization, firms have
the option to have their systems certified by third-parties to
add validity to the environmental efforts. The most
commonly researched standardization is the International
Organization for Standardization’s ISO 14000 program
while other, less common standards (e.g., XL, 33/50) exist
as well. In accordance, research has shown that firms with
certified systems outperform those that simply have
formalized ones (Melnyk et al. 2003).
Beyond the performance assessments of certified sys-
tems, past studies have investigated the antecedents to
adoption (Melnyk et al. 2003), the affect of certified
systems on practices (Sroufe 2003), the stakeholder sets
that influence certification (Delmas 2001), the diffusion of
certification (Vastag 2004), and even comparisons between
US and German EMS (Klassen and Angell 1998). It has
even been shown that certification of an organization’s
systems demonstrates that a company is acting socially
responsible, thereby boosting a company’s image
(Chinander 2001). As a continuation of these findings, the
operations literature suggests that the application of ISO
14000 shows that positive indicators of systemic approaches
to green business practices are effective in enhancing the
triple-bottom line of an organization (King and Lenox 2001;
Klassen 2001; Melnyk et al. 2003).
From a marketing standpoint, organizations should better
understand the impact of adopting such standards on
stakeholders’ perceptions of the firm and whether certifica-
tion of green business practices creates value, differentia-
tion, and loyalty among customers and other stakeholders.
Examples might include the inclusion of certification in
branding and promotion strategies. Organizations also need
to know what determines the effectiveness of certification
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
programs and how certification impacts green perceptions
of an organization and its products. This suggests the
following research opportunity.
RO6: Examine the role of certification in shaping the
perceptions of stakeholders.
Supply chain management In addition to the greening of
internal processes, an organization needs to integrate green
strategies into its entire span of supply chain activities.
Research has shown that firms with wider arcs (i.e., those
that have stronger ties to trading partners in both upstream
and downstream directions) achieve superior performance
(Frohlich and Westbrook 2001). It stands to reason that this
would be the same for environmental initiatives. This
concept was supported in past studies (Bowen et al. 2001;
Handfield et al. 1997) where it was found that successful
firms are ones that fully integrate environmental strategies
across all supply chain activities. In reviewing the green
supply chain literature, it can be seen that the studies fall
broadly into two distinct groups: chain construction and
closed-loop supply chain management. In this case, the
former addresses the initial establishment of the supply
chain while the latter addresses the concepts associated with
bringing materials back into the organization that have
previously been used outside the walls of the firm.
Chain Construction. The importance of partnerships in
green strategies is a critical component for organizations as
business transitions from a “firm versus firm” orientation to
a “supply chain versus supply chain” perspective (Barratt
2004; Bowersox et al. 2000). As noted, research demon-
strates that both upstream and downstream partners influ-
ence the adoption of green strategies (Bansal and Hunter
2003; Vachon and Klassen 2006). In a supply network
context, efforts to reduce, recycle, and reuse materials are
noted as examples of such efforts (Carter and Carter 1998;
Hart et al. 2000). Additional work suggests that channel
partners assist in improving product quality, reducing costs,
and staying ahead of future regulations (Markley and Davis
2007; Shrivastava 1995b). The supply chain literature also
suggests that enacting a green approach to doing business,
particularly within supply networks, benefits firms as a
source of competitive advantage (Shrivastava 1995b). As a
result, partners, and potential partners, build positive
associations through joint efforts to “go green.”
Because a firm’s resources and capabilities are finite, the
supply chain literature suggests that it makes sense for
companies to leverage suppliers and partners in order to
take advantage of others’ knowledge and expertise (Lee and
Klassen 2008). Thus, firms should choose partners that
possess valuable environmental management capabilities
or, at a minimum, should work in conjunction with them to
develop a synergistic approach to green (Handfield et al.
2002). Such decisions allow a firm not only to increase
their own capabilities through the proxy of the suppliers
and partners, but also to use the time and resources that are
typically invested in developing those capabilities in other
areas, including environmentally friendly product and/or
process innovation.
As established in the supply chain literature, a green
supply chain can create a potential advantage for an
organization and, thus, bolster triple-bottom line perfor-
mance by delivering economic, social, and environmental
benefits (Norman and MacDonald 2004). Additionally,
organizations are beginning to realize the importance of
social responsibility concepts in the supply chain, including
environmental management (Murphy and Poist 2002).
Adding to the rich foundation in the supply chain literature
is the establishment of corporate social responsibility
categories that include the environment, diversity, human
rights, philanthropy, and safety (Carter and Jennings 2004).
Others include additional categories such as labor practices
(Roberts 2003) and procurement (Razzaque and Hwee
2002). The marketing literature is in desperate need of
research that addresses how these issues relate to and
impact stakeholders, and specifically triple-bottom line
performance when adopting a green strategy. To that end,
the following research opportunity is posed in order to
guide needed research as to the power of strategically
choosing supply chain partners from a marketing manage-
ment standpoint.
RO7: Examine the impact of the construction of the
supply chain on perceptions of stakeholders.
Closed-Loop Supply Chains. Another theme identified
involves the role of remanufacturing, remarketing, and
closed-loop supply chains in the management of green
strategies. Guide and Van Wassenhove (2001) identify a
framework in the operations and supply chain literatures
that provide managers with recommendations for maximiz-
ing profitability while promoting reuse activities. While
Guide and Van Wassenhove (2001) provide useful insights
and prescriptions for managers for how to manage the reuse
of materials through remanufacturing, remarketing, and
closed-loop supply chains (also see Blackburn et al. 2004;
Debo et al. 2001; Guide et al. 2003), questions as to how
best to communicate and implement return strategies
remain largely unaddressed in the marketing literature.
A reverse supply chain addresses the manner in which a
product returns to the selling company, and the cycle is
suggested to end when the company recovers the product’s
maximum possible value (Kleindorfer et al. 2005). The
cycle includes returns for reasons such as the end of a
product’s life, recalls, customer returns, and the end of a
lease, just to name a few. Literature in supply chain
management reveals the many challenges in this area that

companies must address in order to realize the best possible
profit margin even when margins for returns are typically
minimal. Forward and reverse supply chains create a
cradle-to-cradle path for goods manufactured, sold, returned
and reused, as opposed to a one-way cradle-to-grave flow
that works against going green (McDonough and Braungart
2002). Supply chains must be carefully managed in order to
(1) ensure maximum profit, (2) comply with regulatory
requirements (e.g., waste reduction and disposal laws), and
(3) provide excellent customer service to consumers and
suppliers alike.
The focus on going green in the management of supply
chains has resulted in the identification of several areas of
research that should be of interest to marketers. Remanu-
facturing is one such area. The increasing cost of raw
materials and energy is leading firms to consider how
products might be designed (e.g., recycled or reused) or
distributed (e.g., modular construction) so as to maximize
value to the firm. That is, contemporary operations and
supply chain thought suggests that forward and reverse
supply chains should form a closed loop and be coordinated
to maximize profits. This can mean new markets are
opened for firms to sell used equipment, production by-
products, and even spent resources that might be inciner-
ated to produce energy. Remarketing is a related and similar
strategy. Marketing scholars can assist in achieving the
green goals of the firm by identifying market opportunities
and marketing strategies that connect consumers with
remanufactured and remarketed products. To encourage
researchers to address these gaps in the marketing literature,
the following opportunity is identified for marketing
scholars.
RO8: Investigate the impact of closed-loop supply-chain
strategies on stakeholders’ perceptions of the firm.
Green alliances
As increasing attention is given to environmental manage-
ment strategies, managers are including green initiatives as
a criterion when searching for partners (Kumar and
Malegeant 2006). Organizations attempting to increase
green efforts may find it beneficial to work with other
firms through less formal partnerships or alliances. Re-
search examining partnerships is common in cause-related
marketing (e.g., Ellen et al. 2006; Lichtenstein et al. 2004)
and suggests that choosing the right partner is vitally
important to the success of both firms. Organizations that
are able to pair with a “high-fit” cause likely reduce the
suspicion of consumers as they are likely to perceive the
relationship as a strategic business move and as values-
driven (Fein 1996). Fit may be defined as the perceived
congruence of a firm’s socially responsible initiatives (e.g.,
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
support of an environmental cause) and synergies in
activities (i.e., what the firm is known for) (Ellen et al.
2006). Thus, it is important that firms attempting to form
partnerships with other organizations, either profit or not-
for-profit, consider the potential impact the partnerships
may have on stakeholders perceptions.
In addition, the use of strategic alliances, something
rarely considered in a green context, could prove beneficial
to firms for numerous reasons. While firms typically
engage in alliances for many reasons (see Gulati 1998 for
review), the distinct benefits afforded organizations in
terms of sustainability are numerous. The Star Alliance, an
alliance between 28 member airlines, is an example of the
impact an alliance can have on a firm. While the goal of
member airlines in the Star Alliance is to share resources and
minimize the resource allocation of each airline, they are in
essence acting green. If the alliance was not formed, and each
airline had to act as a separate entity, the amount of waste
would be vast. While going green may not be the end goal of
the alliance, it is creating a more environmentally friendly
system. The alliance is benefiting member airlines in
numerous ways, though they may not be capitalizing on the
benefits that may be offered for various stakeholders. The
alliance between the member airlines creates a win-win
situation; however, other marketing opportunities surrounding
the potential benefits of green alliances still exist.
While strategic alliances continue to proliferate the
business landscape, social alliances have yet to receive
similar attention. A social alliance is described as a
partnership between an organization and a non-profit that
is more than merely cause-related marketing, but rather a
mutually beneficial, long-term partnership for both firms
(Berger et al. 2006). Social alliances are long-term invest-
ments related to growing or transforming a business (Berger
et al. 2006) and represent a tremendous opportunity for
firms seeking to increase their green efforts. As such,
alliances can lead to enhanced firm reputation, greater
customer loyalty, and increased purchase behavior (e.g.,
Brown and Dacin 1997; Lichtenstein et al. 2004; Sen and
Bhattacharya 2001). The opportunity for firms to utilize a
social alliance for green strategies would likely yield
similar results. Thus, the lack of research surrounding the
various opportunities for partnerships and alliances repre-
sents a substantial gap in the literature.
RO9: Investigate the role that green partnerships and
alliances have both internally and externally on the
perceptions of stakeholders.
The green consumer
When examining consumers relative to the environment,
marketing research thus far has primarily focused on
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
Table 1 Summary of green marketing research opportunities and research questions
Research opportunity
RO1: Investigate the link between green
marketing strategies and firm performance.
RO2: Investigate the relative effectiveness
of various green marketing strategies.
RO3: Understand the developmental process, Should consumers be involved in the development How can a firm leverage the unique capabilities
and associated performance (or outcomes),
surrounding the generation of new green
products.
RO4: Investigate the role of green champions Can a firm use its internal green champion as What position in the company do policy
in the initiation, enactment, and evaluation of the face of its green marketing campaign? If
new green strategies.
RO5: Evaluate the effectiveness of waste
reduction initiatives on the perceptions of
stakeholders.
RO6: Examine the role of certification in
shaping the perceptions of stakeholders.
Representative research question(s) Representative research question(s)
concerning consumers concerning alternate stakeholders
Does incorporating a green marketing strategy Does the use of a green marketing strategy
capture greater market share? Greater share of increase market share relative to the
wallet from consumers? competition? Or can it be used as a
What role does government intervention regarding differentiating factor?
environmental regulation have on market share? How can a green marketing strategy bridge the
gap between operations within the firm and
governmental regulation?
What can organizations espouse to society to
minimize expectations regarding future
environmentally-friendly actions?
Which green marketing strategies are more
effective at maximizing stock returns?
Minimizing risk?
Can organizations use one of the three strategies Which of the three green strategies is most effective
to reshape consumer perceptions of the firm? at satisfying the government and NGOs?
Which individual strategy significantly impacts Which of the three strategies do investors
consumer perceptions? Or does it take perceive as less risky? Or most rewarding?
multiple strategies used simultaneously to Which strategy is likely to engender
impact consumers? Is there an ordering effect organizational (e.g., employee, management)
between the alterative strategies? commitment?
of green products? If so, at what stage? of its supply chain partners in the
How can firms market green products as development of green products?
innovative? Do consumers care if they are Does the development of green products differ
innovative? What aspects of green products from the developmental process of standard
should be stressed? What aspect of green products? If so, how?
products do consumers deem important? In the case of acquired green products, how is the
Are green products that are developed acquiring firm affected? The acquired firm?
internally perceived more positively than
externally acquired (i.e., products developed
by another company)?
entrepreneurs or green champions tend to hold?
so, who should it be? If they do, how does In that position, do they tend to have the power
that affect consumer perceptions of the firm to mandate sustainability strategies?
(e.g., trust and credibility)? What are the most effective characteristics of
green champions (e.g., position, personality)?
What are the mechanisms used by successful
green champions to increase organizational
buy-in? Which are more effective?
Can firms utilize waste reduction strategies to Are firms that reduce waste rather than merely
increase consumer perceptions of the green recycle likely to be viewed more positively
orientation for the firm? by investors?
Do consumers recognize or reward waste Can waste reduction strategies used by firms
reduction strategies utilized by firms? What create greater levels of organizational
marketing campaigns can communicate commitment?
internal strategies to consumers? Are internally directed waste reduction
strategies more effective than off-the-shelf
strategies at staving off the competition?
Reducing mimicry?
Can an organization use waste reduction
strategies to enhance its public image?
Can environmental certifications be used to Does meeting environmental certification
shape the perceived green orientation of a requirements (e.g., ISO 14000) allow greater
firm? freedom from governmental regulation?
How can environmental certifications be Do environmentally certified firms require similar
implemented in promotional strategies? certifications from supply-chain partners?
 J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.

Table 1 (continued)

Research opportunity Representative research question(s) Representative research question(s)

concerning consumers concerning alternate stakeholders

How do consumers evaluate environmental Can an organization use environmental

certifications? Is one received better than certifications as a marketing tool in a B2B
others? setting? If so, how?
RO7: Examine the impact of the construction Can an organization leverage its supply-chain Can an organization leverage its supply-chain
of the supply chain on perceptions of relationships to enhance consumer percep- relationships to enhance investor perceptions
stakeholders. tions of a green orientation? of a firm?
Are firms held responsible for environmental Does the selection of supply-chain partners
mistakes made by their supply-chain partners? affect organizational (e.g., employees) per-
If a firm is held responsible, what actions do ceptions of a green orientation?
consumers take (e.g., boycott, negative word
of mouth)?
RO 8: Investigate the impact of closed-loop Can firms differentiate their products based on Does utilizing a closed-loop supply-chain
supply-chain strategies on stakeholders’ per- the fact that they utilize high-recycled con- strategy impact the perceptions of society?
ceptions of the firm. tent? Do customers perceive them positively? How do firms convince supply-chain partners
Does the perception of a green orientation to participate in these initiatives? Are there
change as a company uses more recycled mechanisms to facilitate participation?
products or engages in remanufacturing? Can
these be used in promotional strategies?
How can firms increase consumer participation
in recycling or remanufacturing efforts?
RO9: Investigate the role that green Does an alliance affect consumer perceptions of How do investors perceive financial costs or
partnerships and alliances have both firms involved? If so, is the effect equal? benefits of social alliances for firms?
internally and externally on the perceptions Do the environmentally friendly outputs gained How should firms select organizations for an
of stakeholders. from alliances lead to enhanced perceptions alliance or partnership? Once selected, how
of the firm or all of the firms in the alliance? should the performance be evaluated (e.g.,
What impact do consumer perceptions of fit life cycle effects, profitability, perceptual
regarding a firm and its green partnerships impact)?
have on behavioral intentions?
RO10: Clarify the characteristics of consumers Are there innate forces within consumers that N/A
that affect environmental consumption drive environmentally friendly behaviors?
behaviors. What types of messages are likely to increase
PCE for consumers in order to increase green
consumption?
What role does an individual’s sustainability
competence have on sustainability efforts?
What are the barriers consumers face when
attempting to make environmentally-friendly
product purchases?
RO11: Investigating the effects of consumer What impact do consumer perceptions of firm N/A
perceptions of green marketing strategies greenness have on behavioral intentions?
toward green behaviors. How much information should be presented to
consumers in order to promote the green
efforts of a firm? What specific information
should be given?
Are accusations of firm greenwashing a “death
sentence” for firms attempting to compete on
green? Are there strategies to overcome
consumers’ distrust?

The consumer column was inserted as many marketing studies address consumer issues, while the alternate stakeholder column is used to denote
opportunities that still exist in marketing. No opportunities were generated for alternate stakeholders in the consumer section as is noted by the N/A

examining “green consumers,” or consumers that choose to
purchase environmentally friendly products when given the
opportunity. As such, the effects of culture (Anderson and
Cunningham 1972; Mostafa 2007; Webster 1975), personal-
ity (Kinnear et al. 1974), impression motivation (Yoon et al.
2006), and socio-demographic characteristics (Shrum et al.
1995; Diamantopoulos et al. 2003; Tanner and Kast 2003) on
consumers’ attitudes and behaviors toward environmentally-
friendly product consumption have been investigated.
Further, research suggests that perceived consumer effective-
ness (PCE), or an individual’s belief that s/he can make a
difference or impact by purchasing environmentally friendly
J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci.
products, is an important predictor of green consumption
(e.g., Kinnear et al. 1974; Roberts 1996; Webster 1975).
Similarly, the positive impact of social norms has been
shown to motivate environmental conservation in hotel
guests (Goldstein et al. 2008).
However, the marketing literature has yet to examine the
barriers facing consumers. The negative effects of green-
washing, and the general lack of trust felt by consumers
toward green firms has been noted as an obstacle that many
firms must attempt to overcome (Kangum et al. 1991). In
addition, a lack of green credibility, along with consumer
cynicism and confusion, are issues associated with green
marketing strategies (Carlson et al. 1993; Davis 1993). Too
often consumers are left wondering which firms are
genuinely green, versus those that are merely paying it lip
service. Therefore, strategies aimed at the “reluctant
consumer” are critical if firms seek to advance, and reap
the benefits of, green marketing strategies (Zinkhan and
Carlson 1995).
RO10: Clarify the characteristics of consumers that affect
environmental consumption behaviors.
Picking the right green marketing strategy is an
important step for firms that aim to compete on green
(Ginsberg and Bloom 2004). Research suggests that it is
important for organizations to consider the potential green
market of consumers, as well as ways to differentiate
products from the competition (Ginsberg and Bloom 2004).
When examining socially-responsible messages, research
suggests corporate hypocrisy after a firm has deployed said
messages is very detrimental (Wagner et al. 2009).
Similarly, research suggests that firms seeking to protect
the planet through green business practices are challenged
by consumers’ receptivity to these efforts. In particular,
many consumers doubt whether a firm’s activities and
offerings are truly environmentally friendly (Mohr et al.
1998). In order to overcome consumer skepticism, oper-
ations suggests firms should systematically strive to make
their business activities more sustainable and transparent,
and include the reduction of environment-threatening waste
(Marshall and Brown 2003). The lack of research examin-
ing consumer perceptions of green actions is apparent
throughout the literature, thus the following research
opportunity is noted.
RO11: Investigating the effects of consumer perceptions of
green marketing strategies toward green behaviors.
Conclusion
A summary of the areas that marketing scholars might
explore in research efforts is offered in Table 1. As is noted
in the table, this research highlights a number of opportu-
nities gleaned from an integrative review of the manage-
ment, operations, and marketing literatures. No doubt, the
extensive number of research opportunities identified is
exceeded by the challenges that will confront scholars in
their efforts to address the surprising and evident gap in the
marketing literature relative to the efficacy of green as an
organizational imperative. As research notes the numerous
benefits offered to firms utilizing socially responsible
strategies, it is likely that the number of firms enacting
such strategies to increase their triple-bottom line perfor-
mance will continue to rise.
Research suggests that companies need to become agile,
adaptive, and aligned in balancing people and the planet
with profitability (Kleindorfer et al. 2005). As is noted, a
number of green strategies, or general categories of
research opportunities, appear relevant. The main types
of green strategies gleaned from the literature are: (1)
green innovation, (2) greening the organization, and (3)
green alliances. The development of new or innovative
green products is a commonly utilized strategy by firms
attempting to go green. Another green strategy implemented
by firms is a focus on environmental aspects within the firm
itself. Greening the organization may be accomplished
through green champions, green processes, and green
initiatives toward supply-chain management. Beyond green-
ing the organization’s processes, a firm may also choose to
utilize an alliance or partnership to enhance the green
orientation of the firm.
Further, no study is without limitations. We acknowl-
edge that the green paradigm may span beyond the
definition employed herein (e.g., public policy, planning,
anti-consumption), which could have alternate effects on
organizations. However, we employed a narrow definition
in order to constrain our analysis to the more managerially-
relevant concepts discussed in the business literature. In
addition, the review concentrated on mainstream journals,
therefore leaving many books and international journals out
of the review. This fact could have biased the results
slightly, but by integrating the mainstream research, we
believe the review is comprehensive.
All the themes identified conclude with the ultimate
goal of meeting the wants and needs of various stake-
holders. In particular, meeting the needs and wants of
consumers is critical for firms that are attempting to
compete on the basis of green. Without a greater
understanding of stakeholder and consumer perceptions,
firms are not likely to reap the financial rewards
associated with green strategies. Thus, the resounding
conclusion is that there is much left to be discussed and
evaluated relative to the use of green marketing strategies
to maximize the triple-bottom line performance demanded
by stakeholders worldwide.

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