Source: Bridge Engineering he substructure of ahigh- ‘way bridge consists of Design of eres ‘ture and highway overpass. This section deals with the Substructure wa es bearings. Along with the de- Elements sesh nance and rehabilitation fall the clements which make up a highway bridge, substruc- ture elements present some of the most visibly strikiag features. towering column or hammerhead pier can pro vide a certain sense of majesty which leaves a lasting image upon the traveler passing under a bridge. ‘To be sure, for laeget bridges, the superstructure elicits much, if not more, of the same feeling. For the majority of highway bridges, however, the only striking aspect of the desiga is found in the substructure, Even row of reinforced earth modular units, snaking out along an abutment side slope, can be quite aesthetically pleasing. IE it cam be said chat the design of superstructure com- ponents vaties greatly depend- ing on geographic location and transportation department pref erences, the same would be equally true for substructure components. In this section, we will cover the basic principles behind the design, rehabilitation, and maintenance of substruc- ‘use components, Specifically the three major components which will be discussed ace: abutments, picts, and bearings ‘As with the present superstzuctutes provided in See sion 3, the focus of the discus- sion will be on general concepts rather than specific forms of elements which vary greatly - from region to region. Figure 4,1. Ahighwaybridge supersiructureis supportedby beatings, piers and abutments, A The Substructure ection ion of S Downloaded from Digital Enginaering Library @ McGraw-Hill (ww digitalongineernglibrary com) ‘Copyright © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies. Al ohts reserved. ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe webste,sign of Substructure Elements 370 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTI (al RUCTURE Type of Abie Dip You Know Tuar it was a civil == * engineer from France named Henry Vidal who first put forth the idea of “reinforced earth” in the late 1960's? The term “reinforced earth” is actually a trade- marked name. The generic name is called Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) wall, which uses metal or polymeric reinforcement (either in the form of strips or a mesh) to allow the soil to carry both its own weight and an applied vertical load (Ref. 4.1 MSE WALL has gained popularity ver the past several yearsasa method of constructing abutments which are both unctionalandaestheticallypleas- ing, Although systems like the one shown in Figure 4.2 can trace their origin back to the late 1960's (see accompanying Did You Know? side bear), many transportation departments did not begin actively incorporating them into their designs untilthe middle 1970's, In addition tothe advantages listed above, MSE type systems have proved to be more economical than traditional solid concrete configura- lions Like any young technology, how ever, the oritical aspects of mainte- nance andlong erm performance need lobe consideredin ordertojudge their overall performance, Downloaded from Digtal Engine © ABUTMENTS [An abutment is a structure located at the end of a bridge which provides the basic functions of Supporting the end of the first of last span UW Retaining earth underneath and adjacent to the approach roadway, and, if necessary Supporting part of the approach roadway or approach slab To provide this functionality, a variety of abutment forms are used, ‘The style of abutment chosen for a given bridge varies depending on the geome Of the site, size of the structure, and preferences of the owner. A simplification ‘would be to think of an abutment as a etaining wall equipped with a bridge seat The following discussion describes some of the most popular types of abutments in use, presents a design example for a typical abutment, and covers some of the general maintenance and rehabilitation issues, 4.1.1 Types of Abutments [As mentioned above, most abutment types are variations on retaining wall configurations. With the exception of « erib wall, most any retaining wall system, ‘when equipped with a bridge seat and designed to withstand the severe live loading conditions present in highway bridge structures, can be used as an abutment, Another difference between a conventional retaining wall system and a bridge abutment is that the latter is typically equipped with adjoining, flared walls known as wingwal: Figure 4.2. A ciforced earth abutment isused to suppor this composite steelbridge ng Ura @ Maral wm dgtalengnearnavary com) opyright © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies. Al ions reserved, ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe website,sign of Substructure Elements “iper of Alamo ABUTMENTS 371 [4.1.1 Part 3) ae =| Figure 4.3 A single span bridge under constuction crossing a steam, Wingwalls are designed to assist the principal retaining wall component of an abutment ia confining the earth behind the abutment. Examples of wingwalls are given in Figures 1.6, 1.8, and 43. ‘The principal retaining wall component ‘mentioned above is usually called the backwallor stem of the abutment. The bride s#at, upon which the superstructure actually ests is typically composed of either freestanding pedestals ot a continuous beeastwall. The pedestals or breastwall is designed to support beatings which in turn support individual primary member and transfer gieder reactions to the foundation. They are located just in front of the backwall nd sit on top of the abutment footing. In general, the major types of abutments presently in use are given by the following ten types. 1. Gravity Abutment. gravity abutment resists horizontal earth pressure with its own dese weight. By nature, this leads to abutments whie ate rather heavy. Gravity abutments ate most often constructed using concrete; however, stone masonry is also sometimes used. As described above, a gravity abutment is composed of a backwall and flared wingwalls which rest on top of a footing (see also Figute 1.2), 2. U Abutment, When the wingualls ofa gravity abutment ae placed at right angles to the backwall, the abutment is known as a U abutment. The name “U abutment” comes fom the shape the abutment has when viewed in pla. ‘The wingwalls ate ypically east moaolithicaly with the abutment backwall snd cantilevered verially from the footing. Some wingwalls may have portion cantilevered hosizontally as well Because there is a tendeney for the wingwalls to ovestum, ther footings are cast monolithically with the abutment footing, 3. Cantilever Abutment. A cantilever abutment is virally ideotieal to a cantilever retaining wall (Ke, a wall or stem extending up ftom a footing) except that a cantilever abutment is designed to accommodate larger vertical loads and is equipped with a bridge seat WINGWALLS, lke the ones shown in Figure 4.3, are provided to assist an abulmentin confining the earth behind anabutment.Inthisinstance, theabut- mentsare an integral component ofthe entire structure, which isnot uncom- man for structures possessing a rela- tively short underpass crossing. When abackwall, wingwall, and footing form asingle structural system, the analysis becomes very complicated. In such a case the designer hastwo options avail- able:eitherrelyonasetof conservative assumptions and approximations or utilize computer aided solutions such asinite element analysis, The latter is generally performed by most bridge engineers, ingwalls are designed to assist the principal retaining wall component of an abutment in confining the earth behind the abutment. cantilever abutment is vir- tually identical to a canti- lever retaining wall .. except that cantilever abutment is designed to accommodate larger vertical loads and is equipped with a bridge seat, Downloaded tom Digital Engreating Library @ McGraw ww dglalengnearnirary com) ‘Copyright © 2008 The MeGrau-Hil Companies, Al ‘Any ase is subject to the Terme of Use as given athe webs ns reserved.sign of Substructure Elements 372 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTRUCTURE Types of Abmments (6.4.1, Patt 3] WHEN AN ABUTMENT bas 4 large breastwall or backwall tied together with adjacent wingwalls, the structure is known as a U abutment ‘Thisname’s derived om the" shape the abutment makes when viewed in plan, The abutment under construction in Figure 4.4 stil has its formwork in place, Formworkisthe entire system of forms, supports, and related elements which together act as a mold for a concreteelementuntilthe element has the required strength to suppor ise Sometimes, prefabricated reusable foimsareused; theselype of formsare known as ganged forms, Figure 4.4 Aispcal gramly abumen th wingwalls unde earstuctn The stem of a cantilever abutment, along with its breastwall or pedestals, is rigidly attached to the footing and acts as a cantilever beam, from which the name is derived, The stem transmits horizontal earth pressures 10 the footing with stability being maintained thzough the abutment’s own dead weight and the soil mass resting on the tear patt of the footing, ‘The front face of an abutment footing is known as the for and the reac face as the Jef At times it may be desirable to vary the thickness of the stem to achieve an economy of materials. Canslever abutments are feasible for heights up to approsimately 21 ft (65 m). If the required height exceeds this value, an alternative, such as a counterfort abutment (sce Patt 7 below) should be investigated. 4, Full Height Abutment. 4 full height abutment is a cantilever abutment which extends from the underpass grade line (ether roadway ‘water body) to the grade line of the overpass rondway above 5. Stub Abutment. Stub abutments ace relatively short abutments which are placed at the top of an embankment or slope. Usless sufficient rock exists at the site, stub abutments generally are supported on piles which extend through the embankment, 6. Semi-Stub Abutment. As its name would imply, a semi-stub abutment is in between the size ofa full height and stub abutment. 4 semi- stub abutment is founded at an intermediate loeation along the embank- ment, This type of abutments are also called semi-cantlever abutments 7. Counterfort Abutment. A counterfort abutment, similar to countesfort retaining wall, uillzes a stem and footing which is braced with thin vertical slabs, known as counterforts, which are spaced at intervals Downloaded tom Digital Engaging Library @ McGraw ww dglalengnearngirary com) igh © 2090 Ihe MeGran-l Companies Al oh reserved. Fe ee suet ote Tem of Use as vena he wastDesign of Substructure Elements Types of Abtment ABUTMENTS 373 (44.1, Par 9] DESIGN EXAMPLE GIVEN PARAMETERS In this example we will design a stub abutment using LFO to accommodate seismic loads Theabutment geometry in crasssectionisillutate intheaccom- panying calculation sheet. In plan the abutment is equioped with 18 pairs of 1 ft diameter, 40 f long concrete piles spaced ata distance of 6-8" center to center. Theface athe stem isassumed to-be smooth. DESGNOFASTUB ABUIMENTIT | ey | 1 SERMIC DESIGN COOL 44 c PROBLEM: Design a stub abuirent to accommodate given reac- tions trom a composite steel superstructure EXAMPLE 4.1 LES tH feat It can be assumed that the abutment can be displaced horizontally without significant restraint. Given this condi- tion, we will uilize the pseudo-static Mononabe-Okabe method for comput- ing lateral active soil pressures under seismic loading. All reterences to the AASHTO seismic code contained in Division I-A ofthat specification will betollowedby he"I-A" identifier (e.g AASHTO 3.3 8) ° 4] ‘GIVEN: ‘AS span (29-69-29) essential bridge crossing a highway, 1-0" diameter concrete piles - 40 ft long, Capacity = 30 tons 18 pairs of pls at 6-8" centero-canter along lngth of footer. D Concrete strength t: = 3,000 ps Grade 60 reinforcement, Total reaction from all stingers R = 315 k Superstructure Weight = 21.74 Wt Geographic area has acceleration costcient A = 0.19. Soll tests indicate st clay with angle of rtion: 9 = 30" he loads trom 16 stringers which are transmitted to theabutmentare gvenas 315k. The bridge is located in a geo- which, when referencedto Figure 3.15, provides an acceleration ficient of 0.19. Assume earth with unit weight of 120 pounds per cubic foot and concrete with a unit weight of pounds per cubic foot along the length of the footing (see Figure 4.5). These thin slabs join with the stem and footing at sight angles. The counterforts allow the abutment breasiwall to be designed as a horizontal beam between the counterforts he counteforts allow the rather than as a cantilevered stem. Generally, counterfort abutments ate abutment breastwall to be used when very high walls are required ditareiirsa tenet between the counterfots rather than as a cantilevered stem. Spill-through Abutment, spill-theough abutment utlizes two o more vertical columas or buttestes which have a eap beam on top of them. The eap beam is in tun used to support the bridge seat upon which the superstrucruce rests. The fil extends from the bottom of the cap beam and is allowed 10 spill hough the open spaces between the vertieal columas so that only @ postion of che embankment is eetained by the abutment je Bent Abutment. Similar in ature to a spill-through abutment, 4 pile bent abutment consists of a single cap beam, acting as a bridge seat, Downloaded from Digital Enginoering Library @ McGraw. (wane digtalangineeringlibrary.com) ‘Copyright © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies. Al ohts reserved. ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe webste,Design of Substructure Elements 374 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTRUCTURE Typo of Alamos (6.1.1, Patt §] supported by one of two rows of piles. Batter piles are used to prevent sliding, 10, MSE Systems. In the Did You Know? sidebar at the top of this section, if was mentioned that the name “teinforced earth” is a made marked name for specific types of retaining wall systems. Reinforced earth ems are produced by The Reinforced Earth Company. MSE systems utlize modular facing units, generally made of unccinforced concrete, with metal of polymeric reinforcement (either in the form of strips or mesh) attached to the back. The facing units are cast in the form of a geometsc shape which lends itself to being assembled into uniform wall (eg hexagon, diamond). The reinforcement stips or mesh are thereby layered jn the retained fill which is compacted. These strips act as “reinforce ment,” transforming the granular soil into a coherent material whieh ean support both its own weight and that of applied vertical loading [Ref 41] ‘The name “reinforced earth” is derived from this effect. A more more generic name that generic name that is aormlly used by engincers is that of a Mechanicaly A is normally used by en- Stabiized Barth (MSE) autem. ‘The reader should keep in mind that ineers is that of mechanicaly “reinforced eatth” is a proprietary designation. at CASEI "Two obvious concerns with these systems are theic longevity and future maintenance requirements. The metal used to reinforce the earth ACOUNTERFORTrelainingwal, lke the one illustrated in Figure 45, is generally not economically feasible un: less the height from the bottom of the footing tothe top ofthe stem is greater than 20 to 25 ft (6.1 to 7.6 m). The economyofacounterortretainingwalis 'ypicaly a function ofthe relative cost of forms, concrete, reinforcing, and labor ‘Thespacing between countertortsis de- leiminedbyatraland error approachth vobviauslimiting constaintbeing cost, Generally, a spacing of approximately ‘one third onebal ofthe heightis most economical (Ref, 4.2]. Tis space in between countelots is backfilled with soll Fromastructurl standpoint, the earthis retained by the stem which acts as a continuous beam spanning in between counterforts, The counterfort, in tur, act as cantilevets. The inlensity of load- ing on the stem increases with depth, which ca beaccommodatedbyincreas- ing the thickness othe stem (as shown inthe figure) or the amount ofrinforce- (Ref. 4.1] Figure 4.5. Atypical countrfor retaining wall Downloaded from Digital Enginaering Library @ McGraw-Hill (wy digitalongineernglibrary com) ‘Copyright © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies. Al ohts reserved. ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe website,Design of Substructure Elements Conid Earth Presa Thery ABUTMENTS 375 (41.2) DESIGN EXAMPLE. ‘STEP 1: DETERMINE SEISMIC DESIG OF A STUB ABUTIENT TH Z _ _PANPLE 41 [seis pes cooe—LFD ber Aa ANALYSIS AND CRITERIA > In Section 3.5. it 2we discussed the o ‘STEP 1: Determine Type of Seismic Analysis and Omer Criteria bridge” by AASHTO 3.3 FA we have IC = importance Clssittcation ‘Win an importance classification of "F by AASHTO 3.4 FA for: 0.08 23.198 k ° Design Tor shearfioGon (RASHTO 8.1685) ‘A, =Required Shear-FritionRintorcement= Y= V, = Viip = 6.19/0.85 = 7.28 k (Step 8) = 60s (iver) = 0.62 (AASHTO 8.166444) = 0.60)(1.0) = 060 728K _ ppt wal = an ORDi owa #5 Bars @ 18 inch Spacing (A= 029i) 5 | Tamora ° => #5 Bars @ 18 inch Spacing (A, = 0.21 in) "The metal seinforcement is generally galvanized to prevent detetiora- tion; however, extreme moisture conditions could potentially lead to deterioration of the reinforcement. Therefore, polymetric reinforcement becomes more popular than metal one, Another potential difficulty is erosion of the backfill material which could destabilize the wall ‘When such situations arise, the failed sections will require replacement. If the problem occuss at the lower portion of the abutment, thea a lasge segment of the reinforced earth wall will need to be removed in order to conduct repairs, It is important that, when repairs are made, friction be maintained. This means that backfill should be placed in lifts no greater than 15 in (381 mm) and then compacted prior to placing new material [Ref 4.6] Footings. A general difficulty with maintaining and rehabilitating footings (and piles) is the difficulty in inspecting them. Unless the footing Downloaded fom Dig Engin Copyright © 20: DESIGN EXAMPLE. STEPS: DESIGN REINFORCEMENT FOR STEM (CONTINUED) _ Now we will check the strength of the section to see if it can accommodate our controlling moment. The strength is computed in accordance with ‘ARSHTO8.16.3.2. Thestrenathreduc- tion factor 6 used is 0.90 for tlexure (AASHTO 8.16.1.2.2). We see that our section is well within range. Next shear-iction must be accounted forand the temperature steel specified. With regard to the former, AASHTO 8.16.6.4 specifies the required shear- friction reinforcement tobe used. The coefficient of friction wis based on concrete placed agaist hardened con- crete not intentionally roughened. The value of 4 = 1.0 is used for normal weight concrete, The strength reduc- tion factor = 0.88 is used for shear- friction This concludes the abutment design example. To be sure, there are many steps stil tobe completed for both the design and detailing of the abutment. As with all examples inthis text, how- ver, the purpose isto provide thereader with an understanding of the fund: mental principles rather than a com- plete design general difficulty with maintaining and rehabil- taling footings (and piles) is the difficulty in inspecting them. ring Library @ Mecraw-4il wo ditalengineeringlirary com) The McGraw Gormpanle, Al ightsresewea. so ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe webste,Design of Substructure Elements 400 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTRUCTURE Rehabiation and Mainonane (4.1.8, Pa 8) or piles are exposed (as in a pile bent) these clemeats are buried under several feet of earth, There ate, however, indicators of footing problems which can be evidenced by associated problems in the portion of the abutment which is above ground. ‘We have already discussed the problems which are associated with settlement of an abutment. The presence of excessive vertical cracking could indicate foundation problems below the surface of the earth, ‘Therefore, inspectors should look for cracks which run straight up the abutment stem If the footing is exposed (ie, located above grade), either by design or through erosion and/or scour, spalling and other forms of deterioration of the concrete should be investigated, To repair this damage, it may be necessary to construct a cofferdam around the footing either through the use of stecl sheet piling or sandbags. 9. Piles. Piles arc used winen the soil under a footing cannot provide adequate support for the substructure (ee Section 1.1.1 and Figure 1.7). Piles can often be found in areas that are highly susceptible to exosion and scour. This implies that many piles will be used in environments which caa bbe considered as harsh. [As mentioned for footings above, if a pile is exposed, then it is important to ensure that the pile does not lose section properties to deteriozation. Concrete piles are susceptible to all of the adverse deterio tation other concrete clements are subjected to (eg, spalling, sealing, et) (Other types of ples include timber piles which can rot and metal piles which can corrode With cegatd to the latter, timber piles can suffer from attack by vermin which burrow and tunnel their way to the buried member [Ref. 4.6]. In ‘most instances, the vermin will use timber piles for shelter, food, or both {sce also Section 2.3.3, Part 5). This is of particular concern in marine cavizonments whee they aze watezborne and can damage timber piles well below the mud line. One method of protecting timber piles isto have them pressure treated with wood preservatives in accordance with AASHTO ‘MI33 standaed. Tike columns, severely deteriorated piles can be rehabilitated by jacketing the pile using steel plates. This jacketing does not nccessaly have to extend the full length ofthe pile. A recommended approach i to jacket 4 pile approximately 2 fe (0.61 m) above to 2 ft below the area which has deteriorated [Ref 46}. ‘When sted piles are used (eg, steel H piles), it is possible to repair deterioration by adding section to the deteriorated portions. This is sencrlly recommended for less severe deteiozation with loses of section ‘up to 50 percent in smaller and fewer area. Alternative! d steel pile ean be encased. When stecl piles extend underwater, encasement hen steel piles extend in usually the preferzed method of rehabilitation. If the deterozated underwater, encase- ‘segment of steel pile is located in a dry area or aboveground, another DP ainietayttetrreeee method of repair is to splice a piece of new section to the existing pile, Like method of rehabilttion, any steel member, when exposed to moistut, the steel should be provided with a protective coating to prevent corrosion the deteriorat Downloaded from Digital Enginaering Library @ McGraw-Hill (wy digitalongineernglibrary com) ‘Copyright © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies. Al ohts reserved. ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe website,Design of Substructure Elements PIERS 401 (42) For concrete piles, repair of deteriorated sections is undertaken using techniques which are very similar to those for other concrete elements, ‘The damaged concrete is removed to a distance below the reinforcing steel. Any damaged reinforcing is The susface of the exposed concrete into which the patch is to be made should be cleaned and coated with a bonding compound. The concrete used (o patch the section should be nonshtink or quick setting, so that the propagation of cracks is minimized at the patch location, placed and the existing steel remaining is cleaned. Some cracking in concrete piles can occur as a result of the diving ‘process itselE. These cracks ate tension related and occur when stresses ate sreater than the concrete’s modulus of ruprure. When this has occurred, the cracks should be sealed to prevent the intrusion of sit, debris, and moisture, Further deterioration could be initiated by che formation of ice in cracks [Ref. 46]. Like footings described in Part 8 above, repaie of piles may requice the construction of a cofferdam around the deteriorated pile or piles. The deiving of sheet piling to ereate the cofferdam can be somewhat compl cated in an existing bridge site because of potential interference with the bridge superstructure above. In some cases, the only option is to remove a segment of the superstructure temporarily so that the sheeting can be daiven "To prevent future deterioration to piles (and footings for that matter), it is important to provide for proper site drainage and eliminate any potential sources of erosion of the earth which surrounds, and protects, the piles. 1 the piles are located in an area which is susceptible to seour, it may. be necessary to place additional siprap ot other protective material. Whe placing the fill material back around the foundation, once work is d, the Sl should be compacted as much as posible. complete 4.2 PIERS The development of bridge piers parallels the growth of the modern highway system, Previously, the use of bridge piers was cor crossing rivers or railways. With the development of massive transportation networks, like the U.S. Interstate (see Section 1.2), the need for land piers to facilitate grade-sepasated highways increased dramatically [Ref 4.8}. A pier is a substructure spans at intermediate points between end supp. predominately consteucted using concrete, although steel and, to a lesser Gegrce, timber are also used. The concrete is generally conventionally rein forced, Prestressed concrete, however, is sometimes used as a piee material for special structures. TThe basic design functions of a highway bridge pier ean be summarized by the following list, In general, a pier is designed to: fined to steuctures ‘which provides the basic function of supporting. (abutments). Pie 2 Camry its own weight Sustain superstructure dead loads, live Toads, and lateral loads 2 Transmit all loads to the foundation Downloaded fom Dig Engin Copyright © 20: Dip You Know "THAT aeent Roman HAT cneincers im- pregnated their structural tim- ber with oils and resins? In addition to this, they also se- lected the type of timber based ‘on the intended use. For un- derwater pile foundations at piers, the Romans preferred oak and ash because of their high durability (Ref. 4.7) { the piles are located in an area which is susceptible to scour, it may be necessary to place additonal rprap or other protective material. ring Library @ Mecraw-4il wo ditalengineeringlirary com) The McGraw Gormpanle, Al ightsresewea. so ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe webste,sign of Substructure Elements 402 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTRUCTURE ‘Dper of Pore la) TERS CAN MAKE the differ ence betweena good looking structure and an unattractive one. Simplicity is often the rule when designing a pier. The piers in Figute 4.7 incorporate elastomeric bearings upon which the prestressed concrete superstructure rests. These relatively thin bearings provide for avisually smooth transition from pier to superstructure, For most structures, including steel and timber bridges, concrete is the material of choice for substructure components, However, steel, and toa lesser degree, timber, arealso used to construct piers {e.g,,astel ame pier ortimbertrestle ‘support structure). A: with abutments ... the reader must keep in mind that there are numerous per- mutations ofthe general forms of piers in use, Figure 4.7 eres cf single column pets sopportaprestessed concrete bridge (Photograph courtesy of DS. Brown Company, North Batimore, Ohio) In addition to providing the structural functions detailed above, a properly designed pier should also be aesthetically pleasing and economize the use of ‘materials as much as possible, Also, piers should be located so that they provide ‘minimal interference with traffic passing undemeath the structure, Like alurments,piets come in a variety of configurations, shapes, and sizes. ‘The type of pier selected will depend greatly on the form of superstructure present, Figure 4.7 provides an excellent example of this, ‘The single column pers chosen for this prestressed conerete superstructure work well with this type of structure but would aot be applicable for a composite steel structure composed of several primary members and a concrete deck, Presented below are some of the major types of piers utlized today in modern bridge construction, As with abutments discussed in Section 4.1, the reader must Keep in mind that there are numerous permutations of the general forms of piers in use 4.2.1 Types of Piers In the sidebar accompanying Figure 1.5, a schematic of some basic types ‘of bridge piets was presented, Like aa abutment, a pice has a bridge seat upon which the superstructure rests. In Figute 4.8, this bridge seat consists of @ hammerhead shaped pier cap o top of which are placed individual pedestals. ‘The beacings aze in turn placed on top of the pedestals on top of which rests ‘the superstructure. It ean be seen then, that in Figure 4.8 the pier is intended to support a superstructure composed of five primary members ‘The bridge seat cx be supported by a single columa, multiple columas, « solid wall, or a group of piles. These supporting elements are in tuen connected to the picr foundation which could be composed of footings, piles, or a combination thereof Doneloded tam Dita Engreaing Library eral wn dgalongrearnlbray.om) fit © 2006 The Maran Compancs” Al hts esarved. ZEW Sse aubecto tne Teme of Use a vena he weostesign of Substructure Elements “Types of Pers PIERS 403 (4.2, Par 1] Figure 4.8 Ato colum, concrete hammered pier under constuction. 4, Hammerhead. 4 hammerhead pier utilizes one or more columns with a picr eap in the shape of a hammer. Figures 1.5, 48, and 49 show various types of hammerhead piers. Hammerhead piers, like the one shown in Figure 49, are constructed out of conventionally reinforced conerete. The supporting columas can be either rectangular (or other polygonal shape) or circular in shape and extend down to @ supporting foundation. Hammeshead piers are predominately found in urban setings because they are both attractive and occupy a minimum of space, thereby providing room for underpass traffic. As mentioned before, hammerhead piers are most attractive when placed on structures with relatively large clearance requirements (although they have been incorporated with shorter clear ances). Standards as to the use of hammesheads are often maintained by individual transportation depastments Hammethead piers are aso attractive solutions when the structute is located on a skew, theseby creating ight alignment constraints for the “underpass trafic. When contrasted with a column bent pier (sce below) the single column hammerhead offers a solution which provides for a more open and free-flowing look, especially in high walle, multiple steuctuse cavironments HAMMERHEAD PIERS area popular style of pier used in many highway bridges. I was mentionedback in Section 1 that hammetheads are generally used on structures requiring Felatively high pers, Treason or this is that @ short column height with a hammerhead cap wlllooktoo opheavy. Some transportation departments main- tain standards which describe span to vertical clearance ratios thal determine \whether or nota hammerhead pier can be used, Hammerheads can either be used in conjunction with a single or ‘multiple colurins, lke the one shown in Figure 4.8, The columns can be constructed wih a rectangular (or squate) cross section or even mth a circular crass section, When two columns ae utilized in conjunetion with @ cap beam, like the pier shown in Figure 4.8, the per is sometimes known as apora rame pie, ammerhead piers are predominately found in urban settings because they are both attractive and occupy a minimum of space, thereby providing room for underpass traffic, Doneloded tam Dita Engreaing Library eral wn dgalongnearnlbray com) “Copyright © 2008 The WoGran-Hil Companies, Al ns reserved. ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe webste,sign of Substructure Elements 404 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTRUCTURE ‘Dper of Pore (6.21, Patt 2] A REINFORCING STEEL cage forahammerhead pier cap canbe seen in the foreground of Figure 4.3 ‘Thehammerhead pier inthebackground still as the formwork in place onthe hammerhead ca. Where the abutment shown earlier in Figure 4.4 utilized wooden formwork, the pier inthis photograph makes use of metal forms, Scalfalding has also been erected to provide workers with convenient access tothe per Forms must be adequately rigid so that the concrete can fulfil its intended structural function as wells provide pleasing appearance, The forms used, whether wood or metal, must be fabri- cated so that they are mortar-tight and of sound material which is strong enough so thal distortion does not occur when placing and curing the concrete, Generally the construction and removal of formworkis planned in advance of general construction bythe contractor [Ret 4.9]. i dense urban interchanges extensive use of column bent piers can lead to a clut- tered image producing a “concrete jungle” effect. Figure 4.9 This hammerhead pie still has its cap beam formwork in place. Column Bent. column bent pier, as its name would imply, consists ‘of a cap beam and supporting columns in a frame-type structure. Column beat piers represent one of the most popula forms of piers in use in highway Deidges. ‘This populasity is an outyeowth of the extensive use of column bent piers during the nascent development of the US. Interstate system. "The column bent pier is supported on either spread footing or pile foundations and is made of conventionally reinforced concrete. Like hammerhead piers, the supporting columns can be either circular or rectangular in cross section, although the former is by far mote prevalent ‘The use of cohumn bent piers, like that of hammetheads, should be somewhat judicious. For moderate clearance structures with plenty of room for underpass traffic, the column bent pier provides a very attactive solution. In dease urban interchanges, however, exteasive use of columa bent piers can lead to a cluttered image producing a “conerete jungle” effect (Ref. 48} Pile Bent. ‘The pile bent pier isa variation on the column bent pier with the supporting columns and footing replaced with individual supporting piles. “The end piles are generally equipped with a batter ia the transverse dtcetion. In addition to concrete, timber is also a popular material for this type of pier. Downloaded tom Digital Engaging Library @ McGraw ww dglalengnearngirary com) igh © 2090 Ihe MeGran-l Companies Al oh reserved. Fe ee suet ote Tem of Use as vena he wastDesign of Substructure Elements Types of Piers PIERS 405 (4.21, Par 5] Pile bent piers are extremely popular in murine environments where multiple, simple span structures cxoss relatively shallow water channels Some maintenance problems generally associated with this type of pier, however, are deterioration to exposed piles, impact with marine traffic, and accumulation of debris. When provided with adequate protec tion agtinst these adverse conditions, however, ple bent piers represent aa economical solution for many bridges ‘Solid Wall. sok wall pir also known as « continuoss wal pic) as its ‘name would imply, consists ofa solid wal which extends up from s foundation consisting of a footing or piles. The top of the walls quipped with indical pedestals upon which the superstructure rests, For aesthcue asons, the sides ‘of the wall ate often tspered (e, the wall is wider atthe top than atthe base) to create a more pleasing and les imposing support structure ‘With regaed tothe latter issue, itis not destable to tlze solid wal piers oon excessively wide superstruetures. Incorporation of solid wall piers under very wide superstructures can lead 10 a “ pissing under the structure and may require the placeme lighting system under the structure Solid wall pices are often used at water crossings since they ean be constructed to proportions that ate both slender and steamed [Ref. 48] ‘These features lend themselves well toward providing a minimal resistance to flood lows (see Figure 4.11), “tunnel effect” for motorists fa special 5. Integral. An integral pice has a pier cap to which the superstructure’s primary members ate rigidly connected. ‘This type of pier is not altogether common and is generally confined to special structures, particularly when tight vertical clearance constraints pose a problem, jure 4.10 Besides therather unique pier design, what elses diferent inthis picture? Downloaded fom Dig Engin Copyright © 20: ‘corporation of solid wall piers under very wide su- perstructures can lead to a “tunnel effect” for motorists passing under the structure ‘THERE IS SOMETHING 2: diferentinFigure4. ‘Obesidestherather unique per design lyouock closely, it can be seen thal ntl the center span is madeot steel girders, theend span com- prises prestressed concretegirders. nthe sidebar accompanying Figure 3.54, the possibilty of steel andprestessed con- ete being used as primary members in thesamestructurewas mentioned. inthis particular structure, the steelgiders are provided witha protective coating which is grey in olor making the diference in materials extremely subtetothe average ator'st passing under the bridge, In the continuing debate over which ma- terial, steel or concrete, is better for bridges, structures lke thishave found a unique answer: both, ring Library @ Mecraw-4il wo ditalengineeringlirary com) The McGraw Gormpanle, Al ightsresewea. so ‘Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given athe webste,sign of Substructure Elements 406 SECTION 4 THE SUBSTI (6.21, Pa 6) RUCTURE Dhar ond Laan of Pins fa pier is cantilevered from the footing, it will generally require a much wider founda- tion in order to offer resistance to overturning moments. SOLID PIERS 2¢¢ well suited for placement in stream crossings. Their slender and streamlined proportions provide a minimal resistance to flood flows. Anotheradvantage ofusing solid \allpiersinstream orriver rossingsis that they ae not as prone to accumu lating debris as multiple column piers. ‘Thesolidwall piershownin Figure4.11 isinobvious need afrehabilitation. The repair work being conducted on this particular structureis being performed using staged construction. This way work can be performed on half ofthe structure while tatfic is maintained ver the other halt. Upon completion, trafic is opened on the rehabilitated half and work begun on the remaining half ofthe structure. 6. Single Column. A single-column pier was shown cater in Figure 47 ‘An obvious advantage of these types of piers is that they oceupy a minimal amount of space. Single-column pies, like solid wall piers, are often tapered or provide with a flare so thatthe top of the column is wider than the base. This type of pice is extremely attractive when combined with prestressed conerete box wype superstructures by providing an open and free flowing appeariace to tafe passing undemeath the structure 4.2.2. Behavior and Loading of Piers When viewed in section, a pier comprises a stem or column which is rigidly attached to a base. In such a configuration, a bridge pier behaves either a8 a cantilever beam of a pinended stat depending on the connection with the footing and superstructure Tf a pier is cantilevered from the footing, it will generally require a rmuch ‘wider foundation in order to offer resistance to overturning moments, When a pier is pinned at the foundation, the footing usually ean be designed with a tclatively narrow base since axial co neat axial loads are generated on the foundation [Ref. 4.8) Of particular concern when designing a pier ate the horizontal loads which result from live load transmitted from the superstructure, wind loads, any stream flow loads which may be present, and seismic loading conditions. The ‘wind loads, live load centrifugal force, and seismic Toads can also contribute transverse loads to be applied to the pier. The magnitude of these horizontal loads can be reduced through the incorporation of expansion bearings at pier support points. Additional horizon- tal loads, however, can be contributed by friction and temperature expansion in the expansion bearings. Wind loads acting on the piet as well as possible collision from marine vessels should also be accounted for. Figure 4,11 |islimeforihissolisvallpiy, locatedinastream crossing tobereplaced. Downloaded tom Digital Engaging Library @ McGraw ww dglalengnearngirary com) igh © 2090 Ihe MeGran-l Companies Al oh reserved. Fe ee suet ote Tem of Use as vena he wast