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Problem Book in Relativity and Gravitation - (Alan P. Lightman, Willam H. Press, Richard H. Price, Saul A. Teukolsky)
Problem Book in Relativity and Gravitation - (Alan P. Lightman, Willam H. Press, Richard H. Price, Saul A. Teukolsky)
grounds.
ALAN P. LIGHTMAN
WILLIAM H. PRESS
RICHARD H. PRICE
SAUL A. TEUKOLSKY
PRE F ACE . ..oo. ... ... . .. ..... . .. .. .... . .... . ... . ... ... . . .. . . .. .... . .oo . . .. ... . .. . ... . . ... vii
PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
3 133
6. Me tr ics . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . 37 233
IND EX ..... ... . .. .. . ....... ........ . ...... ... . ... .. .... . . .. ... .... . .. . ...... . ...... . .... .... 593
v
PREFACE
This book contains almost 500 problems and solutions in the fields of
awaken the reader's curiosity. ("Now how would one show that...?") We
have steered clear of purely technical problems, found in texts, of the form
"prove equation 17.4.38." In our solutions we also try to show the reader
"good" ways to compute things, methods and tricks which can vastly re-
duce the labor of a plug-in and grind-away approach, but we also try to
avoid the opposite pitfall of introducing too much confusing but powerful
balance, and the reader should not be surprised if his solutions use a
The first five chapters of this book deal only with special relativity,
VII
viii PREFACE
less direct.
order ly presentation of the material covered in the chapter, but are intended
to aid the student familiar with a notation different from ours. We assume
that the reader has the benefit of one or more of the following texts (which
are responsible for the errors which inevitably must be present in a book
of this sort. We have tried particularly hard for problems and solutions
which are conceptually free from error, but we also apologize in advance
for the algebraic slips that the diligent reader will certainly find; we
A. P. LIGHTMAN
w. H. PRESS
R. H. PRICE
S. A. TEUKOLSKY
all instances, meanings will be clear from the context. The fG ingoW
is
a , {3 II
, r'
v... Greek indices range over0, 1, 2, 3 and represent space-
time coordinates, components, etc.
i , J , k... 1, 2, 3 and represent coordinates
.
e e. ...
Basis vectors
a' J
A A 3-dimensional vector
a
All, B {3 ...
Tensor components
0 1 2
(A ,A ,A ,A 3) A vector represented by its components
0
(A ,
) A vector represented by its time component and spatial
part
"
(Caret) indicates unit vector, components in orthonormal
basis
xi
xii NOTATION
(,,) A one-form
Laplacian, etc.
Chapter 7)
d Gradient operator as in e. g. the one-form df (see intro-
duction to Chapter 8)
a
r Christoffel symbol (see Introduction to Chapter 7)
13y
d' Alembertian operator 2 2 2
o == V -
a / at in Special Relativity
Partial derivative
r Proper time
c Speed of light (usually taken as unity in the problems)
G Gravitational constant (usually taken as unity in the
problems)
u 4-velocity
a 4-acceleration == du/dr
p or P 4-momentum
NOTATION xiii
p or P Pressure
v,w Frequency in cycles per unit time, radians per unit time
2 2 1..
y Lorentz factor == (1 v / c )- 2,
-
or photon symbol
a
Lorentz transformation
f3
A matrix
det Determinant
Tr Trace
< > Average (as in < E> =
average energy)
<,> Scalar combination of vector and one-form, as in < w, A>
E
a f3yo The totally antisymmetric tensor (see Problem 3.20 J)
HO Hubble constartt
Deceleration parameter
qo
Chapter 19)
(9 Order of magnitude
3 2
oc:
Proportional to (e.g., r oc: t
) or
parallel vector to (e. g., A oc:
B)
PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 1
that observer. The time measured by the observer's own clocks, called
his proper time r, is given by
2 2 2 2
_dr 2 == ds =
-dt + dx + dy2 + dz ,
path. Here, and unless noted otherwise throughout this book, we use units
v =
Vile
11
A.B= _AoBo+AlB1+A2B2+A3B3.
All 1lV
variant components of A, are defined by
All
==
TJ IlVAv, or =
11 Av
3
4 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
-1 0 o 0
o 1 o 0
11
11V
-
0 0 1 0
(als 0 ==
TJl1v) .
o 0 o 1
like.
different frame are usually written t', x', y', z'. Similarly, vector com-
,
ponents in the primed frame are written All, Bv" etc., and its basis
vectors are The basis vectors and the components of vectors in
ell"
Lorentz frames are related by
e
11
, =
A e
,
a
' V,=Aa,Va
Il 11
, , ,
VIl = All
a
Va (All =
-
matrix inverse of A
a
,)
a 11
y -yf3 o 0
y o o
1
-yf3 o 0
,
All
v
=
0 1 0
Y _
(1_f3
2
)-2
o o 1
l
tanh- f3 ("the rapidity parameter").
If m =
0 (photons), p is defined by its components in the frame of any
observer po ==
photon energy, pi ==
p
=
photon 3-momentum.
1. SPECIAL-RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS 5
J
(c) u in terms of u
j j
(e) v in terms of u
(f) Ivl-
in terms of uO.
Problem 1.2. Find the matrix for the Lorentz transformation consisting of
Show that the boosts performed in the reverse order would give a different
transformation.
v
2 =
(Yl -2..2)2 -
(YlXY2)2
(1- Xl .
Y2)2
Problem 1.4. A cart rolls on a long table with velocity f3. A smaller cart
rolls on the first cart in the same direction with velocity f3 relative to
the first cart. A third cart rolls on the second cart in the same direction
v
n
of the nth cart in the frame of the table? What does v tend to as
n
n oo?
parallel to its path is a meter stick, at rest with respect to the camera.
bullet's velocity. What will be the apparent length of the bullet as seen
tachyonic reply can be received? How much time will elapse if the distant
at the instant he receives the message and replies? (Show that for u >
1
2
[1 + (1_v ) 2]/V the reply can be received before the signal is sent!)
rod in frame S' makes an angle ()' with respect to the forward direction
Problem 1.9. Suppose that an observer at rest with respect to the fixed
distant stars sees an isotropic distribution of stars. That is, in any solid
angle dO he sees dN =
N(dO/417) stars, where N is the total number
Suppose now that another observer (whose rest frame is S') is moving
function P(()', cp') such that the number of stars seen by this observer in
his solid angle dO' is P(()', cp') dO'? Check to see that fsphere P(()',cp')dO'
N
=
N, and check that P(()', cp') -+ as
{3 -+ O. Where will the observer see
417
the stars "bunch up"?
1 1
Problem 1.10. Show that A =
32et + 22 is a unit timelike vector in
ex
Problem 1.11. Two rings rotate with equal and opposite angular velocity
w about a common center. Suppose Adam rides on one ring and Eve on
the other, and that at some moment they pass each other and their clocks
agree. At the moment they pass, Eve sees Adam's clock running more
1. SPECIAL-RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS 7
slow ly, so she expects to be ahead the next time they meet. But Adam
expects just the reverse. What really happens? Can you reconcile this
x =
r r c os () c os cp dA
y
=
r r cos () sin cp dA
z =
r r sin () dA
t =
r r dA ,
a
Problem 1.14. Show that an observer's 4-acceleration du /dT has only
2
3/2
(l-v 2
'II =
3 I
(l-y )
.
2
a' =
C1-v ) [a -
v x (axu)]
1
.
l \3
- .- .-.-
(1 -v .
JlJ
8 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
be his proper time. (ii) Let his hyperplanes of simultaneity agree with
all spatial points with the same labels as the momentarily comoving in-
ertial system t =
0, x, y, z.
Problem 1.19. A mirror is moving parallel to its plane. Show that the
angle of incidence of a photon equals the angle of reflection.
2
(b) the rest mass he attributes to the particle is m = -
p
.
p;
1
2
(c) the momentum he measures has magnitude I pi =
[(p.u)2 + p .
p] ;
1
2
[ ]
p,p
\yl =
1 +
(p .
u )2
frame are
. .
o J J
v =
0, v =
(dx /dt)par t lC 1 e "
=
ordinar y velocit y ,
.
P
by
.
IS v = -
u -
given u
.
p
.
1. SPECIAL-RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS 9
Problem 1.21. An iron nucleus emits a Mossbauer gamma ray with frequency
V as measured in its own rest frame. The nucleus is traveling with
o
answer in terms of
, and the unit vector E. pointing towards the
vo'
nucleus at the time it emitted the y-ray, as meas ured by the observer.
observer and source is () at the time the light is emitted. If the observer
o o
o 1 o o
o o
E E o o
E E o o
cosa -sin a
sin a cosa
tions whose product is not a pure rotation in the y-z plane, but is in the
little group of p.
Problem 1.24. Two giant frogs are captured, imprisoned in a large metal
cylinder, and placed on an airplane. While in flight, the storage doors
accidentally open and the cylinder containing the frogs falls out. Sensing
something amiss, the frogs decide to try to break out. Centering them-
selves in the cylinder, they push off from each other and slam simultane-
ously into the ends of the cylinder. They instantly push off from the ends
and shoot across the cylinder past each other into the opposite ends. This
10 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
continues until the cy linder hits the ground. Consider how this looks from
some other inertial frame, falling at another speed. In this frame, the frogs
do not hit the 'ends of the cylinder simultaneously, so the cylinder jerks
back and forth about its mean speed {3. The cylinder, however, was at
rest in one inertial frame. Does this mean that one inertial frame can jerk
back and forth with respect to another?
1 + i K.v /2
J
is a boost by a small velocity v in the j-direction. Show
that the following relationships, and all their cyclic permutations, are true:
[J x
' Jy ] =
2iJz
[ J x' Ky] =
2iKz
[K x ' Ky] =
-2iJz
ax'
a , a
z
' and the unit matrix.
y
show that . 3
=
O.
Problem 1.27. Show that any proper (non time-reversing, non parity-
null direction.
Problem 1.28. What is the least number of pure boosts which generate an
o
E =
p and 3-momentum p
.-
=
pl. If the particle has a nonzero rest mass m,
m(y,yy), Y ==
(1 -
v) ,
so E =
ym, p
.-
=
ymv. The square of
.-
a particle's 4-momentum, an invariant
in all frames, is
222
P
・
P
=
-E + p =
-m .
constant in time.
o o o o o o o
A' -A =
(him) (l-cos ()) .
Problem 2.2.
(a) When a photon scatters off a charged particle which is moving with
a speed very nearly that of light, the photon is said to have undergone an
which a charged particle of rest mass m and total mass-energy (as seen
11
12 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
photon?
0
(b) If space is filled with black-body
radiation of temperature 3 K
20
and contains cosmic ray protons of energies up to 10 eV, how much
20 0
energy can a proton of energy 10 eV transfer to a 3 K photon?
(liquid hydrogen, for example). In the second., two separate beams of pro-
tons are accelerated to 15 GeV each, then directed toward each other and
the center of momentum frame for each experiment. To what energy would
tionary particle of equal mass. The incident particle has kinetic energy
To' What is its kinetic energy after the collision, if the scattering angle
is ()?
y+N N+17
0
where y represents a photon of temperature 3 K. Assume the collision
17 n K mA
1115 MeV. What is the threshold kinetic energy of the 17 to create a K
m
A ,
m
B ,
me) .
(a) If A is at rest in the lab frame, show that in the lab frame parti-
(mi m + -
m )/2m A'
effect, why is hv =
a?
(c) If A decays while moving in the lab frame, find the relation
between the angle at which B comes off, and the energies of A and B.
one in + =
1
c.M. 2 2 2
( a ) E tota I =
(m l + m
2
+ 2m
2
E
1 )
c M 2 M
(b ) E C.M.=
1 [ ( E total )
. .
+ m
1
2 _
m
2
2]/2E c
total
. .
C M
( c ) pC.M. P IE
. .
= m
1 2 1 total
(d) YC.M. =
(E l +m2)/Efo.t i(v C . M .
==
velocity of C.M. in lab frame,
1
2 -2
and Y C M. .
==
(1 -
v
c. M .
) .
)
(e) v = P I (E + m ).
C . M. 1 1 2
14 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 2.13.
starts from rest near the earth, how far from the earth (as measured in the
(b) Compute the proper time for the occupants of a rocket ship to
travel the 30,000 light years from the Earth to the center of the galaxy.
Assume they maintain an acceleration of 1 g for half the trip and decelerate
(c) What fraction of the initial mass of the rocket can be payload in
part (b)? Assume an ideal rocket that converts rest mass into radiation
and ejects all of the radiation out of the back with 100% efficiency and
perfect collimation.
Problem 2.14. What is the maximum energy one could get out of a fixed
V
Problem 2.15. A new force field FIL(x ) is discovered which induces a
1
particle of
V
4-acceleration all == dull /dr =
m- FIL(x ) on a mass m, at
V
position xv. Notice that FIl does not depend on u . Show that this
One then shows that the basis vectors and components of vectors in the
u
axil ax
=-e,
e e
ell'
=
a' a
'
Il a
ax axil
,
axil, va'
a
ax
va' =
VIl , VIl =
u
axil ax
,
u
v ' =
axil v v =
ax
Va '
'
U
a Il' Il
ax axil
, ,
u
In other words, the transformation matrix A':z == axil / ax replaces the
less general Lorentz matrices (which are applicable only for transforma-
tions between two systems of Minkowski coordinates).
In general coordinates, the relation A. B =
2
system there is a metric tensor with components such that ds
{3'
=
UfJ Il IlV
Note also All gllV Av where gllV is the matrix inverse of
gllv.
=
15
16 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Ilv ll
e.g. , ,
Q
G Y = Aa ,Av Q Ga fJ .
Il Il fJ
a V
R All GIlv B F
QIlV All Bv
= = =
' ' ・
/lClV IlV
A special case is contraction with the metric tensor, where the same
symbol is usually used for the result as in the relation of covariant and
indices, e.g. F
/lVA/lAV or
Rf3 y Ff3y or
AaBf3 f3' is a scalar and is an
invariant number in all frames. The analog of the index free notation A
for a vector All is to write, e.g. T for a tensor Tllv. In both cases the
context.
o o o o o o o
Problem 3.1.
(a) there exists a frame in which they happen at the same point, and
Problem 3.4. Show that the sum of two vectors can be spacelike, null, or
timelike.
Problem 3.5. Show that the cross-sectional area of a parallel beam of light
is invariant under Lorentz transformations.
Problem 3.7. F
a
{3 is antisymmetric on its two indices. Show that
F
a
F
V
= _
F F
a
{3 .
line element is ds
2
dxadx fJ If the coordinates are transformed
TlafJ
=
.
2 V
x/l /l, show that the line element is ds d x /ld x and express
g/lV
=
-> x ,
g- V
-
in terms of the partial derivatives axil / a .or two
F arbitrary
Il
4-vectors U and V, show that
lflv fJg
u V ・ =
uavfJTlafJ =
afJ
Problem 3.9. Show that the determinant of the metric tensor g == det
(gllv)
is not a scalar.
the matrix
AA is also a coordinate transformation.
18 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
of two vectors K
a {3 A
a
B(3? Can you express the
is a direct product =
V
Problem 3.13. A two index "object" Xfl. is defined by the "direct sum"
V V V
of two vectors Xfl. =
Afl. + B . Is Xfl. a tensor? Is there a transforma-
""
V
tion law to take. X to a new coordinate system, Le. to obtain Xfl. from
v
Xfl. ?
be
Problem 3.15. Let
Afl.V an antisymmetric tensor so that
Afl.V AVfl.;
= -
Afl.V Sfl. O. Establish the following two identities for any arbitrary
=
tensor V
fl.v:
vfl.V A = 1. (Vfl.V -
fl.V
'
fl.V 2 fl.V 2
Problem 3.16.
Problem 3.17. We define the meaning of square and round brackets en-
== .1' l V
v
(a l'
...
, a)
p p.
, a
"
"'a
"
.
' Vr
La .a ]
=
-
.ll (-l)"V
p! a" 1
...
1 p 1 ,.. p a"
p
Here the sum is taken over all permutations " of the numbers 1, 2,'
. .
, p
or odd. The quantity V may have other indices, not shown here, besides
the set of p indices a
1 ,
a
2
,"', a ' but only this set of indices is
p
1
Thus for example V
(a 1 a 2 )
==
2
( Va a +
Va 2 a 1 ) or equivalently V ( v ) =
1 2 Il
(V/Lv + V V/L)'
(a) If F is antisymmetric and T is symmetric, apply these defini-
tions to give explicit formulas for the following: F
V[ll v ]' F[ll v ]' (Il v )'
TijLv]' T(Il V)
,
V[a y]'T(a{3,y)' F[a ,y]-
(b) Establish the following formulae: V ((a '''a )) V
(a ."a );
=
1 pIp
V[[a 1 ...a ]]
=
p p Lm p 1 t.m p
V
[a 1 ...
an a'"
t. m
a
p
].
(c) Use these notations to show that F
Ilv
'=
A
V ,Il- AIl,v implies
O. (Half of Maxwell's equations!)
Fa ,vF v,aFva,
+ + =
1=
Ya yY(a y) Y[a y]
+ ・
E = -
E
a (3yo
(3 yu
.
/lvpa
a
Problem 3.23. Show that for any tensor A
(3
AUp.A{3vAYAAOu
U
Eu{3yo
=
EP.VAu
det II A {311
a a
where IIA (311 is the matrix of the components A
(3'
Problem 3.24. Show that four vectors u, v, W, x, are linearly independent
if and only if u A v A W AX O. Show that in this case U A v A W AX is pro-
*F = 1. E/lva (3 F e 0 e
2 a
(3 /l v.
3! a
II'.A
.
/l A
a ...
a
p p
a
/l...A == det
p" .a
A
a /l ...
a
a a
3. SPECIAL-RELATIVISTIC COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS 21
Show that if there are more than 4 upper (or lower) indices, the tensor
identically vanishes.
(i.e. pa(3 =
A [aB(3]) then
3
hypersurface x
a
xa(a, b, c) by d
=
Epn.{3y(1/3!) da db dc [J(x
,x )/
a
III
=
,x{3 y
b,
J(a, c)], where the last factor is a 3 x 3 Jacobian determinant. Compute
3
for a space-like hypersurface xO
the components of d
III constant, =
2
parameterized by xl
3
=
a, x =
b, x =
c.
1
4
dV =
(_g)2 d x
4
where d x dxdydzdt in the coordinate system of the metric
gl1 v
=
'
Problem 3.32. Show that the proper 3-volume element of an observer with
1
3 3
4-velocity u is d V =
(_g)2 uOd x, and show that this is a scalar
invariant.
4
momentum d P for 4-dimensional momentum space? What is the invariant
1
3-volume "on the mass shell", i.e. when the constraint (_P.P)2 = m is
imposed?
N =
n dx dydz dp x dpY dPz .
Show that n is a Lorentz invariant, Le. that all observers will compute
3
is constant in time.
,
(b) Show that the integral is a scalar, Le. fJOd x =
rJO d 3x'.
CHAPTER 4
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Lorentz frame the components of Fllv are related to the electric and
Z
0 EX EY E
Z
_Ex 0 a -BY
Fllv =
z
-EY _B 0 aX
z x
_E BY _B 0
Here 11 is the row index and v the column index. Maxwell's equations
can be written
FIlV
,v
=
411 Jil
F + F + F =
0
a{3,y ya,{3 {3y,a
,
where Jil =
(p, J) is the 4-current density. The Lorentz force law is
d pll / dr =
eFllv Uv
2 2
The energy density 5; =
(E + B )/817, the Poynting energy flux S =
Tij =
[_ (EiEj + BiBj) + !
2
oij (E 2 + B 2 )]/417
TIlV =
( F/lU- FVa _! TJllv Fa {3 F ) /417
4" a{3'
23
24 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
E and
E
-
.
B
-
are invariant under changes of coordinates and Lorentz transforma-
tions. Are there any invariants which are not merely algebraic combina-
tions of these two?
magnetic field, where & is the energy density and the Poynting flux.
E2)2 =
0, there is
a Lorentz transformation which will make E and.--..
B parallel (E'x B" 0). =
[Hint: Try v
--
=
aCE x B) for
--
some a.]
3-velocities v.
-1
and trajectories x
-
=
z.
-1 (t). The 4-current has components
JO =
L e.
1
o3[x -z.(t)]; Ji
-1
= L e
k vio3[x -z k (t)].
- -
Show that this can be
i
-
f e k o4[x 4-velocity of
a
written JI1 =
L -
za k(r)] u dr where u is the
k
particle k.
equations
Fa{3,y
+
F{3y,a
+
Fya,/3
=
0
FU {3417 JU =
V.B=O
- -
'
B + V xE
...... ...........-.-..
=
0, V. E .......... .......
=
417 P ,
-
x B = -
417 J .
V
Problem 4.9. If F/l is the electromagnetic tensor, show that Maxwell's
equations in vacuum can be written as F/l v =
0 and *F/l
V
=
O. [Here,
,v ,v
V V
*F/l is the dual of F/l ; see Problem 3.25.]
Problem 4.11. From the spatial components of the Lorentz 4-force equa-
moving at velocity x
, however, does not see the speed as constant.
Q
e
fJ_
0' 0'
What is u measured by this observer? (c) Calculate du /dr and thus
,
o
dp /dr. Explain how the energy of the particle can change since the B
central body is at rest, the test charge is seen to circle in the plane per-
Problem 4.15. Show that the stress-energy tensor for the electromagnetic
Problem 4.16. Show that the stress-energy tensor for the electromagnetic
Til
a
T
a
v
=
all
v [(E2_B2)2 + (2E.B)2]/(817)2
__
.
Problem 4.19. Derive the Lorentz force law for a charged particle from the
4
action r Jil A d x -
Problem 4.20.
417 J 11
.
FIlV =
,v
*FIlV v =
417 Kil .
[IL v] d 4 x -
J
r J
FILV (xa) =
4.
171 2
(r a ra )
-
417 JIL.) How are the retarded boundary conditions specified?
Problem 4.23. Find the equation for the convective time rate of change
terms of the expansion, shear, and rotation of the fluid. (See Problem 5.18
for definitions of these quantities.)
CHAPTER 5
vistic fluid or field uses the symmetric tensor T, the stress-energy tensor
TOO ==
density of mass-energy (often denoted p).
jO
TOj =
T ==
j-component of momentum-density
=
j-component of energy-flux
XX
Tij ==
components of the ordinary stress tensor (e.g. T =
x-component
of pressure).
equations of motion:
TIlV v =
0 .
not yet familiar with this may replace all semicolons by commas (partial
differentiation in Minkowski coordinates). Also, the V notation is intro-
28
5. MATTER AND RADIATION
29
and angular velocity cu. (The width of the ring is much less than a.) Do
not include the stress-energy of whatever forces keep them in orbit. Assume
N is large enough that one can treat the particles as being continuously
distributed.
(c) Two such rings of particles, one rotating clockwise, the other
counter-clockwise, at the same radius a. The particles do not collide or
Problem 5.2. What is the stress energy of a gas with a proper number
density (i.e. number density as measured in the local rest frame of the gas)
Problem 5.3. In the rest frame of a perfect fluid its stress energy tensor,
p 0
P
TlLv =
p
o p
Problem 5.4. Find the stress-energy tensor for a uniform magnetic field.
What is the average stress-energy if the B field is static but "chaotic"
Le. the direction of the B field varies, and is isotropic on the average?
30 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 5.5. A rod has cross sectional area A and mass per unit length
/l. Write down the stress-energy tensor inside the rod when the rod is
Problem 5.6. A rope of mass per unit length /l has a static breaking
strength F. What is the maximum F can be without violating the' 'weak"
energy condition that TOO should be positive to all observers? How close
at each of its ends. The center of the rod is fixed in the laboratory and
the rod rotates about this point with a relativistic angular velocity cu.
(i.e. cue is comparable with c). Assume the rod is massless. What is
V
T/l for the rod and particle system?
is present between the plates; fringe effects at the edge of the plate can
2
be neglected. The "electrostatic mass" of this capacitor is E Ad/81T
in the rest frame of the capacitor. Show that the electrostatic energy is
the plates must be held apart. Let the plates be held apart by an ideal
gas of proper density Show that the total energy (electrostatic + gas)
PO.
of the capacitor increases with velocity in the x-direction in precisely
Problem 5.11. A star emits radiation isotropically in its own rest frame,
with luminosity L (energy per unit time). At a particular instant, as
measured from the earth, the star is at a distance R, and is moving with
the earth to the star. What is the flux of radiation (energy per unit time
Let A be the effective cross sectional area of the particle. Find the
equation of motion of the particle in a constant radiation field of intensity
S (energy per time per area), and solve it for the case of a particle initially
at rest. (Poynting-Robertson effect).
2
Problem 5.14. In an electron gas of temperature T << c /k a photon
me
of energy E <<
mec2 undergoes collisions and is Compton scattered.
photon in a collision is
2
<dE> =
(E/m e c )(E-4kT) .
isolated physical system of finite extent obeys the tensor virial theorem
f !.
f
d
Tij d3x =
TOOxixjd3x .
2
dt2
32 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
V
Problem 5.16. Show that the stress-energy tensor T/l has a timelike
Problem 5.17.
jk
gj =
m vk ,
where m
jk the "inertial mass unit volume" is
, per
, ,
defined by
f
Mij ij dx
_
m dy dz
stressed
body
is isotropic and equals the rest mass of the body, Le. show that
Mij = Sij
J TOO dxdydz .
decomposed as
U w + u +
()Paf3- a u
=
a ;f3 a f3 a f3 a f3'
:; u uf3
aa a
;f3 ,
a
() == V. u =
u '
'
,a
,
a
a == !. ( u p/l + u p/l) - !. () p
af'J 2 a;/l f'J f'J;/l a 3 a,...,.
P + u
u{3
==
a{3 ga{3 a
element.)
v
Problem 5.20. Use the equations of motion (T/l .
,
v
=
0) to show that the
Show that v; =
r P /(P + p) where 1
I 1
is the adiabatic index
11 =
a log pia log n\ .
s = constant
34 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 5.24. What is the speed of sound in an ideal Fermi gas at zero
temperature?
with y constant, and the speed of sound in the tank is a. What is the
number density of baryons, and heat flux, all measured in the proper
S =
nsu + q/T ,
Problem 5.28. A fluid is "perfect" except for admitting some heat con-
entropy generation V. S.
To but rather is
T T 0 exp
=
(- )
.
T
a
{3 =
pu
a
u{3 + p pa{3 _
21J dl {3 _
,() pa{3 .
5. MA TTER AND RADIATION 35
Here 11 and , are res pective ly the coefficients of shear and bulk
viscosity. The definitions of cP{3, (), p
a
{3 are those of Problem 5.18.
The pressure and density are p and p. Show that the viscous terms
;a ?(, (j2
= + 2TJ aa{3 cP(3)/T
[dp/dr + ()(p + p)]/T for a fluid without heat flow, then differentiate pu{3 =
-
T
a
{3u a
to get dp/dr.)
T
a {3 =
pu
a
u{3 + pp {3
a
_
211 dl {3 _
,()pa{3 ,
ds
C
v
=
T
In c
p
=
T
dT p I ・
a log p
r1 =
-
a log n
I
s
Y ==
cp/c v
.
p
=
mn + Kn Y /(y-1) under adiabatic conditions. (K =
constant, m =
mass
of partic les.)
36 PROBLEM BOOK OF RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
d 3x d 3p exp - - -
] -
E
kT
Here 1 =
spin of particles, h =
Planck's constant, 0 =
mean
4-velocity
of gas, E =
1, 0 or -1 for Bose-Einstein, Maxwell-Boltzmann or Fermi-
d 3P d3P
Jil ==
J npil
(-p.o)
, TIlV ==
J np/LpJ/
(-p.o)
.
Since u is the only free vector, these integrals must have the form
JI1 =
null, TIlV =
(p + p) ullU
V
+ pg
IlV .
cal potential Il =
(p + p)1 n -
Ts.
METRICS
d x f3 ,
a
gaf3
dx is the foundation for general relativity and for most of the
the Minkowski metric, Le. for every point P in the spacetime, there is
some coordinate transformation which makes at P.
ga{3 l1a{3
=
o o o o o o o
Problem 6.1.
2 2 2 2
ds =
dv ...
v du (1)
2 2 2
ds =
dx -
dt .
(2)
2
ds =
R2[da 2 + sin 2 a (d &2 + sin 2 0 d <1>2)]
37
38 PROBLEM BOOK IN REl,A TIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
Problem 6.3. The metric for the surface of a globe of the Earth is
2 2 2 2
ds =
a (d'\ + cos ,\ dcp2)
where ,\ is the latitude and cp is the longitude. The metric of a flat
2 2
map of the world, with Cartesian coordinates x and y is ds =
dx + dy2;
however we are not interested in this geometry, but in that of the globe it
straight line on the map is a line of constant compass bearing on the globe.
\2
(
2 2 2 2 3 4 12
ds dx + dy + dz dx + dy + d
13 Z;
= -
.
13 13
Show that it is really a two-dimensional space, and find two new coordi-
nates ( and 11 for which the line element takes the form
2 2
ds =
d(2 +
d11 .
tensor" P ==
g + u u projects V into the 3-surface orthogonal to the
P==g-n n
6. METRICS 39
how to define angles!) Show that all null curves remain null curves.
Problem 6.8. One can put a metric on the velocity space of a particle by
defining the distance between two nearby velocities as their relative
2 2 2 2
ds =
dX2 + sinh x (d0 + sin 0dcp2) .
neighborhood of 0 =
, X
=
0 -
the metric
2
ds =
d0
2
+ (0 _
(3)2 dX2 .
The manifold has precisely one point which is not locally flat, and that
point is a "conical" singularity. Show that there are two different maxi-
mal analytic extensions of the metric, Le. that there are two different ways
of extending the metric, and satisfying the condition that there is only one
conical singularity. Note that this shows that a metric in a local coordi-
nate patch does not always pin down the global nature of the manifold.
Problem 6.10. Find the most general form for a spacetime metric that is
r f3 av. v
Qaf3.
・ . . .
+
va Q yo ・ ..
+ ...
_
r
ya va ・ . .
_r
v
af3...
oa Q yv...
where there is one "correction" term for every index of Q. The r's are
a all r 1 all (
r +
g g
g(3y,1l )
- -
(the first equality defines r ll(3y). The r's are sets of numbers, but
tional derivative:
(V Q) Qa(3... yo''''v U
V
.
u == V Q == .
.
a a
writes u =
d/dA for u =
dx IdA and
40
7. COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION AND GEODESIC CURVES 41
VuQ == ・
Ve Q ==
VaQ .
rfl.a
V{3e or
r/Kl{3 ell V{3e
= .
{3efl.
= .
a a
The covariant derivative operator V obeys all of the nice rules expected
of a derivative operator, except that in curved space VuV v
1= VvV u
(see
Chapter 9).
If u is the tangent vector to a curve, a tensor Q is said to be
V
u
Q = 0 .
Vu u =
0
dufl. a
u{3r ll
o =
( V u u)fl. =
+ u
{3
.
dA a
Here A must be an affine parameter along the curve; for non-null curves
V V
u
=
(u a -
a u). V .
42 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
polar coordinates r, 0, assume that the geodesics are the usual straight
lines.
a
Find the connection coefficients
{3y' using
(a) r your knowledge of
2 IL
d x
+
dx
a
dx{3 rlL = 0
a{3
.
ds ds
ds2
Using the transformation law for connection coefficients find the connec-
cients g
I1 V
.
(All three methods, of course, must give the same Christoffel
symbols.)
2 2 2 2
ds =
dr + r d0 .
(a) Write the 2 equations that res ult from the geodesic equation, and
2 dO
r
Ro constant
= =
ds
( / ( y:
2
+ r =
1 .
(b) Use the results in (a) to get a first-order differential equation for
reO). [That is: Eliminate s as a parameter and replace by 0].
(c) Using the fact that the metric space is just flat 2-dimensional
7. COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION AND GEODESIC CURVES
43
Euclidean space, write down the general equation for a straight line in
r, () coordinates, and show that the straight line satisfies the equation
in (b).
2 2 2 2
Problem 7.4. For the 2-dimensional metric ds =
(dx -
Problem 7.6. For a diagonal metric, prove that (in a coordinate frame) the
rll \ = 0 r ll,\,\ = - -
1 ag,\X
-
'
Vl\
2gllll axil
glLlL I) t)
a ...L (log (I
rlL
pA
=
ax
A
(log (1
gIL1L1)t), rlL
ILIL
=
axil
・
f3,y af3y
.
(b)
lLgf{3,y glL{3 IL'Y = -
・
(c) ga{3,y = _
r
a
gll{3 _
r{3 gila.
IlY IlY
(d) g
,a
= -
gg
tJy,a
gf3Y =
gg{3y g(3 y,a .
1
(e) r f3(log IgI2),f3 in a coordinate frame.
=
\ gI t
(h) A f3. = l (I gl t A (3) -
rA AXil in a coordinate frame.
a,fJ a,fJ all
1 g\ t
1
(I gl t A {3
{3;{3 (3),{3
a a
(i) A
a
=
in a coordinate frame, if A is
antisymmetric.
1 gl 2
(j) 0S =
S. ;a = -L (I gl t ga{3s )in a coordinate frame.
,a ,a
Iglt
,fJ
44 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
A. =
A . How should A be defined (in terms of A and A)?
,a ,a, a ,a
'
null, geodesics.
dxa
+ r
a dx{3 d.x Y =
0
2 {3y
.
d,\
d,\ d,\
Show that all affine parameters are related by linear transformations with
constant coefficients.
Problem 7.12. Show that in flat spacetime, the conservation law for the
that particles with nonzero rest mass move along timelike geodesics.
(3,
0 0), consider all null
=
curves between
Problem 7.15.
(a) Show that the geodesics of the velocity space metric defined in
Problem 6.8 are paths of minimum fuel use for a rocket ship changing its
velocity.
2 2 2
Problem 7.16. On the surface of a two-sphere, ds =
d0 + sin 0 dcp2,
the vector A is equal to
ee
at e =
eo' cp =
O. What is A after it is
Vue a
=
(ii) in addition e" =
u? (Le. the frame is his rest-frame).
o
(iii) in addition the spatial vectors are to be nonrotating? (Le. He
Problem 7.18. Show that the scalar product of two vectors is not altered
Ta{3;y vaw{3u
(c) Y
(d) wa;{3 V{3;y uy
a
uy u{3 Y u{3 UZ;{3 w{3;y uy
(e) W +
wa;y U
-
;y{3
・
;{3
Problem 7.21. Show that the paths of light rays in astatic, isotropic
j
varying "index of refraction" What is of Assume
n(x ). n in terms
f3?
g has the form 2 2
a(3 2 2 2
ds goodt f(dx l 3 ).
= -
+ dX + dx
2
is a very large number. Show that the drunk astronaut achieves highly
relativistic velocities less efficiently than a sober astronaut (who fires
his rocket always in the same direction), and takes on the average 3c/!1v
Problem 7.23.
(a) Suppose a vector field k is orthogonal to a family of hypers urfaces
("hypersurface-orthogonal"). Show that this implies k[/l;V k,\]
=
O.
o
J (gaf3 x a x (3 ) ds =
0
t
o
J (gaf3 x
a
x (3 ) ds = 0
(gaf3 x x(3)"2,
a a
dx Ids. If y == show that
o
J F(y)ds =
0
B =
Bile ,
11
B =
B w l1 ,
11
where ,...., indicates a one-form and (;,11 are basis one-forms with covariant
components (1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), etc. For an arbitrary tensor T, with
com ponents T
yo. . .
a(3.
,
. .
YO... -a (3 0...
_
T =
T CA) 0(,) 0e
e '.'
(3
.
a... y u
v
A.B =
g AI1B
I1V
v
A.B =
gl1 A Bv
11
v
The scalar product of
(Here gl1 gl1v ')
is the matrix inverse of a vector
with a one-form does not involve the metric, only a summation over an
- -
B.A ==
<B,A> ==
BI1AI1 .
47
48 PROBLEM BOOK IN REJ.JATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
--
derivative of f along v.
< df, v> = V f =
f va .
v ,a
tangent to the coordinate lines. This motivates the notation for a coordi-
a a
ax
a
--
a
w == dx .
basis vectors and one-forms at every point. These are not necessarily '"
{3
fP and c;,a. c;,f3 =
gaf3 always hold. When the basis is
ef3 f3'
=
f3' ea'
orthonormal, then in addition and gaf3 af3 If a local
f3TJa f3 TJ
= =
.
frame.
V
e{3
V e =
[e a ,
e{3] == c
{3Y ey
-
e e a a
a {3
0, if and only if
vanishes identically, c
{3Y e and e are the
=
a a {3
tangent vectors to come coordinate system (a coordinate basis). In a
8. DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY: FURTHER CONCEPTS 49
r
p.' (Vye (3)
+c
==
(gp.{3, y + gp.y,(3
+c C
(3yp.)
=
g{3y ,p.
e
p.{3y p.y{3
- -
p.{3y
・
o o o o o o o
Problem 8.1.
a a
(a) A spacetime has coordinates x with basis vectors a/ax and
basis one-forms a.
What are the values of:
< o, o
a/ax >, < , 2
a/ax
3
>, (a/ax ). (a/ax ), d;0
o l .
J;1 d;0 d;0? ,
.
--1
(b) To what vector does the one-form dx correspond?
l
Problem 8.2. The usual basis for polar coordinates, e..... e, e .....
r- e
()
= =
r
r
..... ()
bas is .....
-
i s:-i
<w
ej>
= U .
,
j
..... --
f such that a =
df?
QI AQ 2 (-1)PQQ2AQl
= .
50 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Vvf for
any v;
(v) ddQ =
0 for any Q,.
are equivalent.
-...
1
-...
2 n 1 2
a =
f(x ,
x
,.", x ) dx A dx .
da =
0 .
If( xl
[XI.[ xn)d ]
2
/3 =
,x ,"', J;2
-
that for a spacelike surface, these are all spacelike; for a timelike surface,
8. DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY: FURTHER CONCEPTS 51
two spacelike and one timelike; for a null surface, one null and two
spacelike.
Jao
To what does this theorem reduce, in the following cases
(a) 0 IS 3-dimensional, 6 =
fkd 2S k
(b) 0 is 4-dimensional, 6 =
f J1d
31:fJ. .
FJ1Vd2fJ.V
v
(c) 0 IS 3-dimensional, 6 = where FfJ. is antisymmetric.
(d) Use the generalized Stokes theorem to derive the familiar relation
fl:.' i f ('
e =
'I) x 1:.) .
is ・
Problem 8.11. Show that there exists no tensor with components con-
Problem 8.12.
Lie differentiation as
xY[x,y]
== =
V y
x
-
V
yx.
The Lie derivative obeys
all the usual rules for a derivative operator and always gives a tensor of
f. AB is that B
the geometrical interpretation
of} the trans port law 0
=
Problem 8.15. Show that Lie differentiation commutes with the operation
of contraction.
uv -
v =
u
[u,v] .
object (l)A[xl1(p)] (A represents all the tensor indices, xl1(P) are the
transformation Po --) P
N by xl1(P 0) =
xll(P N ) + gl1(P N ). (Since 11is
infinitesimal, it can in fact be evaluated at either Poor P
N .) Also make
an infinitesimal coordinate transformation that makes the numerical values
of the coordinates of P
N
the same as those of Po in the original
coordinates:
x l1 (P
N)
=
xl1(Po) .
Then define
A A-A
rI>
(Po) =
LIM [rI> (Po) -<I> (P N )] .
e--)o
Afl
=
T
/.
8. DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY: FURTHER CONCEPTS 53
is there a
.! which is always left unchanged by this process?
Problem 8.20. Find the most general vector field which is everywhere
h a ij (not
a vector field.
IlV v
2 3
arbitrary coordinate grid (xl ,x ,x ) on it, eject geodesic world lines
2 3
orthogonal to it, and give these world lines the coordinates (xl ,x ,x ) =
constant, xO == t =
t
I
+ T where T is proper time along the world line,
54 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
beginning with T =
0 on
SID Show that in this coordinate system
form
2 2 i
ds = -
dt + goo dx dx j .
lJ
Problem 8.26.
are the components of a tensor. Here the r's and r's are Christoffel
(b) Suppose g/lV and g/lV have the same geodesics. Then show
that
S AII V
= oA 'II
v
+ oA v \II
r /l /l
2 2
ds = -
e
2a
dt + e
2
/3dr 2 + e2Y(de2 + sin 2 e dcjJ2)
a, f3, y =
functions of rand t.
U
A
・
p/U B ・
CURVATURE
arll
{3 ar ll va
r ll Qr p
v
Ril =
+ r ll rp -
va{3 {3
-
pfJ va
ax{3 pa v
a
ax
0
Ra{3yo Ra{3oy Ra[{3yo]
= - =
・
,
The (symmetric) Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar are formed from the
Riemann tensor:
Rll
Ra{3
==
all {3
a
R==R .
1
gAK R IlV
C R R + R
(gAv RIlK gllv gllK Av )
-
AK
- -
AIlVK AllvK
-
2
1
R
+
(gAv gllK gAK gllv)
-
is also called the conformal tensor due to its invariance under conformal
components K.. = -
e. ・
V.o .
lJ J 1
55
56 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
system in two ways (a) from geodesics and (b) from the (orthogonal)
lines of longitud'e and latitude. Either way there will be deviations from
a good Cartesian system (e.g. the sum of "the angles in a coordinate box
Problem 9.2. How many independent components does the Riemann tensor
have in n dimensions?
metries of the Riemann tensor can be used to reduce the size of the stored
tensor R
ijk1 (i,j,k,l
=
e,cp) for the 2-sphere metric
2 2 2 2
ds =
r (de + sin e dcp2) .
Problem 9.5. Find the Christoffel symbols and Riemann curvature com-
2 2 2 2
ds =
dv _
v du .
r/l and
g/lv' a{3 Ra{3yo'
Problem 9.7. In a space of fewer than 4 dimensions simple expressions
can be given for the Riemann tensor.
2V =
V -
V =
V Ra
a; [ VK ] a aVK
-
a;VK a;KV
compute
(Le. show that
S;a{3 S;(3a)' For third derivatives
S;a{3y'
=
and
S; (a{3)y S;a [f3y]-
Problem 9.10. Prove that for any second rank tensor
A fl
v
A f1
V -
-
.
;f1V ;Vf1
oAa =
-Ra{3yoA{3uYvO .
Problem 9.12. Riemann curvature can also be computed with the Riemann
operator R
R(A,B)C =
(VAVB-VBVA-V[A,B])C
(a) Show that the value of R at a point P is linear in the arguments
their values at P and not the way in
A, B, C and depends only on on
,lAuC/l AA B
a
(R(A,B) C)a =
R
U
.
Problem 9.13. Two nearby geodesics have affine parameters such that
nearby points on the two geodesics have very close values of affine
a
parameter A. Let u == dxa/dA be the tangent to one of the geodesics,
2 a
D n a
f3 nY u o
+ R u 0
f3yo
=
2
.
dA
2 2
ds =
-(1-2M/r)dt + (1+2M/r)(dx2+dy2+dz2)
1
2
r ==
(x +y2+z2)2
M =
mass of Earth (c =
G =
1) .
nearby orbit and watches it move relative to the satellite. At a given time
the separation of the Skylab and its garbage is described by the vector
gi == xi (garbage) _
xi (skylab) .
Using the equation of geodesic deviation, find the components of the rela-
tive motion gi as a function of time.
0
Raf3yo + R
ao f3y +
Rayof3
=
0
Raof3y;v Raovf3;y + +
Raoyv;f3
=
・
9. CURVATURE
59
1
R
G/l R/l
_
g/lV
= -
V V
2
Problem 9.17. Show that the vanishing of the Riemann tensor is a suffi-
Problem 9.18. A beam of light has a circular cross section at some point
along its path. Show that the beam experiences no shear (i.e. the cross-
section is not deformed into an ellipse) when the Weyl tensor is zero.
Problem 9.19. Compute the Riemann tensor, Ricci tensor, and scalar
curvature of the conformally-flat metric =
e 2CP where cP =
cp(x/l)
g/lV Tl/lV
is an arbitrary function.
orthonormal frame:
a, f3, y =
functions of r, t .
What is the Ricci tensor for this metric? The scalar curvature? The
Einstein tensor?
R
ay f38
A
a
Af3 BYB8
K =
・
o
A {3 B Y B
a
(
g(3y )
A
ga{3 gyo gao
-
circuit lying in the 2-surface, show that the change in the angle between
A and B is of magnitude
!1() =
IK!111
Problem 9.23, does not depend on the 2-surface which is chosen through
Ra
K{gay g(3o g(3y)
o
=
(3yo
-
.
R
K{gay g{3o gao g{3y)
=
(3yo
-
.
constant.
Problem 9.27. Show that a space is conformally flat if the Riemann tensor
can be written as
RA/l VK
=
K(gAv g/lK -
gAK g/lv) ・
9. CURVATURE 61
n .
= 1. K t:1. u
a
u f3
2 afJ
Problem 9.30. Prove that the extrinsic curvature of a time like hypersurface
with unit normal vector n is
nP where P n is
{3na {3
= -
a{3' a{3
-
soap film spanning a fixed closed wire loop will assume a shape of mini-
mum area. Show that this implies that the surface is one whose "mean
i
curvature" K == K .
1
is zero.
2 2
ds =
E dn + (3)g..lJ dx i dx j .
(4) R m (3) R m m m
"k
lJ
=
lJ
"k
+
E(K lJ.,
K
k
-
K
1k
'
K
J
.
(4)R n
E
(Kikl j K
Ik)
= -
ijk
・
ij
(3)g..;
lJ
the n index denotes the component on the n basis vector. Also
derive the equation for the remaining component of the Riemann tensor:
(4)R n
.
In k
= E (K'1 k , n + K.1m Km k )'
Problem 9.33. Using the results of Problem 9.32, derive expressions for
(4)G a
the components of the Einstein tensor, in Gaussian normal
{3'
coordinates.
ture tensor are called the principal curvatures and principal directions.
Find the principal curvatures and directions for the following surfaces em-
(i) sphere: x
2
+ y2 + z2 =
a
2
.
2 2 2
(1 1 ) cy I Ind er:
' . .
x + y =
a .
2
(iii) quadratic surface (compute at origin only): z = (ax + 2bxy+ cl).
9. CURVATURE 63
2
(2)R =
PI P 2
(a;{3) -
[ a;{3 (3;a] + =
0 ・
o o o o o o o
Problem 10.1. Solve Killing's equations to find the Killing vector fields
cally.
Problem 10.3.
(a) Show that the commutator of two Killing vector fields is a Killing
vector field.
zero. Show that the generators of the rotation group 0(3) are thus
64
10. KILLING VECTORS AND SYMMETRIES 65
Problem 10.5. The metric for an axially symmetric rotating star admits
Problem 10.6. Show that any Killing vector is a solution of the equation
V;A).. + R a
' =
a
0 .
be derived.
gl1;a{3 Ry{3al1 gy
= ・
a/at, or
Problem 10.9. In flat Minkowski spacetime find ten Killing vectors that
Killing vector, show that the integral over a whole spacelike hypersurface
f F
-ra
f3 f3d3
Ia
time, Le.
T/lV ;v 0 0
Ral3yo
= =
show that one may construct ten global conservation laws and hence ten
conserved quantities.
"energy at infinity" E = -
p
.
of a test particle with 4-momentum p IS
the norm of .
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
problems.
o o o o o o o
II
Problem 11.1. In special
t
relativity, when a particle I
, \\
is at an event B and has
\\
momentum about event A
,I
IS
J =
f1x p-p f1x II
....
several particles "
67
68 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
I J=
(k) after IJ
(k) before
・
(k) (k)
f
space 3
Jaf3 == d x (x
a
Tf3 0 -
x f3 rzo)
1 a
S E s:- J f-I y U
_
- -
=
a 2 af-lYu
pa 1(- pf3 p
2:
a
pa is the total momentum pa
(3)
==
4-velocity" u == and
3
{d x TaD.
Problem 11.5.
(b) In this case show that the angular momentum ("intrinsic angular
Jafj(C.M.) safj == = -
Eafjyo S us:- .
Y U
x-y plane with constant angular velocity, (u. Calculate Set), the s pin as
DS K EK{3aJl u a A
=
u u t Rl1
{311 aaA
.
dr p.
o ij taf3 u
j
2
r )d x in the rest frame of the center of mass, =
0 and the
a
Problem 11.9. Calculate the period of precession of the Earth's axis due
to the coupling of tidal forces from the sun and moon with the quadrupole
E
.ach observer arranges his spatial basis vectors so that they connect
observer.
(2) Show that the rate of change of the components of any tensor quantity
・ ..
fja (() a ・ ・ ・
S rJsi" fj
・
(c:L Q) Wh at IS"
.
= ・
?
.
dt
dt
torques to it. Show that the gyroscope's spin vector precesses (Lens-
avaA
E S
vs a;A
(lla =
2 Y
y
(4) Show that (ll = 0 if the spacetime is static, and not merely stationary.
and no torques are applied to it. What is the angular velocity of preces-
sion for its spin vector relative to a reference frame fixed with respect to
GRAVITATION GENERALLY
2
v u = -
41TP
g =
Vu .
to other fields.
o o o o o o o
radius r about a central object of mass m. From the known value of CtJ
Problem 12.2. Estimate the height of spring tides and neap tides.
71
72 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 12.4. The position of the sun in the sky can in principle be
measured by a sensitive tidal gravimeter. What is the angular difference
between this position and its position as measured optically? If the actual
pos ition of the s un were at its optical pos ition, there would be a force in
Problem 12.5. The "Eddington limit" for the luminosity of a star of mass
Problem 12.6. Show that an electron does not fall down when released in
potential U as follows:
1 1
T O
Jk
== (U
4 7T,J,
.
U
k
-
2
a .
k
U
J,n
U,n).
Show that the Newtonian equations of motion for stressed matter with
dV
j a
Po dt
- = - -
(T'J k +t'J k )
ax k
(T jk 0
(Po Vj),t + + t
jk
+
Po V j vk),k
=
,
f'i acting on it. Using the equivalence of gravitational mass and energy
l !\ (1- '.!/c2) = -
M!
where g is the acceleration of gravity and x.
-1
denotes the point of appli-
Problem 12.10. From the result of Problem 12.9 show that the equation of
dp GM(r)
dr
= _
2
(p + p/c2)
r
where M(r) is defined as the "active" mass interior to the fluid shell at
radius r. This shows that in a fluid the "effective inertial mass" density
2
is P + p/c . Notice that this result does not depend on the field equations
of general relativity.
Problem 12.11. Show that the Newtonian equation of motion of a test parti-
cle in a Newtonian gravitational potential (I) can be written as a geodesic
equation in 4-dimensional spacetime. Compute the Christoffel symbols
and the Riemann tensor, and show that they are not derivable from a metric.
a 2 (I)
R =
jOkO
Jxjax k
74 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
time function. Show that the resulting theory is consistent with special
relativity. Show that signals can be sent faster than the speed of light.
Is the theory acausal, Le. can an observer send signals into his own past?
electrical effects. Reconcile the existence of both terms with the equiva-
lence principle.
Problem 12.15. New particles of mass are created which carry a new
mO
kind of charge, evidenced by a classical inverse-square force law. A con-
infinite range (massless quanta) pure spin-2 field; Le. that any other field
stant k are all taken to be unity) give the values of the following,
expressed in terms of centimeters: t; the charge of an electron; elm for
o
an electron; the mass of the sun; the luminosity of the sun; 300 K; one
Problem 12.18. Form "natural" units of mass, length, and time out of the
state.
CHAPTER 13
R 817T
G/l R/l
;:
(1)
g/lV
-
=
V V
/lV
where and R the Ricci tensor and scalar curvature derived from
R/l
are
V
linear, since the left hand s ide is not a linear function of the metric.
problems, but unless specifically stated, the Einstein field equations are
to be assumed.
v
The equations of motion T/l .
=
0 are a consequence of Equation (1).
,
v
v
Other desirable properties of T/l , called "energy conditions", must be
o o o o o o o
tions is
76
13. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EQUATIONS 77
R 81TT
R/l ag/lV
-
=
V
/lV
to T by the equations
g/lV /lV
0
C/lvpa
=
T /l
v
R
Kg/lV
-
'
-
where C is the Weyl tensor. Show that this theory, in the Newtonian
limit and with the proper choice of K, agrees with Newtonian gravitation
theory, but that this theory predicts no deflection of starlight passing near
the Sun. Does this theory agree with the Pound-Rebka experiments, Le.
are photons redshifted as they rise against the gravitational pull near the
zero stress-energy.
(1) What form must the vacuum stress-energy tensor take, if there is to be
no preferred vacuum frame? Show that there is a resulting term in the
constant.
(2) Suppose that the vacuum energy is due to the rest mass of virtual
78 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
(3) Va. B. Zel'dovich has suggested that the mass-energy density should
out by observation?
servers. Assume that Tllv has a timelike eigenvector; how can a given
satisfies the
single observer determine whether the Tllv he measures
condition?
energy density) and furthermore, that all observers see energy density
the statement
u
.
(-T)n ・
u 0
for all nons pacelike vectors u reduces to the weak energy condition for
n =
1 and to the dominant energy condition for n = 2. What about n > 2?
2
[Here (T ) V == T
a
T
av
and so forth.]
Il 11
the future of
0, but in which there is a nonvanishing T v
to
time t =
Il
this surface?
13. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EQUATIONS 79
metric. ]
2 2 k
ds = -
(1 + 2<1? dt + (1- 2<1?0 dx j dx
jk
xl1
new
(P) =
xl1old (P) + l1(p) .
forms of tensors. Find the gauge transformation laws for scalars, and com-
ponents of vectors and second rank tensors. For the linearized metric
perturbations g/lv
=
TJ
I1 V
+ h
l1V
show in particular that
h (x) =
hW d(x)
2
(p..v)
-
.
(hav
Rap.l3v +
hp.13 ,va hp.v,al3 hal3,p.v)
= - -
,p.13
・
Also show explicitly that this Riemann tensor is invariant under a gauge
Problem 13.14. In linearized theory one often uses the "trace reversed"
,a
o h == h = -
167T T /I '
Il V Il v ,a rv
where is trace-reversed h
h/L v llV
'
press ion '1
1 x
a
_
a
]
h Re
[AIlVe
=
llV
1
observer's unperturbed rest frame (u =
1, u =
0) such that
h =
0 ' h ll =
0 .
Jl 0 ll
orthogonal to k?
far away. Use the linearized equations of gravity to determine (il, the
13. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD EQUATIONS 81
gorp 4 MO
(j) _
_ =
R
+ (')(02 R 2) '
gCPCP 3
the cavity has been interpreted by some to mean that Einstein's equations
Problem 13.19. In the linearized gravitational theory, show that the equa-
approximations necessary.
CHAPTER 14
o o o o o o o
Problem 14.1. Write the stress-energy tensor for a single free particle,
and show that the equation of geodesic motion follows from TIlV. v =
O.
,
Problem 14.2. Show that the condition for therma I equilibrium of a static
T(-goo)2 =
constant
-[Vp+(Vup)u]
from TlLv. v
,
=
0, and show that this equation has the correct Newtonian
limit.
equilibrium, -ap a
-
v
=
(p+ p) ---
v
log (_goO)2
ax ax
82
14. PHYSICS IN CURVED SPACETIME
83
U
o
=
constant x n/(p+p) ,
where n =
baryon number density.
Problem 14.8. Show that the relativistic Bernoulli equation of Problem 14.7
reduces to the correct Newtonian limit for slow velocities and weak gravi-
tational fie Ids.
world line to B's world line; (ii) has vanishing time component,
=
o
0, relative to the orthonormal tetrad carried by A.
2U - -
0 -
R Q U u fJ
dr ,a 3 a fJ
af3
aaf3,p.f3,
2 2
where w =
w w a
=
and the notation is the same
a f3 ,
as in Problem 5.18.
and expansion 0.) Show that the spacetime has a timelike Killing
ua{j
vector.
measures positions and times inside his box with rulers and a clock. Show
that the equation of motion for a particle, correct to first order in its
1 and position j is
measured velocity v < < x
j
dv /dt =
2<y'x )j [ -
x )x(!xd]j/dt)j
+
. .
k
-
aJ(l+!' ) RJ OkOx -
Here ill is the angular velocity of the box, its acceleration, and Rj OkO
the Riemann tensor evaluated at the origin.
taken to be
T
p.v
=
(471)-1 (<I> ,/1<1> ,v -
gp.v
ell
,a
<I> ,a) ・
,v
(I) =
ps where ps is the density of "scalar charge." We are tempted
,v
to conclude that in curved spacetime the equation should be
m '.V
'¥
;v
-
-
Ps (1)
cI> ;v - 1. R (I) =
Ps (2)
;v 6
while (1) is not.) Does Equation (2), in principle, violate the strong
4TTJf.l, imply
,v
Jf.l;/L O.
=
lence) is not completely unambiguous. Show that the use of this rule with
the vector potential Af.l can lead to two different results for a relativistic
equation.
may be.
zero. )
86 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 14.21. Show that Maxwell's equations are invariant under the
"conformal transformation"
ga{3 ga{3
=
fga {3
F F =
F
a{3 a{3 a{3
-2
J /1 ->
J /1 =
f J
/1
V
The vacuum (T/l =
0) solution to the Einstein field equations which
is spherically symmetric and static is called the Schwarzschild geometry.
In "curvature coordinates" (where 21Tr meas ures the proper circumference
-1
2
2) 2)
2
ds = _
(1_ dt 2 + (1_ dr + r2(d02+sin20dcP2) .
2 2 2 2
(One sometimes abbreviates d0 == d0 + sin 0 dcP .) The constant M is
the mass of the source of the field. If the metric is generated by a spheri-
cal star, the Schwarzschild metric holds outside the star and matches
o o o o o o o
2 2 -2n 2
L
.
+ sin v p
PO
=
cP
Problem 15.2.
(a) Prove that all orbits in the Schwarzschild geometry are planar.
(b) Prove that all orbits are stably planar.
87
88 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 15.6. Show that the trajectory of light rays in the Schwarzschild
metric obeys 2
d u 2
+ u =
3u
dcp2
where u == M/r, and r is the Schwarzschild radial coordinate. Denote
Problem 15.7.
by general relativity.
(b) Suppose that the central star is somewhat oblate or prolate, so
3
that the form of the classical Newtonian potential is (I)(r) = -
M/r -
AM/r ,
advance of the perihelion due to oblateness and the rate of advance due
to general relativity are equal for the orbit of Mercury. Compute the rate
of advance of the perihelion (in seconds of arc per century) for the four
planets closest to the sun, due to each of the effects. Note: to simplify
15. THE SCHWARZSCHILD GEOMETRY
89
is aimed in the orbital plane, and at an angle a (in the ship's frame) out-
ward from the tangential direction of motion. What is the frequency of the
laser as seen by a
stationary observer at infinity?
Calculate
Ograv' In flat space, a test charge e flies with velocity v
radially from a cannon on the neutron star with less than escape velocity;
maximum radius and falls back down just happening to meet Paul again.
Between their two meetings Paul has completed 10 orbits of the neutron
star. Peter and Paul have an obsession about comparing their clocks
whenever they meet. They set their clocks to agree on their first meeting
90 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
an
embedding diagram (see MTW p. 613) for the spacelike hypersurface
t =
0, for 0 < r< 00 .
Problem 15.14.
(a) Show that in general a boost jn the spatial direction e,,:, leaves
J
invariant the P h y sical com p onents of the Riemann tensor ............... which
tj tj
are "parallel" to the boost. This is analogous to the invariance of E,,:,
J
and R.-. for a boost in the e- direction.
j j
(b) In the Schwarzschild geometry show that all the physical com-
ponents of the Riemann tensor are invariant for a boost in the r-direction,
but that all physical components are not invariant for a boost in the () or
<P direction.
2/3 2/3 2
2
[ J
9M
J
2
[
2 9M
ds = -
dt +
4
9 2(r-t)
dr +
2
(r_t)2 d0
Problem 15.17. In the preceding problem (15.16) show that the set of
coordinate-stationary observers are all in free fall and have zero energy
black hole of mass M. The speed of sound in the gas at radial infinity
is aoo' At what radius does the inward flow become supersonic? (Give
answer only to leading term in aoo/c.)
Problem 15.19. A scalar field satisfies 0(1) =
O. Show that in the Schwarz-
(Yfm =
spherical harmonic) as
l
(I) =
r-
tfr(r,t)Yfm({}'CP)
where tfr satisfies
fCf+ l)
J
2M
Vf(r) ==
(1- 2M/r)
[ r
3
+
r
2
.
2 (1) 2 2 2
(1- 2m/r)-1 dr
2 2
ds = -
e dt + + r d0
r
2
where m =
r 417 r p dr. The pressure gradient inside the star is given by
.0
the OV (Oppenheimer-Volkoff) equation of hydrostatic equilibrium
3
dp =
(p + p) (m + 417r p)
dr r(r -
2m)
Here p and p are the pressure and mass-energy density of the fluid,
p =
p (n, T)
p
=
p (n, T)
If the entropy per baryon s is constant in the star, then p depends only
on p: p
=
pep). The metric function <P is determined by the Einstein
field equations:
3
del> _
-
m+417r p
and e
2(1) =
1- 2M/R, at r =
R
dr r(r -
2m)
92
16. SPHERICAL SYMMETRY
93
(i) from the symmetries or (ii) when the star is assumed to be rigidly
rotating.
o o o o o o o
Problem 16.1. Find basis vectors (and a dual basis of I-forms) for ortho-
Fb
uoy
'
on a small element of volume V, using the usual laboratory
results?
Weinberg p. 160 for field equations), show that the only static spherically
94 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
V
Problem 16.6. How many algebraically independent components of T/l
{3;{3
a
Problem 16.7. Evaluate the 4 components of the equation T =
0 for
fluid star.
small relativistic effects on this stability criterion. Show that the effect
mass limits (for white dwarfs and neutron stars, respectively) as dimen-
mass limits.
Problem 16.10. The mass mer) inside radius r for a spherical star
2 2
ds
2 = _
e
2
cI>dt 2 + (1- 2m(r)/r)-l dr + r
2
d0 .
of the surface
Express mer) in a coordinate-independent manner in terms
Problem 16.11.
transformation
dt =
du + (1- 2M/r)-1 dr .
16. SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 95
static, spherically symmetric star of uniform density. Show that the mass
and radius of the star satisfy R/2M > 9/8. What is the smallest R/2M
temperature Fermi gas with Fermi energies much larger than the particle
rest masses. Show that the equations of stellar structure have a solution
mer) =
3r/14. Find per), per), and n(r). Although n is infinite at r =
0,
show that the number of particles out to any radius is finite. Make an em-
Problem 16.16. What is the redshift to radial infinity from a thin spherical
"
0
shell in static equilibrium, in terms of its proper surface density A 0' and
"
()
A What is the largest possible redshift if it
proper surface stresses (j?
satisfies the dominant energy condition?
t
Here u is a component of the 4-velocity of the fluid in the canonical
coordinate system adapted to the Killing vectors (Le. (t)
=
a/at, (e/:?
=
a/ae/:?.
96 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 16.19. Show that the surface of a rigidly rotating star, with
angular velocity of rotation (} as seen at 00, is given by
2
gtt + 2g trp 0 + 0 constant
grprp
=
.
Problem 16.20. Find the Doppler broadening for a spectral line from a
along the axis of rotation. (The Doppler broadening is the variation across
- -
1 )
.
V
obs rved
M = -
J (2Tl1v-8I1v T) (t)d3II1
3
is the mass of the star as measured from infinity. Here d I is the
I1
volume element of the star at some instant of time t (the time coordinate
J
3
TI1v
J =
(rp)
d I
I1
Prob Iem 16.24. Show that the integral for M given in Problem 16.23, in
f R(p
cI>+A 2
M =
+ 3p) e 41Tr dr
o
2A
in curvature coordinates
(goo =
e
2
(1), grr
=
e ). Show that this is the
=f Rp
2
M 4m dr .
fluid shell; (ii) time coordinate is proper time for the fluid; (iii) the
metric is diagonal. Prove that we can have all three properties if and
2 <P 2 2A 2 2 2
(t, R) d0
2
ds = -
e dt + e dR + r
f
2
m '" 4m pr'dR
o
-<1>.r
U == e
-2A 2
r 2=
,
-
e (r ) .
the shell at R, and U is the rate at which a shell is moving with respect
・
2 ・
(a) m = -
4 17
pr r .
98 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
[Hint: Use the first law of thermodynamics (Problem 5.19), baryon con-
t
servation, the equations of motion, and G R
=
0 (Problem 9.20).]
2 2
(b) r =
1 + U -
2m/r .
t t
[Hint: Use G t = -
81TP and G
R
= 0 (Problem 9.20).]
Problem 16.27. In a collapsing star made of perfect fluid show that once
proper time.
2 2 2
d r/dr = -
M/r .
Problem 16.26), show that both m and r are independent of time. Solve
r
=
r (R) _
1
2
in the three physically distinct cases r -
1 greater than, less than, and
metric, perfect fluid star of zero pressure and uniform density (i.e. uniform
finite radius, k =
0 if the star is at rest at infinity, or k =
-1
metric.
surface and the extrinsic curvature of the surface are the same
BLACK HOLES
equations possessing mass, angular momentum, and (in principle but not
dt dcP
(
Q2) a 2
)
2
1 2 2 2 2 (2Mr- sin e 2
() d ",,2
1
dr e
.
+ -
+ a + r + a + SIn 'P
L
where
a
2
+ Q2 M2 ,
M -
mass, Q ==
charge
a =
angular momentum per unit mass
2 2
== r
_
2Mr + a + Q2
2 2 2
1 == r + a cos ().
particles: 1
1 r = :t (V r )2
.
1
1 () = :t (V e) 2
2 a
.
lcP = -
(aE -
Lz/sin ()) + P
K
2 2
2 r
li = -
a(aE sin e-
Lz) +
a
P
100
17. BLACK HOLES 101
parameter, and
2 2
P ==
E(r +a ) -
Lza -
eQr
Vr == p2 -
cos () [a -
-
conserved quantity related to total angular momentum
/1 -
rest mass of particle
e ==
charge of particle.
through which matter can fall, but from which no matter or information can
the equation =
O. The stationary limit of a rotating hole is the surface
within which all observers are dragged around the hole. For Kerr, the
stationary limit is at
ro'
the larger root of
gtt
=
O. The region between
o o o o o o o
Problem 17.1. Show that the constant M which occurs in the Kerr metric
is the mass of the system, and that the constant a is the angular momen-
collapse around a black hole. Estimate what mass hole, in orbit around
102 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
the Earth, would be appropriate for this application. How many wrecks
Problem 17.3. Show that once a rocket ship crosses the gravitational
2 3
0 =
M/r
Problem 17.7. For circular orbits in the equatorial plane of a Kerr black
hole, prove that the marginally stable orbit has minimum energy E and
relative to In terms of
"angular velocity a distant stationary observer."
n, r, M, and a, find u
O
, ucf>, u
o'
ucf>'
(b) Suppose that the circular orbit lies in tne ergosphere (the orbital
radius is outside the horizon at r+
but inside the stationary limit at r
o )'
17. BLACK HOLES 103
Show that the observer cannot remain at rest with respect to a distant
observer. That is, show that {} for the observer must be nonzero.
Problem 17.9. Show that there are negative energy particle trajectories
inside the ergosphere of a Kerr black hole (and outside the horizon!).
Show that it is possible for a rocket ship to increase its total energy by
firing a bullet into the hole during an orbital passage through the ergo-
sphere.
r+, the
Problem 17.10. Show that as a test particle approaches r =
infinity" equal to
11 =
-
dcp =
a
'
dt
2Mr+
Problem 17.11. Prove that there exist "quasi-circular, polar" orbits in
the Kerr geometry, i.e. orbits which pass alternately over the north and
surface for static observers. Show that for a static black hole the ergo-
Problem 17.13. Show that the surface area of the horizon of a Kerr-
r+,
t = constant,
1
in Boyer-
2 2
Q2
2
Lindquist coordinates) is 417 [{M + (M _ _
a ) 2}2 + a ].
two black holes the total surface area must not decrease), what is the
minimum mass M of a Schwarzschild black hole that results from the
2
collision of two Kerr bl9ck holes of equal mass M
l
and opposite angular
104 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 17.15. Use the theorem that the area of a black hole is non-
decreasing (cf. Problem 17.14)to prove that a Kerr black hole amplifies
(rather than absorbs) certain modes of an incident radiation field.
Problem 17.16.
in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates.
17.15.
2
drop in enough charge to make Q2 > M (a solution which would be a
if> t
(gcf>cf? (.14> (i.Jllt)
= -
"
1 -.I
r(l/
=
dr
)2
"
()=
l2 dO
where w ==
gt<p/g<P<P.
-
17. BLACK HOLES
105
rotation.
(d) The ZAMO is not an inertial observer; show that the acceleration
2
g.p.p I
is a =
V log I gtt -
w .
10
Problem 17.20. Show that a primordial, rotating, black hole (,...., 10 years
15
old), of mass 10 gm. will have already lost most of its angular momen-
black hole; and, if so, how do the hole's properties differ from those of
GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION
Chapter 13). The basic equations for waves propagating in vacuum are
gllv TJ + h
(Ihllvl ? 1)
=
llv llv
a
h
h/l h/l
==
TJ/lV
-
V V a
D h == h ;a=O
Il V IlV a
h
lLU;a = 0 ("Lorentz gauge")
a
h
llO
=
0, h a =
0 ("TT" or "Transverse-Traceless" gauge) .
T
(GW) = ..l. <h. h jk >
Il V 3217 Jk,1l ,v
1 G'" ..'jk
L i.
5 5 <'1jk
GW
=
>,
c
J
3
t
P(XjXk- 8jk r2 )d
==
x,
jk
source. 106
18. GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION
107
rad ia tion?
for radiation reaction forces to affect the system substantially, and com-
pare this time-scale with the dynamical time-scale for the system.
Problem 18.3. For an electric dipole, and its radiation pattern, there are
which the dipole may point. How many independent orientations are there
toward the ends by centrifugal force. If the rod has a reasonable density
3
(10 gm/cm ) and is rotating at a reasonable frequency (1 kHz) will
electromagnetic or gravitational radiation be more important in slowing
the rotation?
<l>react. =
xjx k .
)
(Cf. W. Burke, J. Math. Phys. 12,402 (1971); MTW pp. 993.) Here
.ljk is
3
the reduced quadrupole moment of the source i.
jk
==
J p(xjx k -
8jk r
2
)d x
at a given time. The superscript (5) indicates the fifth time derivative.
From this potential derive expressions for the time-averaged rates at
tives of
.ljk.
108 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
cal orbit with semimajor axis a and eccentricity e. Compute da/dt and
h33' Show
{3 32 22
that the same resulting components could have been obtained directly by
projection into the transverse traceless gauge.
respect to each other. Show that after the passage of the waves the ob-
server sees the particles back in their original positions and at rest with
not only at its lowest normal mode frequency w ' but also at harmonics
o
18. GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION
109
W
n
== nw
o
. What is the sensitivity of the nth mode relative to the zeroth,
Le. how does the ratio of maximum squared amplitude of the displacement
to energy flux of wave vary with n? (Assume the rod has the same
,
v
=
0) that
the slab must absorb x-momentum E also, and find the relationship be-
Problem 18.14. In the previous problem it was shown that materials must
previous problem as
being harmonically bound to their equilibrium positions,
and having a damping force due to internal friction of the cement. Assume
equation of geodesic deviation find the time average force, and hence the
temperature T. The mean free path of atoms in the gas is E, and the gas
mate this time. Estimate the distance over which the wave is damped by
a factor of e in amplitude.
explosion of energy E.
110 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Problem 18.17. Roughly how many thermal gravitons does a 100 watt
lightbulb emit in its rated lifetime of 1000 hours? What is the approximate
1
qt2 = -
6
R
zozo 'P4 =
R
yOYO
-
R
xoxo
+ 2i R
xOyO
qt3 =
(-RxOzo+iRyOzo) 'P4 =
R
yOyO
-
R
xOxO
-
2i R
xOyO
qt3 =
(-RxoZO-iRyOzo) (1)22= -
(R xOxo + RyOYO) ・
The spin of a wave indicates (among other things) the relation of the
general for a spin s wave a rotation of 17/ S brings bac k the original
polarization state. Which of the waves above are spin O? Spin I?
Problem 18.21. Draw the force field of each of the modes in the preceding
prob lem .
18. GRA VITA TIONAL RADIATION 111
2 2 2
Problem 18.22. Consider the metric ds =
dx + dy2 -
dudv + 2H(x,y,u)du .
What form must the function H have for this to represent a (strong) plane
gravitational wave propagating in vacuum?
CHAPTER 19
COSMOLOGY
[ ]
2 2 2 dr 2 2
ds = -
dt + R (t) + r d0 ,
2
1-kr
where k =
+ 1, 0, -1 for a closed, marginally open, or open universe.
When the Einstein equations are used to determine the time development
of R(t) and the value of k, the resulting spacetime is called a Fried-
......
HO ==
(dR/dt)/R at R =
Ro
Ro .
1 + z ==
vemitted =
Aobserved .
vobserved Aemitted
112
19. COSMOLOGY 113
o o o o o o o
Problem 19.1. Show that the equations of Newtonian gravity and hydro-
2 2
[f2(r)dr 2 112]
2
da =
a + r d ,
a
=
constant.
[ ]
2 2 2 dr2 2 2
ds = _
dt + R (t) 2
+ r
2
(d0 +sin 0d4>2)
1 -
kr
2 2 2 2 2
ds = -
dt + R
2
(t) [dX + 2(X)
(d0 + sin 0 d4>2)]
114 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
or as
2 2 2 2 2 2
ds =
R (11) [-d11 +dX + 2(X)(d02
+sin 0d<p )]
2 2
where 2(X)sin
=
x or X2 or sinh x (k =
1,0, -1).
(d M ) are related by
(1+z)2 dA =
(l+z)d M =
d
L
.
Problem 19.11. Let n(t o ) be the number density at the present epoch of
(a) Show that the number of such sources with redshifts less than z
411 n(t o )
/
)
3 3
N(z) = -
3
H
3
o
z
(1--z(1+q 2 0 )+...
.
(b) If the sources all have intrinsic luminos ity L, show that the
1 2
number with fluxes (ergs sec- cm- ) greater than S as observed from
1/2
L\3/2
( 417S )
411 L
N(S) "3 n(t o ) (417S) [ 1- 3Ho +
]
...
= ・
Problem 19.12. A ray of light travels along a radial line in the Robertson-
Walker metric
[ J
ds
2 = _
dt
2 2
+ R (t)
dr2 + r
2
d 02 .
2
1 -
kr
How is the coordinate r related to the affine parameter A. along the ray,
2
RR + 2R 2 + 2k -
411G(p -
p) R =
0 .
(2)
Problem 19.14. Show that the two second-order equations of Problem 19.13
are equivalent to the first order equations
811G 2
R2 + k =
3
pR (1)
d 3 2
(pR ) = -
3pR ・
(2)
dR
116 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
81TGp .l
( R2 + H2
) (1)
=
k
-
87TGp =
2
+ H2(1_ 2q) .
(2)
R
2
R
81TGp -
2 qH 2 (4)
3
k 2
-
2
=
( q-1)H (5)
R
81TGp 2
=
qH ・
(6)
3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = -
dt + t [dX + sinh x (d0 + sin 0 d<p )] .
R 2
87TG
( )
R
=
3
P
_
R2
for R(t) when the density p is dominated by a) matter and b) radiation.
verse, how many times can a photon encircle the universe from the moment
sky (energy per steradian of sky per collection area per time)? (If the
universe were static and infinitely old the brightness would be infinite;
q
=
0.5002. What would qo be today? Repeat for q =
0.4998 at z =
(a) What is the total proper volume of the universe at the present
epoch?
(b) What is the total proper volume that we see, looking out into the
sky?
(c) What is the total proper volume now occupied by the matter which
Pradia tion)' and when protons and electrons recombine to form hydrogen.
Given that these epochs happen to be nearly the same in our universe,
3
deduce a numerical value for the conserved entropy per baryon a== 4aT /3n
(where T =
temperature, a =
radiation constant, n =
number density of
baryons ).
R
2 ,
the muon pairs have annihilated, but the other particles are still
R and R
1 2
.
,
Problem 19.29. Under which of the following suppositions would the hot
4
big bang have produced less He than predicted by the "standard"
2
model? Less H (deuterium)?
19. COSMOLOGY
119
(i) Suppose the baryon dens ity in the universe today is larger than
we now think.
think.
Find a k =
0 cosmological solution. Find a coordinate system in which
Po up.
U
v
-
t;, gp.v where up. is the 4-velocity field of the matter. Show
that there is a static solution for the metric, but that it is unstable. (This
at
the universe will expand at a decreasing rate to a certain radius Rm'
which radius it will remain for a long time while expanding very slowly,
before expanding again at a rate which asymptotically approaches H =
(A/3) 2".
120 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
radius. What does this model predict for Pma tter today? [Use Ho =
28 1
10- cm- ].
Problem 19.35. Prove that for a physically possible perfect fluid no solu-
case: Take static to mean time invariant and time reversible, the first
the galaxies. Let (r, xi) be such a system, and let the metric take the
general form 2 2 i i
ds = -
dr + 2g o 1 dr dx
'
+ g dx dx j
..
1]
where
go 1
. and g..
1]
can be functions of r and xi. Show
(but w 1= 0 in general);
a {3
k
(e) that if g Ol .
=
0 and g..
IJ
=
f(r) g .
IJ
.(x ), then a..
lJ
=
0;
(f) that gOi,O 0 if =
and only if galaxies fall on geodes ics;
(g) that if w a {3 1= 0, no choice of r and xi can make
gOi
=
0 every-
a
Problem 19.39. The distance between two neighboring galaxies is ox =
a
Rn where n is a unit, purely spatial vector in one galaxy's rest frame.
Show that
a Q I
R
- =
a n n fJ + -
e
R a {3 3
(where a is the shear tensor and e is the scalar expansion) and that
a
averaging over all directions n gives
<
R
> = ! e
R 3
aa{3' (See
Walker cosmology find (), w and Problem 5.18 for
a
{3
definitions.) Do the same for the anisotropic metric
2 2 2
dy2
2a 2 2h 2c
ds = _
dt + e dx + e + e dz
IJ
.(t) dx dx .
V
set Tf.l to zero in the field equations. Show that the volume of the uni-
3 /2
verse goes to zero linearly with t as t 0 (in contrast to the t or
2
t behavior for radiation- or matter-dominated Friedmann models).
CHAPTER 20
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
o o o o o o o
e.g., in
through the tube is deflected from the horizontal by the uniform gravita-
the axis of the tube. Express the answer in terms of the length of the
seems justifiable. Why doesn't this answer agree with the general relati-
vistic answer?
Problem 20.3. Derive the general expression for the angular deflection of
light by the sun's gravitational field, if the light comes from a star which
is at an angle a from the sun as seen from earth. Take the earth-sun
122
20. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS 123
Problem 20.4. Show that the sun's angular momentum J modifies the
-
J.n
ocjJ =
4M
b ( 1 _
Mb )
where n ==
-
unit vector in direction of angular momentum of the photons
( n3) ( )
r
log10
=
8.4-6.5 log10 R
1cm G
for r
4RQ' Evaluate your answer, in solar radii, for v =
1000 MHz.
Problem 20.6. The deflection angle of light passing near the sun is given
by a =
1.75"/b, where b is the impact parameter in solar radii. Design
a thin lens (Le. give thickness as a function of radius) which models this
focal behavior. Take the solar disc to be a black mask of 8mm diameter
in the center of the lens, so that you can simulate the light deflection
cI>;1L =
477 T IL ・
;IL IL
(c) Does this theory predict the bending of starlight near the sun?
precision of current atomic clocks by using them to test both special and
earth (assumed to be rigidly rotating) and measures their ticking rates with
respect to some standard clock. Both the doppler shift, due to the earth's
rotation, and the redshift effect, due to the earth's gravitational field, make
contributions to deviations in ticking rates. Calculate the measured tick-
choice. Take into account the rotational deformation of the earth's surface,
assuming the earth is a rigidly rotating perfect fluid.
CHAPTER 21
MISCELLANEOUS
o o o o o o o
(ii) ogllV = -
gPIl gCW a gpa
.
A
field or matter distribution. The field is described by the variables (I) ,
s =
J L(_g)t d 4 x ・
J (_g)t d 4
oL a (I)
A
aS = x .
a (l)A
O(L(-g)2)
J J (_g)t d 4
4 1
aS =
og IlV d x == TIlVOg x .
o g 2 Il V
V
Il
125
126 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
v
Show that T/l .
=
0 follows from the equation of motion of the field and
,
v
J (-g)t f Lmatter(-g)t
4 4
S =
(1617)-1 Rd x + d x ,
equations and the usual formula for the f"s in terms of the g's. (Assume
a
r
rav .)
=
13v
(b) Now assume r"s are Christoffel symbols used to define covariant
energy tensor. Verify explicitly that the stress-energy tensor has vanish-
ing divergence.
L =
(1617)-1: F/Lv F /LV where F /LV AV;/L A/L;v' Show that the Maxwell
- = -
scription
oL
T "V 2 +
g"v L
= - -
・
og/lV
r r
1 1
L = -
F F llv -
F llv A
1617 IlV 417 Il;V
where (I) =
scalar field, R =
curvature scalar, w =
coupling constant.
1
4
Derive the field equations from {) fL(-g)2d x = 0 by varying
f3
and <II.
we evaluate it with respect to the 4-geometry on one side or the other. The
J
a
f3;;
=
T
f3
dn
-E
Problem 21.9. For a surface layer described with Gaussian normal coordi-
nates n and xi (i =
1,2, 3) (see solution to Problem 21.8) derive the
equation of motion of the surface layer
Si, + [Tn,] =
0
\1
.
j J
where the square brackets denote a discontinuity across the surface and
[K..]
lJ
=
817a
( u.u.+
1 j
1
2
(3)g..lJ )
da i
-
au
Ii
=
dr
+ -
a -
a =
4 17an
+ -
a + a =
0 .
128 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2 2 2 2
ds = -
dT + dr + r d0
surfaces r =
constant, and t or T =
constant.]
Showthat for the collapsing spherical shell of dust the "rest mass of
2
the shell" /l == 47TR (r) a is constant. Here a is the surface mass density
of the shell and the area of the shell as a function of proper shell time is
2
47TR (r). Derive the equation of motion of the shel1
2 !
/12
[ ( )J
dR
M =
/l 1 + -
dr 2R
and integrate the equation to find (in implicit form) R(r) in the case
dR/dr = 0 at R =
00.
[ ]
1 U + U u + iU
O 1 2 3
(U ,U ,U ,U ) 2-2 .
2 3 O 1
U _iU U _
U
What is the analog of the Minkowski metric in spinor language? Le. Find
AA' BB'
U V {3
a ..
trans formation?
21. MISCELLANEOUS 129
[Note: The spinor notation used here and in the following problems is
(a) 0
EA[se CD ]
=
where eAB is an arbitrary 2-spinor. [Note: This problem and the two
TAA'BB'.
then its dual in a spinor representation is i
*T
ab
=
(TABB'A' -
TBAA'B')'
Ptob,lem 21.16. Let Tab ==
T
AA'BS'
in a spinor representation.. What
tensor corresponds to
TBA'AB'?
SOLUTIONS
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS
1
2 -2 °
Solution 1.1. u =
(y, yv), where y=(l-y) =u =dt/dr. Thus:
1
(1_ 2)-2
o
(a) u =
1
j
(b) u =
(1_ 2)-2vj
(c) u.u =
-1 since it is a 4-velocity, so
1 1
1 2 22 3 22 j
u
o
=
[ 1+ (u ) + (u ) + (u ) ] ==
(1+u u.)2
J
1
(d) d/dr =
(dt/dr) d/dt =
(1- y?)-2 d/dt
1
-
0
. . . .
l 2
(1 + u u.)-
J J J
(e) v = u /u = u
1
1
2
(f) II =
[ 1- (u
0
) -2] ,from (a).
0 0 0 0 0
yx yxvx yy yyV y YxYy Yxvx Yxyyv y
0 0 0 1 0 0 Yx 0
Yxvx Yx _ Yxyyv x YxYyVXv y
0 0 1 0 0 Yy 0 0 Yy 0
YyV y YyV y
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
but
0 0 0 0 0
Yy YyV y Yx Yxv x YxY y YyYxv x YyV y
0 1 0 0 0 0 Yx 0 0
Yxv x Yx Yxv x
=
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
YyV y Yy Yxyyv y YxYyvxv y Y
y
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
which is different.
be the 4-velocities of In
Solution 1.3. Let u
1
and u
2
2 -2
tre two frames.
u = = .
1 2
133
134 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1 '
(Y2'Y2 v
Q ):
u =
2
1
2 2"
Y 'u
YI Y 2 YI Y 2 ..Y.l.X2 (1- v )-
-
=
u = -
=
1 2
2
1-v =
(YI Y 2)-2/(1-.Yl'.Y2)2
2
( 1- '.Y2)2
1
-
(1 -
v
1 2) ( 1 -
v
2
2
) -:i.2)2
1 -
<Y.l x:i.2 )2
v =
-
Solution 1.4. We use the fact that in dimegsion the "rapidity parameter"
one
1 1 1
() == tanh- v adds linearly. Thus tanh- v () n(} n tanh- =
(3, or = =
n n
1
v
n
=
tanh (n tanh- (3)
1+
n /2
(3
=
tanh log
( ) 1-{3
(easily verified!)
=
1 -
Solution 1.5. The usual b/y answer refers to a measurement made simul-
taneously in the lab frame, but the photons are not emitted simultaneously
in the lab frame. They are received simultaneously so that photon 2 (see
diagram) has to travel for an extra time b' cos a, where b' is the
b = =
y(
x x'(3 t") y(b' (3b'
-
= -
cas a) ,
so that
b' =
b/y(l- (3 cos a) .
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 135
. b' .
.b/y+ .b¥
II11I1IIIIII111111111111
- - -,
..
. ) I
'---t ,
.
\\
,
,a ,"
u_
,""
\ "
-'" y' \q,
\ \/
\ \
\
\
\
\
\
\q, \
\ \
\
\
\
\ e(C)
\ (jo
\0
'-
Solution 1.6. When the two observers are at rest in the same Lorentz
Things are more complicated when one is moving. The moving observer's
coordinates are
'
t =
yet -
vx)
x' =
y(x-vt) ,
and the tachyon emitted from the moving frame back towards the stationary
Now dx' =
y(dx -
vdt), dt' =
y(dt -
dx/dt =
(u-v)/(l-uv) .
tout + t
back
=
L/u + L(l-uv)/(u-v) =
L[l/u+(l-uv)/(u-v)]. One can easily calculate
1
that 2
ttotal < 0 if u>[1+(1-v )2]/v.
A spacetime diagram is helpful in understanding this effect.
136 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
o
II
,
...
.,
'
0"
".
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
\
\\ //
'\,/
\'
'
\\
-0
c:
6 \
;\ \
ci)
0" \
i\ \
o -c
,I c;
. ,
,
,
\0
,
,
, \.,c::,
\
,
\
,
,
,
\
,
,
,
y-
,
o
..
,
)(
/
/
/
/'
/
o
..
..
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 137
Solution 1.7. The rotation comes from the contraction in the x direction
Solution 1.8. Not only are lengths contracted, but also times are dilated.
In S the bullet's velocity is
v =
(l1x/l1t,l1y/ t) .
V
x
=
I1x/l1t =
(v x '+f3)/(l+f3 v x ') .
1 1
2
V
Y
=
l1y/l1t =
l1y'(1-f3 )2"/(l1t'+f3l1x') =
v
Y
,(1-f32)2"/(1+
fJ x v
,) .
1 1
tan () =
vy/v x
= v
y
'(1-/32)2" /(v '+f3) x
=
tan (}'(1_f32)2" /(l+f3/ v
x ') .
Except for the factor of (1- f32) 2", this change in direction is identical
to the Galilean result. It represents a "funneling" of the motion toward
2 2
the x axis. For a photon, v
x
+ v
y
=
1, v
x
=
cos (), so that
2"
()
cos ()' + f3 tan (}'(1- f32)
cos =
, ta n () =
of photon directions was derived in the previous problem. From that re-
f3
cos () =
1- f3 cos ()'
dN =
NdO/417 (N/417) 217 d(cos (})
=
= 1. N d(cos (})
d(cos (} )
'
2 d(cos (}')
1
N (1-{32) ,
=
2 d(cos (})
{3 ()')2
.
(1- cos
Since dN =
217 P({}', cp') d(cos (}') the distribution in S' IS
l! (1- {32)
P?()', cp') =
417
(1- {3 cos {}')2
Checks: {3 0 P({}', cp') N/417 =
P((), cp)
2 +1
J
)
P?()', cp')dO =
N(1 {3 J -1 (1-
217d
{3
cos
cos
()'
{}')2
=N.
sphere
You can easily verify that half the stars are contained between ()' =
0
-1
and {}'1..
2
=
cos {3 < 17/2. Thus the stars "bunch up" in the forward direc-
1
tion. For {3 1, {}'1.. [2(1- (3)]2 and the bunching is pronounced.
2
1
Solution 1.10. The length of A is IA.A\2 and
1 1 1 1
A.A =
(3 2 e t +22e x ) ・
(3 2 e t +2 2 e x )
=
3e.e
t t
+ 2e
x
'e
x
+ 2 V/6
6
e 'e
t x
=
-3 + 2 + 0 =
-1 .
A.e 1
t
cos () =
1
= -3 2
1
\A.A\2 \e t .e t \2
Solution 1.11. By symmetry, the clocks must read the same the next time
Adam and Eve meet. An easy way to see this is by considering proper
In polar coordinates
2 2 2 2
dcp2
2
-
dr = _
dt + dr + r + dz .
(1)
Adam are cp A =
wt, with rand z constant, and the coordinates of Eve
are
CPE = -
cut, with rand z constant. Thus
2
dr 2A 2 2 2
=
dr
E
=
dt (1 -
r cu ) (2)
and proper time intervals for Adam and Eve are identical.
mining the 4-vector W which connects Adam's and Eve's world lines and
t =
yr A
x =
sin cut =
sin cuyr
A
Adam's world line: (3a)
y =
c os cu t =
cos cu y r
A
z = 0
t =
yr E
x =
-sin cut = -sin cu y r
E
Eve's world line: (3b)
y
=
cos cut = cos w r
y E
z =
0
where we have taken the ring to have unit radius. From these relations
W == x
A
-x
E
=
coscuyrE,O]
U
A
=
(y, cuy cos cuyr
A'
-
cuy sincuyr A' 0)
r
A
-
r
E
=
cuy-l sin [cuy(r A +r E)] ・
(4)
140 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
that r =
r when
A E
sin 2wyr =
sin 2wt 0 (5)
A
=
,
t =
y( t vx) --
x =
y(x vt ) -
w =
yew ivx) -
x' =
y(x +ivw) .
w' =
cos Ow -
sin Ox
'
x =
c os 0x + s in Ow ,
we
obviously want
sin () =
ivy
c os 0 =
y .
2 2
y2(1_
2
sin 0 + cos 0 =
v ) =
1 .
1
So 0 =
arcsin (ivy) =
arctan (iv) =
+ i tanh- v .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
dy2 + dz 2 2 2 2 2 2
dx + _
dt =
(r cos () cos cp + r cos 0 sin cp + r sin 0 _
r ) dA
2 2
dA2(cos
2
=
r 0+ sin 0 -1) 0 ,
but dz/dt =
sin (), so () must be a constant. From the expression for
dy /dt or dx/dt we see that cp must be constant. These are the require-
ments for a geodesic; theAe is no restriction on the function reA). If, how-
ever, A is to be an affine parameter (e.g. proper time) we must have
E.. (uau ) d ua
o = =
2 U =
2a au .
dr a dr a a
aO =
0, with aj(j =
1, 2, 3) arbitrary. A Newtonian accelerometer can be
frame and see how much velocity dy- the observer picks up relative to it
-
Of course the
1 1 1
2 2
du j j
2
v
j
(1_v )-2, so =
(1_v )-2dvj + v d(1-v )-2. But v =
0 since
j dv j
the frames are momentarily comoving, and thus du =
, so finally
a
j =
dv j /dr =
duj /dr =
a
j .
Newtonian
j
a =
(O,a ),
" " "
2
aja--=- j j
a _
J
=
(0, a ). (0, a ) = a.a .
-1
u'
y u =
U\\-V
u\\
=
1 l'
(l-vu\\) 1-vu\\
142 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
t' =
y( t -
v. X) .
--
(1- vu
ll)
+
dUll
=
(1- vu
ll)2 (1- vu
lI)2
, dUll v(v-U\\)dull y- 2du ll
du -
II
=
-
1- vu
ll (1-
vUII)2 (1- vU11 )2
dt' =
y(dt -
y.d =
ydt (1- .}!) ydt (1- vUII)
=
d!!'11 , Y
-3
y-3
dt'
==
\I
=
a
-11
=
!I
.
(Answer)
(1-
VUII)3 (1-v.u)3
--
and
-2
d 'l, Y
==
l [(1-VUII) +V.!!l
1 an]
=
dt'"" 3
(1
\I )
-
vu
-2
Y
=
(l- vu ll)
3 [ -V(UII
l l all)]
-.l!l
-2
y
=
[a1-vx(axu)] (Answer)
(1-v.u)3
- - - -
--
x + x
l
E.II
=
II E.l
and the rule for expanding vector triple products.]
y =
y, z= z. Note that the world lines
t =
A sinh gt + B
x =
A cos h gt + C
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 143
equations represent a
4-velocity
u =
cosh gt e
t
+ sinh gt ex '
are parallel on a t =
constant surface. If, furthermore Band Care
constant, u is perpendicular to the hyperplane dt =
0 (Le. the hyper-
planes t =
constant are hyperplanes of simultaneity for the momentarily
comoving inertial frame). It remains only to choose A( x ), B, and C
correctly: -1
t =
(g +x ) sinh gt
x =
(g-l+ x )cosh gt _
g-l .
Notice that the element of proper time for a coordinate stationary ob-
server IS 1
2 2 2"
dr =
(d t -
dx ) =
(1 + gx ) dt .
Since it does not depend only on t, clocks will not remain synchronized.
frame:
Pbefore
=
(E, 0, E sin e, E cos e) ,
Pbefore
=
[yE(l+v cos e), 0, E sine, yE(v+cos e)] .
Reflecting in mirror:
Pafter
=
[yE(l+v cos e), 0, E sine, -yE(v+cos e)] ,
2
P after
=
Iy E [(1+v cos O)+v( v+cos 0 ) ] ,
0 ,
(v + cos 8)]} .
So that, finally:
p3 2
(1+v )cosO+2v
cos
81after =
O
= +
2
p l + 2v cos 0 + v
1+2V coS8+v2
(
0
)
E =
p after =
E
after 2 before
1 -v
Solution 1.19. Let E and £ denote the energy and momentum of the
In
out' in
,
out'
tan 8
1
(P x /P y)in P.
x In
P'.
y In
P .
x In
= = =
,
tan ()
2 (Px/-Py)out P
x out
-P'
y out
P
x out
y' x'
tan 8
1 =
y(P'x + {3E')in =
1 .
tan 8
2 y(P + {3E')out
Hence the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection in the lab
in I
t y
I
I
82
: x
I
I
I
I
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 145
uo =
1 u
j =
0
,
°
P
= -
Po
=
E
pj =
p.
J
=
P
_
(a) E=-pouo=-p,u
2
_lp12
2
(b) m =
E
--
=
-p o po_p.pj
J
=
-p,p
1 -
1
2 2- 2
(c) Ipi-
=
(E -
m )2 =
[(p.u) +p.p]2
Ipl i 1-
[
2 2
J [ J
=- E -
m p'p 2
(d) Ivl =
E
= =
1+
2
(p.u)2
-
v
O
= _
u
O
-
pO = -
1+ 1 =
0
(- E)
v
j = -
u
J
.
- -
pj =
0 +
d J
.-i
(-E) dt
Py ,
since it is traveling toward the observer. Also notice that the photon is
-1
null,
Py.pyex
+
(- (-
). =
E
Vobserved =
lab =
-ulab.Py =
1
(Answer).
Vemitted E
Fe
-u
Fe 'Py y(l + (3.n)
--
--
-
C1_v )2
v l+v.n--
1
v.n 2 2
cos (} _----
-
- -
C1 -v ) -
1
v V
() _
cos
-1
[ C1-v2)2_1
v
] .
146 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
y-z plane. The photon now may have nonvanishing pY and pZ as well
as pX. A pure rotation lines up the coordinate frame
again so that only
p2 =
0, E also has its original value.
You can easily convince yourself that the product of these transformations
is not a pure rotation; there is in general a net boost left over. An exam-
p Ie is:
x -
y y'v' 0 0 0 0 o
1
y yv
, , , 2"
yv y 0 0 (1_v2) V
1
0 0 1 0 0 E
=
2"
0 0 1 0 -v (1-v2) 0 yv o y 0 o
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 o 0 1 o
y'(l + v') =
l/y ,
which gives
2 2
v' = -
v / (2 _
v ) .
Solution 1.24. It is not possible for one inertial frame to jerk back and
forth with respect to another. The "paradox" comes from the tacit and
erroneous assumption that the cylinder remains rigid when the frogs hit
the ends. This cannot be true since the elastic waves that inform one
end of the tube that the other has been hit must propagate along the walls
of the tube at less than the speed of light. In the freely-falling frame of
the cylinder, the two ends are driven outward by the impact of the frogs.
Tension waves fly from each end of the cylinder toward the other. Not
until the waves meet at the center of the tube do they discover the exist-
ence of each other. Then they pass each other and counteract each
other's effects, pulling the tube back to its original shape. The tube
then pulsates back and forth in its fundamental mode of vibration. During
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 147
Q. -cu
4&) o u
o
.." u c
--
0
I ....
...
.
CD cu._
C U >-0
=
"1:J 0
-.::"
o c
. Q)
(
q-
eQ)
as
....
C+.I
rn
......
Q)
"tj
d
.....
....-4
>a
(J
d
.....
d
Q) Q)
rn
rn
CD
E
+=
CI)
> E
0 .e
. ..
0
c .a
.2 I
en
c CD
CD
..
:2
0
..
148 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
'- --
OU au
uc
I .5 -a
..
CD>' fit
CD._
c u
>
o
i:
o c
-
Q)
e
as
.....
as
'.-4
""
Q)
c=
'.-4
]
N
as
c=
..-4
c=
Q)
Q)
rJJ
rJJ
<
-E
;:
..
CD
E
>a
CD
..
o
:I .. c
0=
co
.CiS I
c
0
!
.-
-
c
:2.
..
i
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 149
this pulsation the frogs hit the ends of the tube time and again, each time
ends will be out of phase with each other, but the overall picture will not
the inertial frame of the cylinder) will not jerk back and forth in any other
phenomena.
Solution 1.25. Let us first derive the forms of the infinitesimal operators
x' x -
yO
y' y + xO
,
(1)
z = z
t =
t ,
f(x, y, z) =
0 [- ya x +
xay]f , (2)
thus
J z
=
-2i(xa y -ya x ) , (3)
since
f(x',y',z') ==
(1+iJ z O/2)f(x,y,z) .
z' z -
vt
'
t t -
vx
y =
y
,
z =
z
150 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
f(x, y, z, t) =
[- ta z -
Za t ] V f(x, y f z, t)
thus
Kz
=
2i
(t fu.-), + z etc. (4)
[Jx,J y ] =
-4[ya z
-za ,za X -xa ]
y z
=
4(xa y -ya ) x
=
2iJ z ' (5)
plicit matrices for the generators. We can associate the operators with the
[ ]
0
a =
etc.
x
1
according to
J -+ a
K -+ ia .
y
] =
__
dL iJ z
dO 0 I =
0
=
2
'
so that
L(O) =
exp (iO J z/2) ・
general case the rotation parameters !!..* (here treated as a 3-vector) will
be different from the physical rotation angle !!.. and the parameters repre-
These are details; the Lorentz group is defined completely by its genera-
tors J, K;
--
--
its parametrization is largely arbitrary. The infinitesimal
version of an arbitrary transformation L is
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 151
* * * * * * * *
(O X J x+ O Y J y+ 0zJz+v x K x+ v yKy+vz Kz)/2 ( 10 -y)' ,!!12.
. .
oL =
1 =
Let us define
q
--
==
(iO*---
-
v
---
*)/2
1. (_0*2 -2iO*. V*
2
q2 _
q.q
........
=
4 ,..", .......
+V )
(Note that pure boosts and pure rotations correspond respectively to pure
real and pure imaginary q.) We have then, for the general finite
-
trans-
formation: 00
L( ,y) exp<1'£)
= =
2 (.?!'£f In!
n=O
00 00
2 qnIn! +
2 (q.a)qn-l In!
--
n=O,2,4". n=1,3,S".
=
cosh q + (q. al q) sinh q .
lJ
(q ) ( q a) (a., a.) q.1 q.J a q
=
.
a . =
q.1 q.J
= .
_
_
_
_ 1 J
of velocity vl by
L(Y1)
=
exp (- v;,!!.1'QI2) =
cosh (v /2)(.!!.1',q) sinh (v:12)
+ (la)
L( 1)
=
exp (iO*E.'£/2) =
cos (0* /2) -
i (,!!.'£) sin (0* /2) (lb)
*
For pure boosts in the direction, is in fact the
same v
rapidity
* 1 *
parameter, v =
tanh- Ivl, since v adds linearily, e.g.
* * * *
-v
1
a
x
/2 -v a /2 -(v 1 +v2)ax /2
2 x
L(v 1 )L(v 2 ) =
e e =
e
Likewise one can see that for pure rotations in the same direction, 0* is
LC! 1) L(y 2) =
Since the a and identity 2 x 2 matrix are all independent, one may
equate, in Equation (2), the real and imaginary parts respectively of terms
cosh
O v0 cosh
O v;) + sinh
O V:)SinhO v;) 1' 2)
(3a)
=
cosh
G V;) G 0*) cos
sin
G 0*) sinh
G v;) <' .E.3) =
0 (3b)
cosh
O v:)SinhO V; 2sinh( v:)cosh ( ;)n +
O O*)sinhC} V: 3 v
1
=
cos
Sinh
O vnSinhG V;)( xl 2)-sin
=
n.n =
0 (4)
--
--3
tan(l e"\) 2
=
cosh
*
Note that () (= () by above discussion) may take on all values 0 () 2"
except () =
", and that for n
1
=
n
2 (y =
0), () = 0 and there is no net
rotation as expected.
Solution 1.27. An astronaut looking at the sky (by null photons!) makes
an arbitrary Lorentz transformation, and looks at the sky again. There
results a continuous map of the sky onto itself. Any continuous map of a
Solution 1.28. From Solution 1.25, any homogeneous proper Lorentz trans-
L(P)
-
=
(1+p2)2I + p.a
- -
,
where p2 =
p.p, and I is the identity matrix which
--
we will often not
where tfr =
tanh v is the rapidity. For a pure rotation of magnitude ()
and Q IS 1 1
poQ =
(1+p2)2Q+(1+Q2)2P+ipxQ. ...................
transformations:
154 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY
AN:Q GRAVITATION
1 1
2 2
L(P)L(Q).........
=
[(1 + p2) + p.a] [(1 + Q2)
........
+ Q.a]
....................
1 1 1 1
=
(1+p2)2(1+Q2)2 +[(1+p2)2Q+(1+Q2)2p]. a+P'Q+iPxQ.a. --
-
..-' ..-'
-----
........
of two pure boosts (Lemma 1), then to find a criterion for the case that an
1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p2 =
(1+c )D + (1+D )C + 2(1+C )2(1+D2)2C. D ...........
_
C D + (C'D)2
...........
1 1
2
=
[(1+c )2(1+D2)2+£'Q]2 -
1 (2)
1
2 2 2 2
>
[(1+2CD+C D )2 +£'Q]2 _
1 since C + D > 2CD
>0.
an ansatz, take
C =
aA + D
, =
aA -
E , (3)
1 1
2 2 2 2 2
A =
(1+C )2D +
...................
(1+D )2C =
(1+a A +E )22aA ...........
and
B
.-......
=
C x D
........,.......
=
2aE x A .
1
2 2 2
1 =
2a(1+a A +E )2 , (4a)
2 2 2 2
B =
4a E A .
(4b)
2
Square Equation (4a) and solve for a :
a
2
=
{[(1+E2)2 +A2]2 -(1+E 2 )1/(2A 2 ) .
(Sa)
2 2 4 2 2 4
4(A _
B )E _
4B E -
B =
0 , (5b)
2 2 2
which always has a positive solution for E since A > B . The
1 1 1
2
(1+p2)2 =
(1+Q2)2 (1+c )2 -
Q' C
--
--
.
(6)
1
2
So we must find C
--
such that (1 + p2) evaluated from
1
Equation (6) is
2
real (Q is in general complex) and (1 + p2) > 1.
Let Q
,.."",
=
A+ iB
........
(A and
.................
B
........
real), and let the boost D be some
d ==
(1+Q2)2(1+D2)2 -Q.Q (7)
2
Proof. Let F be a vector orthogonal to both A and B with F < 1 to
1 1 1 1 1
2
(1+p2)2 =
[(1+Q2)2(1+D2)2 _Q'0](1_F2)-2 ---
=
d(1_F )-2 .
2
Thus if and only if d is real and positive, we can choose F close
1
2
enough to 1 that (1 + p2) is real and has magnitude greater than 1.
Lemma 2 is proven.
2 2
Case 1: not parallel to A
, 1= 0, and B 1= 0 .
Q '.Q)2 (1 + Q2) (1 + 0 )
2
(d + =
.
Substituting 2.
=
+ i gives two real equations:
2
(d+A'D)2
..........
-
(B'0)2
.........
=
(1+A -
B2)(1+02) , (8a)
2
(d+AoO)B.D ................. ....-...........
=
A.B(1+D ).
.................
(8b)
(d+ 'Q)2 =
2
(1+D )1[(1+A
2
_B2)2 +4( '! +(1+A
i]t 2
_B2)} , (9a)
(B.D)2
...................
= 1. (1+D 2 )1[(1+A 2
2
-
(9b)
CHAPTER 1: SOLUTIONS 157
equations do 2
.Q and/or
These not determine d explicitly, because D
occurs on the right-hand side. One possible solution of these equations
is to take .Q =
bJ2, b to be determined. For this choice Equation (9b)
becomes
1
2
B2)2 +4(A.B)2]2
2 4 2
(2b B )/(1+ b B2) =
[(1+A _
--
_
(1+A
2 _
B2) .
(10)
that the right-hand side is 2:: 0 (obvious) and also < 2B2; this follows
since
2 2
4(A.B)2
--
< 4A B
=
(1+A2+B2)2 _
(1+A2_B2)2 _
4B
2
2
Because the left-hand side of Equation (10) varies from 0 to 2B as b
varies from 0 to 00, there is always a real constant b such that Equa-
tion (10) holds. Thus Equation (9b) is satisfied by our ansatz, and then
2 2
Case 2: -
A parallel to B (including A =
0 or B =
0) .
Now Equation (7) becomes a scalar equation since all the vectors are
collinear: 1 1
d =
(1+Q2)2(1+D2)2 -QD. (11)
Let
-1
tfr =
sinh Q =
a + i {3 ,
and make tfr single-valued by the restriction -TT/2 < (3 :S TT/2. Also let
1
cp =
sinh- D (real) .
d =
cosh(tfr-cp) =
cosh(a-cp)cos{3 -
isinh(a-cp)sin{3 .
158 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
If {3 0, done is boost). 0,
we are (Q a pure If {3 for d to be real
=
through 180
0
lar, a pure rotation cannot be attained by three boos ts..)
0
A 180 screw can be achieved by four boosts; for, if C is a boost
2
and Q =
i with B 1, then
--
1 1
2
R
.....
==
QoC
........
=
i(B -1)2C+i(1+C 2 )2B_BxC
"""'"" ......... ..........
0
is not a 180 screw provided £. is not parallel to B . Therefore R is
P + P =
P' + P' .
eye y
(P e +P _p')2 =
p2,= _m2
y y e e
or, since
p =
0,
2 2
-
m + 2P .
P -
2P ・
P' -
2P ・
P' = -
m .
e
ey ey yy e
Pe =
(me'.Q)
P
y
=
(h/A, h/A -1
e.), e.
--1
=
unit 3-vector in incident direction,
P
=
(h/A', h/A' o), o =
unit 3-vector in outgoing direction,
so that
h h 2 2
me me h h
-
+ + -
cos 0 =
0
T T XX' XX'
A'-A =
(him)
e
(1- cos 0) .
Solution 2.2. Use y to denote the photon, and prime to denote values
4-momentum conservation:
159
160 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELA TI\7ITY AND GRAVITA TION
(P'
y
+ p' _
P
y
)2 =
p2 = _
m
2
p. (P
p
p P )
.
= -
.
y y
obviously
0
Maximum energy transfer occurs for a 180 scattering angle. With
this condition and
Ifyl Ey' the above equation becomes
=
-
E E' + P P' ・
= -
E(E -
E') + P .
(P -
P' )
y y -y -y y y - -
y -y
-2E E' =
-E(E y -E') + P(-E -E')
Y y Y Y Y
so that
E' =
Ey(E+P) E
y 2
2Ey+E-P l+m /4E
Ey
The second expression for is result of using the approximation
E a
P=(E2_m )2
2
E - 1. m
2
/E
2
0 4
For 3 K, the photon energy is of order kT 3 x 10- eVe Using
9 20
this, m =
.938 x 10 eV, and E =
10 eV in our equation we find
pro t on
E' 101geV.
y
(1)
Py+Pe Pe'
=
, ,
・
Py Py
+ 2p e
・
Py
+ P
e' Pe =
Pe' Pe
2 2
o + 2p P m ・ -
= -
m
eye e
・
0
Pe Py
=
・
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS 161
2
(1-v I )-2, we have
P =
p mlYYI Yl
v
-
= = =
・
-
E m
1 y+m 2 1+ m
2
/m 1 y
Solution 2.5. Let the neutron travel in the x direction. In its rest frame
1
2
p' =
(E', P'cos 0, P'sinO, 0), E' =
m
e
(1_v e )-2
so
f' is in the x-y plane), and P' is isotropic. Using the Lorentz
Px =
Y (P'cosO+{3E')
P =
P'sinO
y
or
2 2
,
P
P Y {3E
( ) ( )
y
-
1
x
+ =
P'
・
yP'
The last equation says that in the lab, the momentum vector in momentum
space lies on an ellipse of semi major axis yP', semiminor axis P', and
origin (y{3E',O). The plot of such an ellipse falls into three cases:
162 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
--2yP --+
r
2P'
J
yfJE
{3E' > p' {3E' p' =
{3E' < p'
Solution 2.6. Let P and Q be the 4-momenta of the incident protons,
w2 =
(p
O
+QO)2 = _
(p+Q)2 ,
2
which is an invariant expression for W and can be evaluated in any
P =
(E, )
Q =
(m, 0) ,
so
2
w =
(E+m)2 _
p2
2
=
2Em + 2m
2Em for E ? m .
For E =
30 GeV, m =
.94 GeV, the available energy is W 7.5 GeV.
P =
(E, )
Q =
(E,- )
.
2 2
So W =
4E ,
i.e. W =
2E. For E =
15 GeV, the available energy is
W =
30 GeV. To achieve W =
30 GeV in a conventional experiment would
2
require E =
W /2m 480 GeV.
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS 163
Po +
PI =
Po' +
PI'
(PO+Pl _PO,)2 =
pi,
2 2
-
3m + 2P 0 ・
P1 -
2P 0' .
(P 0 + P 1) = -
m .
Now we put in
Po =
(E, r), E =
m +
To
PI =;
(m,Q), E'= m+T'
Po' =
to find
2
_m -
Em + E'(E+m) -
PP'cosO =
0
I.e.
1 1
2
(E2_m )2 (E'2_m 2 )2 cos() =
(E'-m)(E+m) .
Squaring and factoring the difference of squares, then gives the kinetic
energy of the scattered particle:
2
(E-m)(E'+m)cos () =
(E'-m)(E+m)
2
TO(T'+2m)cos (} =
T'(T o +2m)
2
'
2
()
T'(-Tocos (}+To+2m) =
2mTocos
2
2m (}
T
,
=
To cos .
2
2m sin (}
+
To
Py+ PN =
P N '+ P1T (N' =
nucleon coming out of reaction)
(P y+ P N )2 =
(P N'+P1i ・
164 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
y N .
P
N
, + P =
(m N +m 11 ,Q)
17
so that
2P
y
・
P
N
-
m = -
(m N + m 1l
2
2E E + 2P .
R = -
2m m m
N
-
N N
-
y
.
-y
-
11 11
(E N
2 2-
1
)2
2m
N
m
11
+
m;
EN + -m
N
=
2Ey
2
2" 940" 140 + 140 14
=
MeV =
6x 10 MeV
1
2 .
(2.5 x 10- °)
1
2 2 2
S ince E
N
? m
N
, we ca n re p lace (E N -
m
N
) by EN" Thus
14
3x 10 MeV.
EN
P 11 +P n =
PK+PA
P -m = =
(P 1T +P n -PK )2 =
-m;-m -mi+2P1T'Pn-2Pn'PK-2P1T'PK'
In the lab
P
17
=
(E 11 , 11)
Pn =
0',
(m n ::.J , P
K
=
(E K r K) ,
so,
m; m mi- 2m
- -
n
E 1T + 2m nE K + 2E E
1T K
-
2£1T"£K
= -
m ・
2 2 2 2
m -m -m -m +2m E
A 11 n K n K
E =
11
2(m n -
E
K)
Thus, to make E
11
a minimum we must make E as small as possible
K
(as you might have guessed!), so we try E K =
m . Thus
K
2 2 2 2
mA
-
m
11
-
fin
-
m
K
+ 2m n m K
E =
11 (threshold) 2(m n -
m
K )
2 2
mA m11
-
m m 2 2
940-494
-
=
n K
=
1115 -
140
2(m n -m K ) 2 2(940 -
494) 2
=
1149 MeV ,
Solution 2.10.
P = -
m =
(P A -
P
B)2 = -
m m - -
2P A ・
P
B
・
(1)
(mA,.Q), B
=
(EB' B)'so
2 2 2
-m 2 mAE B
-mB
= -
-me A
and hence
2 2 2
EB =
m
A
+m
B
-
me /2 m A .
(b) Here
mA=M, mB=O, mc=M-o, so
2
E =
hv =
M2 -
(M_o)2 = u _
0
< a
B
.
2M 2M
negligib le.
166 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1 1
2 2 2 2"22 2"2 2
-m
A -mB + 2E
A
E
B
-
2(E A -m
A) (EB-m B ) cosO =
-me'
Solution 2.11.
frame P total =
P otal = -
(El' l)'P2 =
(m 2 Q):
,
-mi -m -
2E 1 m 2 ・
P
P1
Pl' (P 1 + P 2 )
..
=
t 0 ta I
evaluate the left side in the C.M. frame and the right side in the lab frame:
_EC.M'E
1
C M
tota I
. .
=
_m2_E
1 1
m
2
2 1 C. M. 2 2 2
= -
m
1
-
2
[(E total ) -
m
1
-
m
2
] (from (a))
C M C M 2 2 2 c M
E [( E total ) ]/2E total
. . . . . .
_
-
+ m _
m .
1 1 2
2 2
( )
m + E1m
(EC.M.)2
1 2
(pC.M.)2
1 1
= _
mi =
C M
. .
-
mi
E
tot
2
2 2 2
(m 1
2 2
+2E m )
2
(E 1
2
) m2p2
2)
-m
(m 1 +E
1
m -m
1
+m
2 1 2 _
m
2 1
=
2 1
= '
2 2
C.M. 2
(E tot ) ( Ec.M.
tot ) (EC.Mo)
tot
m2Pl/E oOt i'
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS 167
P(3) ==
P+(P'u)u
fined by
0
Ptotal +
(Ptotal' uC.M.)u C . M .
=
.
ul
・
u
1 2 ' 2
, y:v )
= -
y). So y C .M.
= -
u.u
C . M .
(P total 0
P U + U
.) u U
・
・ ・ =
tot C . M C . M .
Etotal +
E o.YC.M.
i =
0
C.M.
=
E total IE
YC.M.
.
tot
In E1 + hence
our case,
Etotal m
=
2 ,
YC.M.
=
(E 1 +
m2)/E o't i ・
1 -
v .M. [E =
)]2
t i/(El + m
2
,
thus
2 2 t
[ ]
E -m P
1 1 1
v =
=
C M
・
. .
(E I +m
2 )2 EI +m
2
Solution 2.12. In the C.M. frame since the collision is elastic, Ef.M. =
C M .
E l'
. .
,
1 ..,
e
P 1"
Pl' u
C . M .
=
u
C . M .
.
(The prime denotes values after the collision.) Evaluating this equation
in the lab frame yields
168 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
-E 1 -E ,+
+ P
l' .M. fl"YC.M.
=
1 .
But
C.M.
=
.Pli(E1 + m
2 ), so we have
or
()
E
1 ,(E 1 +m
2)
-
E
1
m
2 -mi
c os
(1)
=
1
22-
P (E '-m )2
1 1 1
(This equation could also have been derived without using the center of
mass frame.) We can find the minimum value of cos () (maximum value of
sin ()) by setting d cos ()/dE 1 , =
0, solving for E 1 " and then substitut-
2(E 1 + m
2) (E 1 m 2 + m 1 ) E 1 ,+ (E 1 m 2 + m
1 ) .
At the minimum value of cos () , the straight line is tangent to the curve
gives
2 2 2
o =
-(E 1 +m
2)
K 222
P1 m1 + K
2
P
2
1 (E 1
m +m
1)
+ K
442
P m
2 1 1 '
or
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 (E 1 + m
2)
m
1
-
(E 1 m 2 +
fPl) m
1
-
m
2
K = =
m2p2
1 1
m
2
1
and, finally 1
cos () min =
(mi m -
)2
m
1
sin
()max =
m
2
/m 1 .
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS 169
Solution 2.13.
(a) Take the rocket's motion to be along the x-axIS. We have the
t 2 x 2
u.u = -
I = -
(u ) + (u ) (normalization of u) (1)
t t x x
a.u =
O = -
a u + a u (a orthogonal to u) (2)
2 t 2 2
(Proper acceleration
x
a.a =
g = -
(a) + (a ) is g) .
(3)
2 2
which imply
t
a
x
=
gu (4)
x
at =
gu .
(5)
X
By differentiating Equation (4) we can get a differential equation for U
2 x x t
d u
=
da du t 2 X
=
g
- =
ga
=
g u ,
2 dr dr
dr
X
with solutions U =
A sinh gr + B cosh gr. Since the initial conditions on
X
the motion are U =
0, dux /dr =
g, at T =
0, u must be
X
U =
dx/dr = sinh gr .
(6)
t
u =
dt/dr =
cosh gr (from Equation (1))
x =
g-l (cosh gr
-
1) t =
g-l (sinh gr) .
(7)
In units with c =
1, it turns out by numerical coincidence that
2
g( =
980 cm/sec ) is almost exactly equal to one inverse year (as a time)
or one inverse light-year (as a distance). Thus for 40 years as measured
on Earth (t =
40 yr), (7) gives
170 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1
T [sinh- (40)] yr 4.38 yr
and
1
x [cosh [sinh- (40)] -1] L.Y. 39.01 L.Y. (8)
17
x [cosh(40)-1]L.Y. 10 L.Y. (9)
1
T cosh- (15,000 + 1) yr 10.3 yr .
(10)
The deceleration half of the trip is identical, so the total time is 20.6 years.
(c) Denote the rest mass of the rocket (which changes) by M. The
°
d(Mu ) = -
dE (11)
d
.
ra .
dE rad .
=
dP
rad .
(12)
dP =
dP (13)
rad .
(11)
-
(13) gives
d(MuO) = -
dP = -
d(Mu )
X
(dM) uO + MduO = -
(dM) U
X
-
Mdu
x
dM/M =
-d(uO+uX)/(uO+u X
)
so that
e- gT
Mo/(UO+u
X
M =
) =
Mo (14)
CHAPTER 2: SOLUTIONS 171
and
9
Mfinal =
M
o /(30,000)2 10-
Mo .
that the potential is always in the right direction when the electron crosses
"synchrotron frequency" cu =
eB/ymc =
cuom/E (where E =
electron
energy), and as the electron becomes relativistic this gets out of phase
with the fixed cyclotron frequency. Eventually the electron arrives at the
gap when the potential is 90° out of phase and the accelerating process
a when the electron passes through the gap, the electron receives energy
CU t)
dN
.
cudt/21T o
[Note that the electron passes through the gap twice per cycle, hence the
factor of 2.] Here rp is the angular distance traveled by the electron
1>
f wdt W
J,t(m/E)dt
= =
and
; 2VCOS[Wo it dt-wot]
=
" [w l ( dt]
wom cos
= -
・
d t2 [w l t( 1) dt]
a cos
-
=
o
172 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
where a == 2V cu
o
m/7T. Differentiating we have
t
r r
J
2
d ( E2 )
L J ( ) ( )
.
m m
= -
a SIn CiJ -
1 dt CiJ -
1
2 o
E o
E
dt
o
.1
[a ( d;2)2J CiJo( 1)
2
= -
-
.
The negative square root has been used because the sine function above
is clearly negative.
2
We now find a first integral of this equation. Let q == dE /dt so that
2 2 2 2
d E /dt =
qdq/dE , then our differential equation becomes
dq !
[1 ]
2 2 m
-q
=
[a -q ] CU
o
-
l'
2
dE 2
(E2)
This can be integrated with the initial condition that q =
a at E =
m
(Le. at t =
0): 1
2 2 2 2
(a _
q ) =cu
o (E -m ) .
Emax
=
m +
a/cuo =
m + (2Vm/7T)2 .
that a.u =
d(u .u)/dT =
O.
CHAPTER 3: SOLUTIONS
Figure (ii) is the rapidity parameter.) Since the t' axis cannot be rotated
below the light cone line in a Lorentz transformation, the two events can-
t t
t'
// B
.
x'
T /
t /
x x
A/ x--+ A
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
(i) (ii)
173
174 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
t t
B.
r
/
t /
j x x
Ax" A/
/ /
/ /
/ /
/
( iii) (iv)
bring A and B to the same location in the primed frame. The magnitude
of the required boost is a = /1x/ /1t. Since the x' axis cannot be rotated
above the light cone line, the two events cannot be made simultaneous.
ez+e t ,
ez-e t ,
ex+e t ,
ey+e t
・
v =
aA + bB + cC + dD
but the length of this vector is clearly zero if A, B, C, D are null and
t x y
The dot product is S.V A(et'e t ) ) A must equal
+
B(ex.e B-A so B
= =
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B + C +D which means 0 and hence
C +D =
C =
D =
0, there-
fore S =
A(e x + e
t ),
which is a multiple of V.
following table gives examples in the order: spacelike sum, null sum,
timelike sum.
x+y x + (x 1) -
+ (E t)
(X+Et)
'" '"
spacelike (-X+EZ)
+ (x+ 1) + (-2x) x + t
t) + 2t
(t-x) + (t+x) (x+t) + t
timelike sum t + t
Here E represents any small constant, e.g. 0.1. Not all possibilities
(The reader
"
directed. Le. u.l < 0 for timelike vectors u. can work
this out.)
Solution 3.5. Let k be the null vector along which the light is traveling.
A given observer takes a little square element of the beam whose sides
are the vectors A and B, which are purely spacelike vectors in his
since the element is square. The area of the element is IAI IB\.
A different observer can unambiguously identify the same element of
the beam, say by the rays making up its corners, but he slices it differ-
ently in time: the old vectors A and B are not orthogonal to his
A' =
A + ak
B' =
B + {3k
span the same beam element as A and B (the "tip" of each vector is
just moved to a different point along the ray by adding a multiple of the
wave vector k). The new observer requires A =
uB'.u =
0, which is
always possible, choosing a = -
A.u/k.u and {3 = -
B.u/k.u. (k.u 1= 0,
since k is null and u is time like.) Notice that A'.k =
B'.k = A'.B' =
0
Since k.k =
0, so A' and B' are orthogonal vectors which are the sides
(A'.A')2(B'.B')2 =
IAI IBI, the same area as seen by the original observer.
Il 11'
-2{3y. The proof for l
DIl/l is similar.
Dp.'
A aa D'l
{3 D{3
;= =
11'
=
{3 a
/1'
11 11 11
Fa F{3 =
(F l1ya ) (3 (F{3al1aa )
11 , {3 a
p.y ,
=
F
/lY, (3
F{3a(l1yal1 aa
) =
F
/lY, {3
F{3o aaa = F
p.y,fJ
F{3y
=-F F
a
{3
/la, {3
,
where the last equality follows from relabelling dummy indices, and by
antisymmetry.
CHAPTER 3: SOLUTIONS 177
ds
2
dx
a
dx{3
Tfa{3
=
Tfa{3 (ax
=
ax(3
( )
axa d-Il
x dx
-v
1Ja
_
..----
{3 axil a x v
-
・
2 v'
If we write the line element as ds =
g dx fl dx it follows that
fl v
==
ax
a
ax{3
g
11 v l1a{3 aXIl ax
v
a
U {3
T,.a ax
u
_
ax t3
therefore
U.V =
UaVAl1aA
(if (y{3 ai' -va y{3
ax U ai,
)\ ) Tf aA Tf a
= =
=
-va y{3 g
a{3
・
V
Solution 3.9. Under the coordinate transformation xll x ll(X ) the trans-
formation of is
ga13 ax
a
ax 13
g ga (3
=
'
Il v
axil aY!"
g =
det(g--)
Il v
=
det(ga (3 )det
aXa
( ) ( )
a
det
axv
=
g rd taXa
L ( axil )1 .
X f1
A = /ax{3
V
=
X f1 (X ), so
(1)
and the other is
ax / ax {3
v u
x/l =
;{/l(x ), so A
(3
=
-u
・
(2)
AU AY.
a aiY
Y J3
=
(3)
ax Y ax{3
This looks suspiciously like the chain rule for partial derivatives, so one
x ll (x{3) =
xll [x Y (x{3)] , (4)
This differs from (3) only by a twiddle. A little thought shows that the
K =
AB
tion for any choice of v. Proof: In some frame choose 4 basis vectors
1
By linearity the direction of W
O
e , e ,... to satisfy ell. e v = all
v'
CHAPTER 3: SOLUTIONS 179
o 1
K.e -
A W K.e = A W ...
1
-
0 ' ,
or
aO a a1 a
A W
K =
AoW , K =
1
...
.
Solution 3.12. A direct product of two vectors (see Problem 3.11) has all
of its columns proportional to each other (similarly for all of its rows).
This is not true for a general second rank tensor. If e
i
i =
1,n are the
th
basis vectors (0,0,...1,...0,0) where the 1 is in the i slot, then the
2
n products e
i
e
j obviously span the space of second rank tensors,
since there is one with a 1 uniquely in any row and column. Sums over
these times constants obviously can give the general tensor. (Anyone
specific tensor can be represented as a sum of n outer products, as the
nd
Solution 3.13. The object cannot be a tensor. A 2 rank covariant
v
tensor is a functional of 2 covariant tensors, Le. Xf.l V W would have
f.l v
to be a scalar, but
Xf.lV V W v =
(A. V) W v + (B. W) V
f.l f.l
II'V'
any coordinate system, then the coordinate transformation law is X"'" =
A B{3.
a
Af A + It is not possible to express this as
X f.l'V' =
T f.l'v' Xa{3
a{3
where T is some transformation. This follows from the fact that there
V
are many choices of Af.l and B which give, in one coordinate system,
v V
the same Xf.l In particular, in a given coordinate system Af.l + C, B C
-
.
180 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
v
give the same Xfl. as Afl. and B V , but the two choices give very
different Xfl.'v'.
Solution 3.14. We need only transform and check the results for antisym-
metry:
{3
a
A-A-F
a
{3
-A-A-F {3 a
F--
-AJi A F -F
-
= = =
{3 a
-
{3 a{3
・
fl.V vfla v fl v
Vfl.
FI1V gfLU gv{3 Fa{3 gfLU gv{3 F {3a gl1{3 gva Fa{3 VI1
= = - = - = -
F .
(!fl. v
vanishes (by hypothesis) and since (ffl. V
is a tensor, it vanishes in
V
all coordinate systems, hence Sfl. is symmetric in all coordinate systems.
v
A Sfl.V = -
A Sfl. = -
A S fl. v.
fl.V Vfl. fl.V
V
Thus
Afl.V Sfl. O.
=
Vfl
V
A =
Vfl.V A + Vfl. V A =
Vfl. v A = 1. (Vfl. V -
VVfl.) A fl.V
fl.V fl.V fl.v fl.V 2
Vfl.
V
S =
Vfl. V S + Vfl. V
S =
VIlV S = 1 (vfl. V + VVfl) S .
Solution 3.16.
r
(a) If there are no symmetries there are clearly n components.
How many inequivalent ways are there of choosing the values of the s
(n+s-1)!/(n-1)!s! .
CHAPTER 3: SOLUTIONS
181
nr-S(n+ s -
1)!f(n -1)! s! .
first: How many ways are there of choosing the a indices? This is
repetitions:
n!f(n -
a)! a! .
nr-a n! f(n -
a)! a! .
Solution 3.17.
1
(a) V 0
Vij.tv] (V V
vp) T[p.V]
= - =
2 Il
F F T T
ij.tv ]
= =
IlV (Il v ) Il V
F =
0
(Ilv )
J
V
[a,By] [Va,By Vay,B V,Bya V,Bay + +V V
y,8a
= -
ya,B
- -
[Ta
T
(a,8, y) ,8 ,y
+
Tay ,,8 T,8y ,a]
+
F[a,8 ,y]
=
[F
a,8 ,y
+F
ya,,8
+ F
,8y,a] ・
(b) If A
a
is a totally antisymmetric tens or, i. e.
Il V
' . .
"
( _1 ) A a'. .a =
A
a...a
1 P
"l"p
then
A_I
I ( _1)
"
A =
A
[a ]
-
A
] V[[a 1 V[a 1 ]
=
]]
=
[a 1
.
(a 1 ."
a (a 1 ...
metry V (a
-
V Hence V must vanish.
[a mL
ao]...a p )"
=
1
...
[aoa
Lm
]...a 1 ) (a 1 '"
1
[Va 1 ]
Va 1 ...[aoa ]...a p -Va 1
= .
"'a a ao...a
2 "'aoa ...
Lm Lm p mL p
Thus
]...a p ]
= ...
p!
a
17
..'a a ."a
17 17 a17
£ m
L m 1 17m 17£ P
But V
-
-
-
V so that
"'a a ."a a "'a a ..'a
a 17 17 17
17
1 17£ 17m
17
p 1 m 17£ P
V
V ] [a 1 ]
=
].
.
[a 1 [a Lm a
・
a 0 a'.
・ ・ ・
a
・ ・
.. ・
0a
p Lm p
F + F + F
3F[a{3,v]
=
va,{3
・
a{3,v {3v,a
A A
[[a, {3] v] [a {3 ]
=
v
, , ,
Aa ,
v , {3
.
Xafj
-
If a similar relation,
Ya Y + Y (1)
[a{3y]
=
{3y (a{3y)
,
CHAPTER 3: SOLUTIONS 183
rd
were true for a 3 rank tensor, we would have:
Y Y + Y Y Y
[a{3y ]
=
{3ay [{3ay]
=
({3ay)
-
(a{3y)
Y
Y(y{3a) Y[y{3a] Y(a{3y) Y[a{3y] Y (2)
=
+
(3ya
-
= =
{3y
・
S is a tensor.
{3 v
'
ax axv'
a v a
ax ax
, ,
a a
where the last equality follow from the fact that axf.l / ax and ax / axf.l ,
Solution 3.20. If
Ea{3yo
is totally antisymmetric, then given anyone
component e.g. E
0123 any other component (with nonrepeated indices)
can be found by permuting the indices on that given component. Com-
fixed once E
0123
is given, Le. the tensor is unique up to scaling by a
Ef.lv'A'a' ' E det
[ ] E
= =
a{3yo IlVAU
・
'
axA-' ax
'
axf.l' ax v a
ax
a
184 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Now
ax
a
ax{3
g/l v'
=
axil' ax v l1a{3
'
det
(gl11/) \det ( :,)
I det
(Tfafj)
=
so that
1
a a'
[ 2
det (ax lax ) det
(g/lt/)]
= -
and finally
1
[- det (gu'v')] 2
E/lV'A'a' E/l VAa
=
・
E a{3yo = .,.,a/l.,.,{3v
.,
.,.,ya
.,
.,.,OA E
., .,
/lVaA.
Eafjy8
= -
Eafjy8 .
1. 1.
[- det (g )]- 2 E = -
[- det (g )] 2 E
a
{3 yo
/lV a
{3 yu /lV
analog for E
a
{3yo. Thus in general
de t ( a{3y8
gllv )
E
-
Ea{3yo
-
.
2
E E /lvpa =
I EI1vpa I =
IIE012312
- -
I1 v pa "'-
/lvpa
CHAPTER 3: SOLUTIONS 185
24
Ep.vpa
-
-
-
Ea{3y8 A A A A IIA II
=
det ・
To show that the result is true in all (not just orthonormal) frames, we
ax{31
a
ax
det IIA<II
{3
=
det A
a
{3 ax
a
ax{3'
,
a ax
a
ax{3 a
=
det \I A {3 \I
det det =
det II A{3 II .
axa ax{3'
, ,
a a a a
[The last step follows from the fact that ax / ax and ax / ax are
matrix inverses.]
u A V A W A X =
O. If a =
0, then form analogous product using the {3, y, or
01= e
O
Ae
1
Ae
2
Ae
3
=
(alu+{31v+Ylw+olX) A (a 2 u+.")
A (a 3 u + ...) A (a 4 u + ...) ex
(u A V A W A x) ,
186 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Solution 3.25.
*F -! 11 l1vT E
aTa(3 F = 1. E a(3 F
a(3 a(3
-
-
E/lVA/."aA .,,{3y F
a(3)
_
1
E F
a (3 (2)
(3
-
2 Il va
V
E/l
va
{3 (*F E/l
va
{3 E FAa (3)
*(*F/l ) a(3) {3Aa
= = .
o =
+ 1 if A =
11, a=v
= -1 if A =
v, a=/l
= 0 otherwise .
Thus
ollV = allA oVa _
all oV
a A
Aa
and therefore
o FAa
v
(F/l
V
FV/l) F/l
*( *F/lv)
_ = _
_ = _ .
=
Aa
Solution 3.26. From the definition *V
a
{3y =
VA E {3y, and
*V *Va(3y =
VIl V\1\ E
Ila (3 y
EAa(3y .
a (3 y
E E
Aa (3y C oA
p.a(3y
=
fl
f3y
-60 VflVA
a a
W w -6V V
f3y
= =
.
a a
Solution 3.27.
lower indices.
Notice that
o::::
This follows from the fact that the sign of
is antisymmetric in both its upper and
a determinant
changes for an odd permutation of its rows or columns. Since, for example,
fl'
uA
a must be identically zero.
p...a
Solution 3.28. The indices fl, v, A, K must take on different values from
Ellvpa E \
I\Kpa
=
C(o 1\ K
-oflo ) Co
ov K 1\
==
I\K
v
Ilv 1 IIv a
uAK
= -
Er p E
AKpa
'
In general
Efl vAr E = _
oflvAr
lKpa lKpa
vAr E ofl VA
Efl = _
lKpr lKp
since the first row is a linear combination of the other two rows (first row
a a
= -
A x third row + B x second row). Multiplying out the determinant
Solution 3.30. For each value of fl, there are 3! arrangements of a, (3,
y 1= fl which make the E nonzero. The Jacobian determinant has the
same property of changing sign that the E does, so with the 3! in the
d3 O [a(a,b,c)/a(a,b,c)]dadbdc
= =
dadbdc
d3 1
= -
[a(const., b,c)/a(a,b,c)]dadbdc =
0
d3 2 -[a(a,const.,c)/a(a,b,c)]dadbdc
= =
0
d3 3 -[a(a,b,const.)/a(a,b,c)]dadbdc
= =
0 .
flV
Jacobian determinant relates volumes. Now
( )
ax fl
-g =
-det(ga(3)
=
_det
a
1J fl V =
[det(ilX/ax)]2(- det l1) ,
ax ax fJ
so that
1
(_ g)2 =
det(ax/ ax)
and hence
1
4
dV=(-g)2d x.
3
Solution 3.32. In a comoving local orthonormal frame we have d V =
4 .1
Start with d V =
(- g) 2 dx dy dx dt, a scalar in any frame. Multiply by
uO luo =
uO I(dt/ds) and get
4
d V =
[(- g)t uO dx dy dz] ds .
4
Since d V and ds are invariants, the term in parentheses must also be,
and it reduces to dxdydz in a comoving orthonormal frame, so
1
3
d v =
(-g)2uodxdydz .
a
Solution 3.33. Since the contravariant momentum vector p transforms
a
just like the contravariant displacement vector x , the 4-dimensional
1
4 x t
d P =
(_ g) 2 dp dpY dPz dp .
1 _.1 -l
dp Y dpz
[
(3 ) 2.
2g ta pII
J
x
(_g)2dp (- {3p1Ip
・
=
x -
J
1
O(f(X)) dx =
If (xl) I
'
where xl
is a zero of f.) Rewriting the term in brackets, we get
-
・
3
d P =
dpx dpY dPz
as it should.
190 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
3
Sometimes d P is renormalized by dividing by m. This gives an
Problem 3.32), 1
3 O
d v =
(-g)"2 u dxdydz
3
(_g)t dpxdpY dP
( u ).
Z
d P =
O
Since he measures with an orthonormal frame, we have -
g =
1 and u =
-
u so
o'
x 3 3
dx dy dz dp dpY dPz =
d Vd P
which is an invariant.
Solution 3.35.
0 0 0
d by
" "
> Sl d e
(a) Choose
.
a 4-volume b oun d ed b y x
A
' by x
B
x
A
' an
0=
fj ad40=fj adtdXdYdZ=fjad3Ia.
The contributions on the sides can be ignored as they are moved to
infinity, so
0=
f jad3Ia f fId3Ia f jOdxdydz i jOdxdydz
+ = -
・
000 0
x x
x A
x A
o 0' .
two 4-dimensional regions: I and II. Close off these regions with
0=
J
I
J
a
,a
d4Q =
0 =
J
Ix
0
JOd
3
IO -
J
Ix
0....
JO'd 3 I O
or
J f
'
O O
J dxdydz =
J dx'dy'dz' ,
0 0
'
Ix Ix
and similarly for region II. The proof is completed by adding the equations
Solution 4.1. Suppose the wire lies on the z-axis of cylindrical polar
coordinates and has proper charge density Po' In the rest frame of the
wire JO =
Po and 1
=
0, and from Gauss' law the only nonvanishing
FOr,
r
component of the field tensor is E =
P o A/21Tr =
where A is the
cross sectional area of the wire. If the wire is moving in the +z direction
,
0
with velocity (3 relative to the lab, the Lorentz transformation A 0
=
y,
0'
A
z
=
(3y gives ,
0'
J
=
YPo JZ =
(3ypo
"
" , ,
B cp oFOr
Z r Z r
A
=
F = =
(3YPoA/2TT r E =
YP o A/21Tr .
(B?> is the "physical component," i.e. the component related to the unit
density at rest in the lab, the total charge density and field
-yp,o' ,
BCP 1/ 21Tr
=
.
Solution 4.2. The invariance of these quantities follows from the fact that
B
2
_E2 =
lF (3Fa
2 a
(3
!. (3 ! Ffl v F (3
a V
E. B * F F
a
= E =
det (Ffl )
flva(3
= .
- --
4 a(3 8
192
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS 193
80 B /IEIIBI
cos
.
=
.
641T(&2-lsI --
2
) =
(E2+B2)2 _
4(ExB)2
-- --
4 2 2
(E. B)2]
4 2 2
=
[E + 2E B +B ] _
4[E B -
-- --
4 2 2 4
=
E _2E B + B + 4(E.B)2-- --
=
(E
2 _
B2)2 4(E.B)2 +
--
.
2
E'y-l
""""""
=
E + vxB
....................
=
(1-aB )E + a(E.B)B
...................--...
2
B'y-l =
B -
vxE
...................
=
(1-aE )B + a(E.B)E
,.....,,..............
.
Case i) If =
0 and lEI
. =
IB\, the transformation is equivalent to
2 2 2
Case ii) If E B . =
0 but E 1= B choose a =
1/max(E , B2) to make
ExB
v
--
=
a( x ) =
a( x ) =
- -
2 2 2 2 2 2
1+v 1+a2[( x
)]2 1+a [E B _( B )2]
' E +B
2 2
Solution 4.6. If E -
B > 0 perform a Lorentz transformation with
2 The transformation is analo-
v =
Ex B/E to get B' =
y(B -
v x E)
,..."
=
O.
...--...
,...... .....-..
2 2 2 2 2
E B < 0 and B /B If E B =
0 then clearly
gous for
x E
-
= -
y
- .
Problem 4.5) v =
aCE x B) reduces the magnitude of E or B by a factor
1
2
y(1-aE ) =
y(l-v) =
[(1-v)/(1+v)]2. In the limit v 1 the magnitude
Solution 4.7. The integration in the expression for JI1 can be performed
by using
J F(r)o[t-zO(r)]dr J F(r)o[t-zO(r)](dr!dt)dt = =
F(r[t])!uO ・
0 eko [ -!k(t)].
k u
k
express Ions.
Solution 4.8. For this problem it is useful to introduce the totally anti-
(Ux V)i
ijk j k
= E U V .
--- --
V
Now, for the "electric" equations Ff.1 =
417 JI1 :
,v
F
0
(3 =
Fl.
O'
=
V .
E =
417 J
0
=
417p
, (3 ,1..- --
i (3 ij iO i
F
,(3
=
F .
,J
+ F
,0
=
E
ijk
B
k,J,O
.
_
E =
417 Ji .
th
This last equation is the i component of
.
V
.......
x B
....-...-
-
E =
417 J .
........
3 2 1
F + F + F =
B + B + B = . =
0
12,3 31,2 23,1 ,3 ,2 ,1
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS 195
Now take a =
0, and {3, y spatial:
F O' .k
.
1, J
+
F.o
J, 1
. + F"
IJ , 0
=
E.
1,j
.
+ E.
J ,
.
1
+ E. .
IJ k
B
=
E"
lJ k
(V--
xE)k--
+ E"
IJ k
Bk =
0 .
Solution 4.9. It has already been shown (Problem 4.8) that Fllv =
0 is
,v
equivalent to the "electric" Maxwell equations (in vacuum). As for the
magnetic equations:
1. Fr Ea(3/lv
(3 ,v ]
=
'
2 La
*F l1
so that
v,v =
0 is equivalent to F
a(3 ,v
+ F
va ,(3
+ F
(3v ,a
=
O.
o Oi i
dP / dr =
eF u =
eE yv i .
Since dr =
dt/y this equation can be written
o i
dP /dt =
eE vi .
Note that this differs from the nonrelativistic equation only in that pO IS
dPi dPi i i0 1j u
. .
I 1J
..
k
- =
y
- =
qF Ilu =
qF U
o
+ qF .
=
qyE +
qy E Bk V J '
dr dt 11
,
so that
dP/dt
........
=
q(E+vx B)
....... ........
.
196 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Solution 4.12. t
The only nonzero components of FIlv are F =
FYt =
E.
Y
a
The initial 4-velocity u of the particle has components (y, yv, 0, 0),
1
2;
-
2
Y ==
(1- v ) the Lorentz force equations
dpll/dr =
qFllvuV
dp / dr
x
then give us = 0 for 11
= 1 and hence
X
U =
yv r =
x/ yv .
Y Y t
dut/dr =
(q/m)Eu du /dr =
(q/m)Eu
2 2
d u
Y
/dr =
(qE/m)2 u
Y
[(qE/m)r]
Y
u y sinh
=
,
t Y
where the initial conditions on u and u have been used. Integrating
this result with res pect to r, substituting r =
x/yv, and using the initial
condition _
y
=
0 when x =
0, gives
y =
(q )[ Y cosh
(q; ) :Y ] -
1 .
Solution 4.13.
wp =
\dp/dtl =
qvB ,
therefore
wp mw mw
B = =
1
=
1
.
qv 2 2
q(1_V )2 q(1_w R2)2
1 1 1
2 2
)-2
-2 2 2-2
R2)
O 2 X
(1- w R)
Y
(1- =
wy(1_w R = wx
.
u =
w U u -
.
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS 197
The components measured by the moving observer are found with a Lorentz
transformation, e.g.
1-
0' 0 2 2
)-2
X
u =
y(u -(3u ) =
y(1-{3wy)(1-w R
where y ==
(1_(32)-z.
0'
(c) Since u is not constant, energy is seen to increase:
,
,
0 0 Y
dp =
d
m =
m {3 wyu
dr dr 1
z
(1_w2R2)
,
, ,
0 Y Y
dp mwyu
, ,
Y mwyu
-
dr
=
qEY u =
1
=
1
z
(1_w2R2)
z
(1-w2R2)
This resolves the' 'paradox."
dp qQ
( )
d
dt -qwRB +
rm dt (yy)
=
= ・
2
R
1
2 2-z
(1- w R ) is constant.
No work is being done on the particle so y
= a
2
Since dv/dt = -
w Re we have
_ -r
1
2 2
qwRB -
qQ/R
2
= mw
2
R/(1_w R )Z
and hence
q
2
w
m
=
1
3
(1_w
2
R2) Z (wB _
Q/R )
417T JLlI =
FJLa FV + FfLaF v _ 1. F F
a
{3,11
,11 ,v a a, v 2 a{3
=
FJLaF V + F (Ff.1U ,11 _ 1. F
va
,JL)
a,v va 2
=
Ff.1U F v + 1. F (Fall ,fl + FJLa,lI + FlIJL ,a)
a, v 2 va
lI
According equations, both F a,v and the terms
to the free field Maxwell
ll
in parentheses vanish, hence Tfl O. Note: If a charge current J is =
11 ,
."IlVFaf3Fa(3)
a v
Solution 4.16. From the stress-energy Tllv =
(I/411)(Fll F -
TIl
Il
=
(1/411)(FIU2 F
Ila
-
・
4 ・
F
af3 Fa(3) =
0 ・
frame. 2 2
Case 1: E =
B , E. B
-- --
= 0 .
Choose E = E e ,
B = E e ; then the only nonvanishing components of
__ -x --
--Y
TO
a
TOO 1417 from which it follows that Tf.L a T v
ll z ZZ 2
Tfl are = = T = E
=
O.
2
Case 2: (E -
E x'
B =
Be. The nonvanishing components of the stress-energy are then
- -x
2
TOO = _
T
XX
= TYY =
T
ZZ
=
(1/817) (E + B2) and
2 2
TJL T
a
a
11
= ofl11 [E
2
+ B2]2 1(817)2 = ofl [(E 2
11
_
B2)2 + 4E B ]/(817)2
8 [(E
2
_B2)2 +(2 .!!)2]j(811)2 .
ll
FJL11 u . A vector which reduces to J in the rest frame of the charge
_
V
carriers is Jfl + ufl J 11 u . Ohm's equation can then be written as
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS 199
JIl +
ullJvuV =
the rest frame of the conducting element, it must be correct in all frames.
Solution 4.19. From Problem 4.7 we know that, for a particle of charge q
J
4
J/l(x) =
q 8 (x -
z[r]) u/l dr ,
J Ldr =
q
J u/lA/ldr
-
m
J dr
f3u uf3)
a
L =
qu/lA/l m(- T/ a
-
A
=
qAA + mU
A
a(dz / dr) au
dU A
dzll
( )
aL
-!x
d
dr auA
=
qAA,/l T+
m
(fr""
=
az
L =
qU/lA/l,A
u ll
m
duA/dr q(AJL,A AX,Il)
= -
or
ll
dPA/ dr =
qFAllu
Solution 4.20.
have
200 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
*F
a
{3 = 1 E a{3ll v F
2 Il V
x
0 _B -BY _B
z
X Z
B 0 E -EY
=
z
BY _E 0 EX
Z
B EY _Ex 0
therefore F *F corresponds to E -
Band B E.
*FIlV =
0 FIlV =
0
,v
.
,
v
B; B '
coordinates xi(i =
1,'''' 4), consider the function G =
1/ (x
i
)2. It is
2 i
2 2 i .
4
x =
U cos V, r =
U sin V (O:S U < 00, 0 ::; V 17)
(J=(J cp=cp.
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS 201
2 2 4
then G =
U- . The integral fV G d x can easily be written in
TT TT 2TT
J I I f
2 4 x=
dCP( )v3sin2vsinO
2
o
V Gd
0
dV
0
dO
0
g =
_417 ・
u<u
2 2 1 2 3 4
It follows therefore that V G = -
4TT 0(X )0(X ) 0(x ) 0(x ) and that we
problem V (I)
l
Poisson = -
4TT f(x ) as
f?(i)d4(
(Xi) 1 =
TT
J I
i
(,i_xi)2
.
i
fe' i) =
S(x ) .
2'l 1 2 3
Notice now that V (I) 4TT f(x )
= -
becomes 0 (I) -= -
4TT Sex ,
X
, X
, t). The
solution to this problem is the above integral. If we transform variables
we have "
"
3
Sex, t) d x dt
J
-
i
(I)(x, t) =
1T
xll) (xV xV)
-
TJ V (xll-
-
Il
defined and has no poles on the real t axis for t < t. Take the defini-
"
III
,.
Imt 1m t
c'
..
..
Ref Ret
t
-18'-31 t t+li-.!I t
(0) (b)
o A = -
4 TT J
f1
.
11
We get:
a 4
J 11 (x )d x
f
a
A (x ) =
a
・
11 TT1 r r
c'" a
We now show that this reduces to the familiar retarded integral solution
by performing the integral over dt:
Jp.(x ,t)d3xdt
f
1
Af1(x, t)
= -
-: " "
-
TT1
(t-t-Ix-xl)(t-t+lx-xl)
........,....,. .......
= _
111
f [!p.(R,t)d3xl
t-t-I.!-.!IJt=t_I _!.1 f
2TTi Jp.(x,t-I!.!-.!i)d3x
I
= .
)-l/ax )-2,
a V V a
Since a(r a r = -
2x (r a r a formal expression for the
fie ld tens or is
"a 4"
)d
X[vJp.](X x
J
F 2A = .i
[v,ll]
= .
Il v TTi a
2
(r a r )
CHAPTER 4: SOLUTIONS 203
B = -
V x gives
B
.......,
=
Vx(vxB)
...........--...........
=
-B(V.v)+(B.V)v-(v.V)B. (1)
""""...-.. ........ .....-,.......,.......
a/at becomes alar (Le. the convective derivative and the partial deriva-
i j j i
dBi/dr = -
B v. + B v. = _
B
l
u
J
. + Bju i .
, J , J ,J ,j
i
Since u .
is the projection perpendicular to u, of uf.L it follows that
,J ,v
1
u..
1,J
=
w..
lJ
+ a..
lJ
+
3
g..O
lJ
i
The contraction of this 3-tensor is of course u .
=
() and the proper time
,1
derivative of B is then
i 2
dBi/dr =
_B ()+ B.(w ij +
J
a
ij +!. gij()) = _
Bi() + (a
ij +w ij B.
) J
.
(2)
3 3
To Equation (2) may be added any term proportional to the spatial com-
ponent of the 4-velocity (since that vanishes in the comoving frame). Thus
write Equation (2) as
dBi/dr 2
BiO ij i
) B.J
ij
= _
+ (a +w + fu (3)
3
equation by
(a) Letting indices run from 0-3 instead of just 1-3;
by Baua
a
(b) Defining a 4-vector B =
0 and the spatial part of B
of B is preserved.
204 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
(w {3 + aa(3)
B{3
{3B{3
a a
(jpa (4)
DBa /dr u
a{3
+
B{3
= -
Solution 5.1.
(a) In the rest frame of the particles the only nonzero component is
/. ,
0
TO =
Ox xO 2
TOO =
poy2 T -
-
T -
Po Y {3 ' T
XX
=
P o{32y2 ,
where y ==
(1- (32)-"2. In general, if u is the 4-velocity of the particles
T=pou u.
(b) Let the circle of motion be in the x-y plane. Consider a con-
poy2 etc.
Now if we consider a ring of matter, all points on the ring are equivalent
so that in polar coordinates the nonzero components of TIlV are
TOO =
Poy2, T
o 4> =
Poy2 f3 T4>O, =
T4>4> Poy2 f32
=
.
TOO 217 r dr dz =
yNm
and Po
=
Nmo(r- a) a (z)/217ay .
The results can now be expressed in car-
y =
r sin cp :
205
206 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1 -{3 sin cP {3
1
cos cP o
TI1V =
2
yNmo([x +y2]2 -a)o(z) {32 sin2cP _{32 cp cos cp sin o
217a
{32 cos 2cp o
(symmetric) o
then that ring's stress-energy is the same as that in (b), with the sign of
{3 =
(Va reversed. We can then add the two cases. In the sum, terms
"" ""
TOO =
TcPcp /(32 =
y Nmo(r- a)8(z)/17a .
Solution 5.2. In Problem 5.1 we saw that for particles with 4-velocity u,
the s tress-energy is proportiona I to u u. F or an isotropic collection
with u =
y(l, v )
we have
T = K < U U > , K =
some constant,
Oi 2 i
T =
Ky V < n > =
0
2 2
Tij =
Ky v < ninj > =
0, i 1= j .
x
To evaluate the diagonal, spatial, components note that < nXn > =
z
< n
Y
n
Y
> = < nZn > and that
x z 2
< nXn > + < n
Y
n
Y
> + < nZn > = < n > = 1
so that
1 ii 2 2
< nini > =
T =KYV /3 .
We know that the moving particles each have energy my so the density
00 2 2
myN =
T =
KY < 1> =
KY .
Thus K =
mN/y and the nonvanishing components are
00 2
ij
T =
myN Tij =
(myNv /3)a .
O i
Solution 5.3. In the rest frame of the fluid element u =
1, u =
0 so that
TIlV =
pgllV + (p + p) ulluV .
XX XZ
choose B
-
=
Be
-z
it follows that T = TYY and that TXY =
T = TYz =
o.
Oi
Since there is clearly no energy transport in this static problem T =
O.
2
The energy density of a magnetic field is TOO =
B /817.
Xx Zz
We must now calculate the "pressures" T , TYY, T . We do this
Bx y
-
i. e. the number of "lines" of B in the volume.) The energy
in the box is
& =
(B2/817) x =
y(B z x Z/817
y)2 X .
y
T XX =
1 d& =
2
B /817 =
TYY
y z d( x)
T
ZZ
=
1 d& = -
2
B /817
x d(y z)
208 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
so that
1
2 1 0
B
Tllv =
817 1
0 -1
2
13
B
Tllv>
1 3
< =
817
1 3
identity matrix block is invariant under rotations; hence the above result
Solution 5.5. We are given the linear mass density as Il, so TOO III A.
=
Oi
In the rest frame of the rod there is no energy flow so T =
O. Choose
the z direction to be along the rod axis. By symmetry [see the argument
Xz
in Problem 5.4] the off diagonal stresses TXY, T , TYz, must be zero.
XX
y momentum) T = TYY = O.
If the cross section is A and the axis of the rope is in the z direction,
the components of T in the rest frame of the rod are given in Problem
5.5. An observer moving with velocity u =
(y, yy) sees energy density
0'0' 2 2
T =
TafJuaufj
=
(y IA)[Il- Fv z ]'
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS 209
0'0'
Clearly the observer with the greatest chance of seeing a negative T
is the one moving in the z-direction with v c. To guarantee that he
, ,
is the required upper limit. In physical units, and for good steel rope
this would be
2 2 13 2
< c =
pc
=
7x10 Kg-wt!mm .
2
as compared to its actual breaking strength of 200 kg -
wt/mm . The
11 5
for this difference by factor of order 10 strength
.
( leV per atom), not from the total mass density, which is virtually all
10
in the nucleus (,,- 5x 10 eV).
0
TO =
p, T
X x
=
p. If we
2 -z
{3 =
wr and y ==
(1- (3) . If
T
rr
=
p, Tcpcp =
y2{32p/r2, TOcp =
y2{3p/r, TOO =
y2p .
o =
T
rv
jV
=
T
rr
,r
+ Tcpcp rr,./,.,./,. + T
rr
[lo g ( _
g) !] ,r
=
(T
rr
r
2
) ,r /r
2 _
r
2
sin 0 Tcpcp ,
so that
210 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2
(pr ) ,
r
= r sin e y2{32p .
2
P =
mo(r-a)0(cose)[0(</>-cut)+0(</>-cut-17)]/r .
We can now integrate the equation of motion with the boundary condition
p =
0 for r > a, to find p. When this is done the components of the
m
TI1V =
2 2
o(cos e) [o(</> -
cut) + o(</> -
cut -
17)]
l_cu a
oCr -
a) 0 0 cu o Cr -
a )
2 2
a 2 a
cu a
--
0 0
2
x r
0 0
2
cu 0 (r -
a )
symmetric
2
a
Solution 5.8. The electrostatic field for the moving capacitor remains E,
00 XX ZZ 2
T =
Po' T = TYY =
T = E /817 .
2
M =
E Ad/817 + Ad
Po
.
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS 211
, ,
TOO =
y2(TOO+ 2TXX) y2(pO+ 2E2/81T) =
.
2
& =
E
y2(pO+ 2E2/81T)Ad/y
Ad/8rry +
2
=
Tf.LpV(x) m.
f ulf(r.)u (r.)04[x-x.(r
.)]dr
= '
1
.
1111 1 l l
Thus
f ulfu
f.L V
Tp
,v
=
m.
1 1 1 (a/axV)04[x-x.(r
1 .)]dr l
'
l
.
v
The delta function depends only on x -
mi f u
V
Tf.LP,v = -
(d/dTi)a4[x-xi(T)]dTi
1
m
i
f (du xi(Ti)]dT
/dT)a4[x- i '
T ,v
=
qi
f FlLvura4[x-xi(Ti)]dTi
=
Ff.Lv Jf.L .
212 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
TlLv
EM,v
=
(41T)-l F lLa F V
a,v
= -
FflD. J a
so that ( TlLv
p
+ TILV)
EM ,v
=
O.
d (energy)
Iv
=
With no loss of generality take the narrow cone of the motion, whose size
d (energy) =
hv dN
2 2
dpx dpY Ih
x
d (solid angle) =
dv dv Y =
d(pX IE) d(pY IE) =
v
d(time) =
dz/c =
dz
d (frequency) =
d(hv)/h =
dpz Ih
so that
4 3
dN h v
I =
v
dx dy dz dpx dpY dpz
3 3
Number density in phase space, dN/d x d p, is a Lorentz invariant (see
Problem 3.34) so
Ivlv3 is invariant.
3-d imensional s pace in the frame of the star, then in that frame the radia-
t r () cp
1 1 0 0
2 1 1 0 0
Tllv (r , () , cp) =
(L/417 r ) 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Let t be the vector (null, of course) from the emission of a photon to the
energy tensor at the event of reception can be written in the frame inde-
pendent form
4
T =
[LI 417( us' f ) ] f t
frame, us. f = -
r. It is now simple to use the frame independent expres-
(O,!V be the
spatial vector which, in the observer's frame, points to the observed posi-
Oi
F = -
T n. =
u
・
T .
n .
o b s 1 obs
Furthermore t. U = -
Rand t. n = -
R so that
ob s
Fobs =
L/[417y4(1 + v cos (})4R2] .
Another way of arriving at this result is to use the fact that Ivlv3 is a
Solution 5.12. Let the 4-velocity of the particle be u. Let the null
T =
Sf f multiplied by the effective area of the particle and dotted into
its 4-velocity (to get the flux in its frame). The minus sign is due to the
-
+++ signature. The time component of this in its rest frame is
SA(u. f) (u. f); this is the absorbed energy which the particle reradiates
in its own res t frame, so the net change in 4-momentum is
dp mdu
dr
=
dr
= _
SA [(u. f)t + (U' f)2u] .
(1)
3
dW/dr =
-(SA/m)W
and hence
1
W = -
[(2SAr/m)+ K]-2 (2)
du u
l f
_
W
=
.
(3)
dW
W2
This has the integrating factor l/W and can easily be integrated:
J!.
dW ( W1 )U = .l. f
w3
(4)
u = _.1.. f + Wq (5)
2W
u.u =
-1 imply that q.f =
1 and q'q
=
O. Substitute for W from Equa-
x =
+ (2ar + K) i e -
(2ar + K) t q +
Xo
where a =
SA/me If we choose the constant of integration so that the
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS 215
particle starts from rest at the origin in a radiation field parallel to the
x-axis, this is
t = l
6a
(2aT+1)t + l
2a
(2aT+1)t_1-
3a
y =
0
z =
0
(The solution here follows that of Robertson and Noonan, pp. 116-118.)
Solution 5.13. An observer on the sphere sees the black body spectrum
uo'p and
1
2 -z
(1- v) ==
y
= -
u'u
o
' In the sphere's frame,
u =
(1,.Q), u
0
=
(y, -
y,V, p =
(v, v
where .!! is a unit 3-vector. The unit spatial vector in the direction of
.Y
IS
U +
(uo'u)u
(0, I)
o
=
yv
p + (u'p)u
(0, n)."...
=
v
216 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
( )
V
Vo yv
-
cos (J =
(0, . 0, =- =
.
Ivl yvv
The las t line is obtained by dotting together the invariant 4-vector ex-
T = = 1
・
V
To o y(l+v cos(J)
directions < T((J)4 > 4". [This is because the radiation rate, which equals
4
the absorption rate in equilibrium, goes as T (Stefan-Boltzman law).]
Thus cos(J=l
4
< ) J
T 1 d(cos (J) 1 1 1 1
[(1-v)3 ]
_ -
-
- -
2 6v
To y4(I+v cos(J)4 y4 (l+v)3
cos(J=-l
and
1.. 1..
4 4
(y2(I+v /3))4 TO
2
T =
< T > =
equilibrium
2 2
given that E/mc ? 1 and T/mc ? 1 (units with k= 1), so we want
2
< E>
mc
=
[a 1 + a
2 (E/m) + a
3 (T/m)
(1)
2 2 2 2 2
+ a
4 (E
/m ) + a
s (ET/m )
+ a
6 (T
/m ) +...] .
2
< E>(E /m),
=
T=O.
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS
217
dilute black-body flux of photons with the same temperature as the gas so
that
d (number of photons)/dE 2 E/T
=
constant x E e- .
2 2
<E> =
(E -4TE)/mc +... .
00 Ok kO km
T = -
T = -
T T
00
=
, , kO ,
Ok , mk'
j
Now multiply by xix :
OO km
(xixjT ) ,00 =
xixj(T ) , km
=
(Tkmxix j ) , km
-
2(x
i
x
j
) "
k
Tkm m
-
Tkm(xix j ) , km
j i
(Tkmxix j ) 2(x Tim xi Tj 2T j
m
=
,
km
_
,
m
+
, m
) _
.
j Tim j oj m Tim
x
,m
=
(x Tim) ,m -
.
If we make this simplification, integrate over all space, and ignore all
J XiX j TOO d 3 x
J
d i
2
=
[O _2(_Tij_Tij) -
2T j] d 3 x
dt
=
2
J Tij d 3 x ・
T .
v =
av .
S T.u
I I T.v
,:\
v au (a, 0 )
- = = = = =
.
Thus the observer sees no energy flux, and a is the negative of the
Solution 5.17.
(a) If secoqd order terms in velocity are ignored, the general Lorentz
transformation is . .'
° i
AOo '=
1, A .'= v , A 1. , = 0
1
., .
1 J J
, ,
v
If T/l are the stress-energy components in the rest frame of the fluid,
then TO'i' =
0, and
,
0'0' ° k'
, , . . .
.
° °
.
T J
0' v l
gJ == = A
/l,AJv,T/l
= A
o,AJo,T + A k,A\,T
= v
j TO'o' + vkTj'k' vk(To'O'ojk+Tj'k') = .
(b) Since
Mij == oij
f TOO dx dy dz +
f Tij dx dydz ,
we need only show that the second term on the right vanishes. Note that
the 3-divergence of Tjk vanishes
Tjk k =
Tj _
TjO 0 =
0-0 ,
,
,
and that
k
(x Tji) ,1 .
=
ok.1 Tji + xk Tji.,1 =
Tjk .
f Tjkdxdydz f (xkTji),i =
dxdydz =
I S
xkTjini dS
where S is any surface outside the stressed body and is the outward
complete.
u
ua; PP.f3 aa uf3
=
;f3
-
・
It is s trai ghtforward to use the definition of pp. to verify this. Ins tead
f3
we follow a more instructive approach of projecting the equation with u
u. P =
0, p. P = P .
u P f3 P P (3 pf3 -
pp. 0
aa uf3 ua;p.
_
ua;p. {3
_
;f3
- - -
a y y y y
and
f3
u u = u p P. u(3 a U u(3 =
o +
aa
f3 f3
-
.
a;
(3 a;p. a
220 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Both results check. Since the projection of the equation onto u and
d(pV) = -
PdV + TdS .
Here S is the entropy in the volume V. This differs from the nonrela-
or
dp =
(p+P)dn/n + nTds .
v v
Solution 5.20. For a perfect fluid T/l =
(P + p) u/lu + Pg/lV so that in
Ov o
T/lV _
P gOV
TOv;v,V =
+ Pg + (P+p) ,v uVu
u/l
-
;v ,v
+ (P+p) [u
v
.
v
uO + uO, v UV ] =
0 .
, ,
IIV ° o a_I a
0 th a t
Now 0' 1 an d u .1J ( )
-
U
-
U - so
gr 2 uau .V
=
-
=
U''U
-
, ,
v,v,a
;v
o = -
gt P + t (P+p) (P+p)uv;v + ・
If n is the density of baryons in the fluid rest frame then the number-
v v v dn v
(nu).,v =
0 =
n u + nu =
+ nu
'V
.
,
v 'V
, dt ,
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS 221
becomes
dp =
(P + p) dn
.
dt n dt
If we compare this with the first law of thermodynamics (see Problem 5.19)
Solution 5.21. From the first law of thermodynamics for a perfect fluid
(see Problem 5.20) having equation of state p
=
pen)
dp _
-
p+P dn
p p n
so that
d log p/d In n =
(p+P)/p .
T/l
/l
=
(p + P) u/lu /l + pg/l/l = -
(p + P) + 4P =
3P -
u
(1' 1)in the rest frame of the unperturbed fluid. The first order
v
perturbation terms in T/l =
0 give us
,v
0
apl 1
(i) From p.
=
V'Yl = -
dt (Po+Po)-
aYl Pl
(ii) From p. =
1,2,3
at
_
-
(p 0 + P 0)
which can be combined into
2
a2pl/at2 -
V P
1
=
0 .
P
1
=
ap/apls Pl '
a2 p 1
2 1
V Pl -- = 0
2 2
V at
s
v; =
ap/ap =
1/3
so that v
s
3-"2 in a highly relativistic gas.
Solution 5.23. From the first law of thermodynamics (see Problem 5.19)
with ds = 0 we have
dn/dp =
n/(p+P) .
Problem 5.21:
v; =
dP/dp _
-
P dn =
P
n
r
1
(ndP)/(Pdn) dp p+P
Solution 5.24. At zero temperature all energy states in the Fermi gas are
3 3
dn/V =
(2/h )d p
P
F
I
t 3
(2/h ) 41Tp2dp
2
P
=
(p2 + m )
o
P
F
p2(p2+m2)-t (2/h
f
3
P =
) 41Tp2dp
o
dP/dPF P
\2
( )
2
dP F 1
v2 1 m
\1-
= = = =
dp /dPF
・
dp
s
3 E 2
F } 3
E
F
1
(1_v
2
)-t =
( p:p ) x constant.
when P O
implying p =
mn, so
.! P +P
( O)
2
-
2
! o
(1 -
v
max
) =
m n
.
Now we have to try and write the right hand side only in terms of a, the
is a constant telling what adiabat the gas is on. The first law reads
dp _
Kn Y + p
-
n
dn
p
=
mn + ...!L nY .
y-l
The speed of sound a is given by
1
yKny
-
a
2
=
dP =
dP/dn _
(1)
dp dp / dn m+yKny
1
/(y-1)
-
P+p dp dP dp
( )( )
1 2
(yKnY )(1/a )
-
(2)
= = =
n dn dn dP
・
1
But Equation (1) contains just this y
-
y 1 2 2
/[1- a /(y_1)]
-
yKn =
ma
and get
Po+Po
( )
1 =
1
m
no 1-a 2 /(y-1)
and therefore
v ax 1 /(y_1)]2
2
= -
[1- a .
(Notice that v
max
1 in the limit of highly relativistic gas, for which
2
y 4/3 and a 1/3.)
SO =
entropy density =
ns
sj =
entropy flux =
heat flux/T =
qj /T
qO
O
Since =
0, u =
1 in the fluid rest frame S =
nsu + q/T is true in
T =
Tfluid + T
heat
=
[(P+p)u u+Pg]
+ [q u+u .
q]
flow:
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS
225
O=(V.T).u =
(V.Tfluid)oU +
(V.Theat).u ・
(1)
(V.Theat).u =
(q/luv+u/lqV);vu/l .
Since qa ua =
0 (heat flux is spacelike in comoving frame) and u
a
u
a =-l,
which imply
o
(q/lu/l);v q/l;vu/l q/lu/l;V
+
= =
o =
(u/lu/l);v =
2u/l;vu/l '
o =
-nT ds/dr -
q.a
-
V.q .
t7
S 1 VT
V' =
sV.(nu)+n(Vs.u)+-V.q--.q
T
T2
ds
+ 1.
VT'q
drT V.q
=
n _
T2
= -
q.a VT
---'q
T
T2
The second term says entropy is generated by heat flow thru a tempera-
ture gradient, as in nonrelativistic thermodynamics. The first term says
effect arising from the fact that in a accelerated system, constant tempera-
ture is not an equilibrium state: photons from the "forward" side are
VT
q.a q
-
= -.
T To exp(- . )
=
.
hence q =
0 and s =
nsu. The rate of entropy production is thus
a a ds ds
S =
)
(n u;a s + n = n
;a dr dr
V.(nu)=O.
dp p+p dn ds
=
+ nT
n dr
dr dr
(nua);a =
+ nO
dP
[ ]
a 1
S = + () (P + p) .
;a T dr
_(puf\fJ = -
: -
pO =
(-rafJua);fJ -rafJua;fJ = ・
The last term on the right can be calculated using the stress-energy for
the viscous fluid and the expansion for u t:l given in Problem 5.18. The
a,fJ
.
;{3
-
a a
{3
a
{3 £1(p-'£1)
2rWa{3 u +
= -
u
a
U =
0, p u
a {3 =
0, P pa {3 =
3.]
a
{3 a{3 a{3
: 2rWa{3u {3
a 2
+ £1(p+p) =
+ '£1 .
equation results.
p Yau
a
uY uY
a,{3 + uY u u
,{3
=
,{3
=
,{3 a
pYa pa{3 =
py{3
pYa aa{3 = a y {3
pY
a,fJ
u
a
{3t:l =
uy{3t:l
,fJ
+ uYu u
a,fJ
a
{3t:l =
uy {3t:l-
,fJ
uYu
a,fJ
t:lUa{3 =
uy {3t:l
,fJ
-
uYuat:lUa{3.
fJ
o =
(p + p) UY ,{3u{3 + p
,{3pa{3 -
2(TfUy{3 +
(,()Py{3),{3
211 UY Ua {3U {3 (,()2UY
a
+ + .
(1)
j j 2
u
t
1, u v , p
=
(9(v ), P =
(9(1) .
2
Taking the j-component of Equation (1), and working to (9(v ), we get
. .
J J k
o =
p( v "
t
+ v
k
v ) + p
,
.
[l1(V ,m)].k
m
8
+
Vk,j
v +
?(,vm,m),j
-
-
j ,k jk
p
=
nkT (1)
pin =
U(T) (2)
Equation (2) says that the energy per particle is a function of temperature
Tds =
d(p/n) + pd(l/n)
(3)
=
¥dT+pd a )
we see that
dU
c
v
_
-
.
(4)
dT
pd a) + dp =
kdT (5)
Tds =
( ¥ k) + dT -
dp (6)
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS 229
and thus
dU
c =
+ k =
C + k ・
(7)
v
p dT
a log
I I
r1 p n dT
= =
1 + (8)
a lo g n T dn
s s
dT P T T
c - = - =
k -
n
=
(c p -
c
v ) -
n
.
(9)
v
dn 2
n
(c p -
c
v
)
11 =
1 +
C
=
y
v
a log p
y
_
-
r _
-
1 a log n
s
so if Y =
constant,
p =
Kn Y .
p+p -l
( )
p
dp = -
dn = -
+ KnY dn '
n n
or
JL P 2
( ) Kny
-
dn n
P K ny-l
-
-
-
+ constant
y_ 1
n
KnY
p
=
mn + .
y-1
230 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
J J exp[(p2+m2)2/kT-OJ-E
41TP dP
n
_
- -
J /l U/l
_
-
nd 3 p = 1 '
3
h
0
where g =
2J + 1. Make the substitution P = m sinh X.
Then 00
3
sinh2x
J
411gm cosh X dX
-
(1)
cosh X
n -
,
3 exp ( {3 -
e) -
E
h
o
where {3 =
m/kT. Similarly, we have
2
p
J
3
1t
j (u/lU
v
T/l d P
+
g/lv)
=
p =
V .1
(p2+m2)2
00
4 4
sinh X dX
J
=
41Tgm (2)
3h
3 exp( fj coshX-O)-E
o
and finally,
3
J
2 d P
/lV
3p g vT m Jl
- =
p
- =
.!..
/l
(p2 + m 2)
2
oo
4
sinh2x dX
f
=
41Tgm (3)
h3 exp ({3 cosh X e ) - -
E
f
411gm sinh X dx({3 coshX dT/T+dO)exp({3 coshX-O) .
dp =
3
3h
0 [exp ({3 cosh X -
e) -
E ]2
3
Now integrate by parts, differentiating the terms sinh x cosh X and
3
sinh x to get
4 2
4 OOd X[(3 sinh2x+4 sinh x){3dT/T+3 sinh x cosh X de]
J
41Tgm 1
dp =
・
3h
3
{3 exp({3 coshX-O)-E
o
Substitute expressions (1), (2), and (3) for the integrals, and find
CHAPTER 5: SOLUTIONS 231
dp =
(p+p)dT/T + nkT de .
(4)
2
dll =
dp/n + dp/n -
(p+p)dn/n -
sdT -
Tds ,
but
dp =
(p+p)dn/n+nTds ,
therefore
dll =
dp/n -
sdT =
dp/n -
(p+p)dT/(nT) + Il dT / T .
(d) For E = 0
m
fc;inh 4
x e-{3 cosh X dX
3 0
p =
n
fc;inh 2
x cosh X e -{3 c os h
X
dX
o
but
00
f _! 3
sinh4x exp(-{3 coshX)dX =
(3
sinh x exp(-f3 coshx)l
o
00
J o
s inh3 X coshX exp(-{3 coshX)dX ・
p
=
nkT .
(e) For E =
0, the integrals (1), (2), and (3) can be expressed in
oo
n-l
L
f3 2 n-2
e-{3coshX
dX sinh
.
=
X cosh X .
(2n-3)!!
o
232 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Thus for a =
41Tgm
3
eOh- 3 we have
2 ({3)/{3
n =
aK
p =
amK
2 ({3)/ {32
P
-
3p =
amK
1 ({3)/ {32 .
p/ n =
m[K 1 ({3)/K 2 ({3) + 3/ {3] .
.1
2
(3
[ J
2
.!L. 4n 1
(j3)
( 2{3 )
-
K 1
-
n
e + + ...
.
8{3
so
1+3/(8{3)
[ J ( )
3 3 kT
p /n m + =
m 1+
1+ 15/(8{3) {3 2 m
For kT? m, {3 0, K
1 ({3)/K2({3) 0,so pin 3kT. Whew!
y
=
(cv + k)/c v = 1 +
du7dT
where, from Problem 5.34
U(T) =
m{ K 1 ({3)/K 2 ({3) + 3/ {3 } , {3 =
m/kT ・
Solution 6.1.
2 2 2
x =
v cosh u x _
t =
v
t =
v sinh u x/ t =
c oth u .
Then
2
dx =
(dv cosh u + du v sinh u)2
2
dt =
(dv sinh u + du v cosh u)2 (1)
2 2 2 2 2
dx _
dt =
dv _
v du .
dv =
dx coshu -
dt sinhu
1
du =
v- (dt cosh u -
dx sinh u)
U 2 du dt dx dt dx
P =
gU U p
= _
v = _
v cosh u + v sinh u = _
x + t .
U
dr dr dr dr dr
dx dt dx
P =
const .
-
t + t =
constant.
U
dt dr dr
2 2
)2 (P v )2 (P U )2/v
2
_
m =
p.p =
gVV(P ) + g UU(P = _
.
v U
P; p /v2
2
So, = -
m , which is not constant since in general v varies
along the particle's trajectory. It turns out that whenever the metric
coefficient does not depend on some coordinate (in this case u), then
233
234 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2 2 2 2
ds =
d xl + dx + dX 3 + dX (1)
4
.
2 2 222
xl + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
=
R .
(2)
hypersphere:
x =
R cos a
4
x
3
=
R s in a cos ()
(3)
x
2
=
R sin a sin () cos cp
xl
=
R sina sin () sin cpo
Equation (3) with R constant, and substituting in Equation (1) yields the
required metric of the hypersphere.
Solution 6.3.
x =
cp
y
=
a tan'\ .
tY
2
ds 2 =
a
4
dy2 +
a
4
dx
(1)
(a
2
+ y2)
2
a2 + y2
2 2
Comparing this with ds =
dx + dy2, we see
we introduce coordinates
x =
p cosc/J = 2a
tan( e) cosc/J
y =
p sin c/J =
2a
tan( } e) c/J sin
2
( } e) (dx
2 2 2 2
+dy2)
2 4
ds =
a (de +sin edc/J ) =
cos .
Solution 6.4.
'fJ
=
sin .
(1)
d ()
(Note that tfr is measured clockwise from the y-axis.) On the map we
have
(, 1
)
dy TT
(2)
\tfr
=
tan + =
dx '2 tan tfr
ax ax dcp
sin
.
e
dcp = - dx/ de =
ae+ de
de dy/ de ay ay dcp
+
ae acp de
ay ay d CP dcp ax
)
ax dcp
( e
.
+ SIn = - -
(3)
ae acp de de acp de
・
ae
Since Equation (3) must hold for arbitrary dcp/ de at the point we are con-
ay/acp =
0, y =
y(e) (4)
ax/ ae =
0 , x =
x(cp) (5)
-
sin e ay/ ae =
ax/ acp .
(6)
Equations (4) and (5) imply that the left-hand side of Equation (6) is a
x =
cp, y = -
J sin
?e e =
log cot 1. e
2
.
(7)
2 2 2
ds =
de dcp2
+ sin e
2 2
=
sin e (dx dy2) +
2 2
=
sech y (dx + dy2) .
(8)
(c) The great circles are the geodesics of the 2-sphere. The geodesic
equations are easy to solve, since we have two first integrals. Let a dot
2 2
sech y (x + y2) =
1 .
(9)
2
(sech y) X =
y .
(10)
and (10):
2 2 2
dy y2 A cosh y
( )
_
= =
(11)
dx 2
x cosh2y
where A =
1/y. Equation (11) is easily integrated by putting z =
sinh Y'.
The result is
sinh y =
a sin (x + (3)
1
-
2 2
where a =
(A -
dV =
gZ dxdydz
1.
(i3Y ( !3 ) ( 1 ) OD ( !3)
2
1- -
-
= -
( !3 ) ( ) 1-( Y-( ) n ) dx dy dz =
o .
GD ( b ) -
(i3) O) GY 1-
left is
2
2 2 l.. dy\
.i.
ds =
dx + dy2 _
( 13
dx +
13).
g =
det
1-(!3 )2 -( !3) ( ) /
r= 0 .
(tJ () 1- (13Y
238 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
12 3 4
(13 x + y
)
=
s
5" 13
13
11 =
5 (_.i..
13
x + .1. Y
13 J
2 2 2
which gives ds =
dg + d11 , obviously the simplest form of the metric.
The more sophisticated reader will notice that the original metric was of
the form
a
{3 a{3 Va V{3
= -
where
projects
Va
a
is the Euclidean unit vector
a
' This metric just
2-dimensional space
perpendicular to V 1
so it is obvious that there had to exist
g and 11
coordinates which make it a flat-space 2-dimensional metric.
(3)A{3
a
n.P.A n
(ga{3 -na n
=
(nan ) n{3A{3
a
=
n
Aa -
na Aa
-
n{3A{3 0 =
.
k, so that k. P.A =
0 for all A. It is easy to see that P + constant x
Solution 6.7. Let A and B be two vectors in the metric space. Obviously
we want the angle to be related to the dot product A.B. We also want it
to be unaffected by scaling A and B, so the natural choice is
{3f(x ')
l1 we have
{3
f(xY )
A.B =
(3AaBf3 f3AaBf3 1
(IAIIBI)
1
(g A V AVgRPB u
)2 [f( x Y ) g Af1.Av f(xY) g BPB U ]2
pcJ f1.V pu
but the f scancel, giving the same value as before. Null curves remain
null curves because the square of their tangent vector remains zero
o = f.f =
g
f1.V
f ev f(x Y ) g
/Lv
ff1.fV =
0 .
ds
2 =
(dy)2 ( xdy)2
_
(1- )2
2
v
and
( . .
Let () and cp be polar and azimuthal angles about the direction of .y (Le.
v
z
=vcose, v
x =vsin()coscp, v
y
=vsin()sincp). Then
(dy)2 =
(dv)2 + v
2
(d()2 + sin
2
() dcp2)
v
.
dv = !. d(v .,y) = vdv
- -
2 -
so
2 2
2 dv 2
ds =
+
v
(de
2
+ sin e dcp2) .
)2
2
2 1- v
(1- v
240 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2 2
dX2
2
ds =
+ sinh x (de + sin e dcp2) .
2 3
Solution 6.9. If we had sin e instead of (e -
( ) the metric would just
e =
0, :tl. From the given value of e =
, it is obvious that the range of
e =
1 with some care to decide what range X can take. We know that X
must be periodic because, as the metric shows, the coordinates (e =
0,
all X) and (e =
1, all X) each represent just one point.
For e 0, we have
2 2 2
ds de + e dX2 .
The metric is
2 2
ds de + (e -
I o
2( e)
dx =
21T( e) ,
implies that P =
17. Thus we can either take P =
217 and have a conical
singularity at e =
1, or P = 17 and have it at e =
O. These are two
Gilbert Miller.)
if its functional change (i.e. its change in functional form) under the action
CHAPTER 6: SOLUTIONS 241
ogflV '"
g v(x) gflV(x)
-
= -
g/lP
-
gPV vfl
gflv,P
-
p. (1)
Equation (2) for the generators /lin Equation (1) and setting the left
side to zero, one gets:
a. /l
=
v =
0
ij j j i
E x 0 or x x
gOO,i gOO,i gOO,j
= =
and hence
O 2
goo
=
gOO(x ,
r
)
(3a)
r
2
==
(x
1
)2 + (x
2
)2 + (x
3
)2 .
b. /l
=
0, v 1= 0
g 01 .
E
ij
+ g . .
E
ik
xk = 0
OJ, 1
2 0 J
go j
=
r 1 (r ,
x
)x (3b)
c. /l -1= 0, v 1= 0
kj ei ek x k 0
gij, e
E + E
gej E + =
gik
2 0 2 0 i j
gij
=
r
2(r , x ) 0ij + r 3(r ,
x
)x x (3c)
where r 2 and r
3
are again arbitrary functions.
242 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
From Equation (2) one can see that the above coordinate system
(XO, xl ,
X
2
,
x
3
) is "cartesian-like." The group theoretically defined
property of spherical symmetry is coordinate independent, however, and
to find g in any other coordinate system one merely transforms the
/LV
metric given in Equations (3) in the usual way.
CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS
A
V ,
e =
rr e' , V (LIla ) L Ve (LIl, e )
{3
=
, \ , = '
{3
e
e
afJ r
Il a
Il
(L{3,e A)
A
A
LIla rr,, e r )
{3 '(LIla,/\
=
L , \ e + ,
Il fL'''
' ,
A r r
LIl ,L rY.. e r ,)
(3 ,(LIla,/\
=
L L ,
\ e , +
11 ray fL'''
and therefore
r' A /I r' Y A r' II
r , =
, L '
L' ,
L r.. + L '
L Lr, \
{3 {3
.
a a ,/\
fJ a
y fL''' 11
The second term in this equation would not be present in a tensor trans-
formation.
Solution 7.2.
()
rr
rr
=
r rr
=
0 .
2 2
d x ll
+
d ()/ds
2
d xl1
+
dx
a
dx{3 r l1 _
0 (1)
a{3
-
・
2
de (de/ds)2 de de de
Ro (2)
243
244 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
where and 2 2
a
Ro are arbitrary constants. This equation, and ds =
dr
2 2 2
d0
+ r , give ds/dO =
yields
2 2
d 0 Ji dO
ds
2/ \ds ) =
-2 tan'll .
2
d x l1
2 tan'll
d x l1
+
dx
a
dx{3 rl1 o (3)
_
dO CW dO
=
a{3
.
d02
2 ,
d0
general.
Finally, consider an arbitrary point on the line and write out the
geodesic equation in full glory, putting in the r's known so far. The
11 =
r component of the result gives rrrO =
.
(b) From r
2
=
x
2
+ y2, and cot 0 =
xl y we get a transformation matrix
l1=x /-L=Y
[ si SinO]
,
cos
La =
/-L -
0 cosO
r
{3'=r {3' =
0
[ Sine]
cos e -r
LI1{3'
=
.
sinO r cos ()
(Example: x =
r cos 0 dx = dr cos 0 -
r sin 0 dO first row above.)
CHAPTER 7; SOLUTIONS 245
" ,
ra ,
, La LJL
=
,rP
,LV + La L/-L , ,
.
fJ Y P fJ Y /1V /-L fJ , Y
desired results.
r
a
_! a/1
( g(3y,/1 )
g +
g/-L(3 ,Y g/1y,(3
_
-
(3y
.
2 2 2 2
For the metric ds =
dr + r d0 the only nonvanishing derivative is
a
=
2r. Thus r =
0 unless 2 indices are O's and one is an r:
gOO,r (3y
1
rrOO ( )
rr
-r
g gOO,r
= - =
( gOO,r)
o 00 1
r =
g
=
1
rO
.
2 r
Solution 7.3.
2 2 2
O dr dO
d dO d 0
( ) ( )( )
r
+ rr =
0 + 2r rO =
0 .
2 00 ds 2 ds ds
ds ds
2 2
dO
( )
d r
=
r
2 ds
ds
+
:
;( ( ): ) 0
=
.
Now (dr/ds)2 + r
2
(dO/ds)2 =
1 follows from the metric so
246 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
dRo 2
[ ]
sl.. dO d 0 dO
r2 dr
( )( )
2
= =
r + 2r
ds ds ds ds ds
ds2
2
[ )]
d 0 2 dr dO
( )(
2
=
r + =
0
2 r
ds ds
'
ds
and therefore
:
2
RO := r =
constant .
2 2
dr dO dO
( ) ( )
2
+ r =
1
dO ds ds
.
2
Now substitute dO/ds =
Ro/r (R o =
some constant):
( &)
2
+ r =
r4/R .
r =
L/cos(O-a) y
dr _
-
sin (0 -a) L
dO 2
cos (0 -a)
dr\2
(d()} + r
2
=
L 2f sin 2 (0-a) ...
/)\ ....
Lcos 4(O_a)
\.
,
...
2
1
4 x
1 L r
+ = =
2 4 2
cos
(O-a)J cos (O-a) L
gtt, t
= -
2/t . Thus the nonvanishing connection coefficients
are
3 3
r ttt =
1/t ,
r
xxt
=
r xtx = -
r = -
1/t ・
txx
CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS 247
J )!
J (1_x2)! dtt
2
o = 0 (ds = 0 ・
[ J
d x _
-
0 .
dt 1
2 2"
t (1- x )
sinh () =
cons tant ,
t
which integrates to
2 2 2
(x Xo ) t + a
- =
.
/ efJ
)(
II
/
)(
/
/
t=O
basis:
f,a f,a a
{:3;y {:3,y ga{3
= - -
ay {:3y
2r
{3
= -
,y ({:3a)y
0
{3,y {3,y
= - =
・
248 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1 lLa
ill ( ) g (1)
2 gav,A +gaA,v-gvA,a
=
vA
.
2 , ,
l
rllU = -
gAA,a gp.a
= -
gAA,a (gp.a)-l = -
(gllpF gAA,1l ・
(gp.a)-l].
-1
ill _! (
(c ) gpA,a ) ( gIJD. )
+
IL,AgaA,1L
_
pA
-
(gllll)-l(gllll,A) a (log(lglllll!))
A
= = .
(d) Setting A =
11 in (c) gives
a
i IL = --
(log (I glLlL 1 2)) ・
ILIL
axIL
Solution 7.7.
=
ill e. e + ill e ・
e
ay IL tJ tJY IL a
=
i + i
(3ay a(3y
・
(b) g gl1(3 =
a (3
a
all
1L(3 + 11(3 0
gal1,y g gall g
-
,y-
11(3 1L(3
gall g g
1L,y
-
-
_
.
,y
(c) ga13,y = _
gA l1,y gll13,ja =
rallY gll13 r 13
Ay gAa
= - -
.
CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS 249
therefore
V
(log g) , a =
g/1 gllv
r ,a
and
g
--E!:. V
=
g/1 g
/1v,a
g
,a
(e) In
V
a coordinate frame,
rlLa,8
=
gIL (gva,,8 r.v,8,a
+ -
,8,v)'and
since the last two terms cancel ra
a
,8
=
}
a
r (log I g\2) ,,8
g,,8/ g (log I g\) ,,8
= = =
,8
・
(f) glLVralLv = -
=
_gav,v _
(loglglt),v v
changing dummy indices
1 1.
= _
gav ,v
_
= _2-
1.
(gavlglt) ,v
.
\g\2
(g) A
a
.
,a
=
A
a
,a
+fXl a A,8
,8
=
A
a
,a
+--L(lglt)
1. ,8
A,8
,
by (e)
Ig\2
=
--L(lglt A
1
a
) ,a
Igl2
250 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
(h)
Aa{3;{3 Aa{3,{3 r{3/L,8 Aa/L p\a{3 A>..{3
=
+ -
=Aa{3Q+ (lglt)
,11
A/L-rA A\/L
'fJ
all - a 1\
\g\2
=
--L(\glt A (3)
.1 a 'fJ
-
P\
all
A\1l
1\
Igl2
(i) A
a{3;{3 =
A
a{3,{3 ra/L{3 A/L{3 r{3/L{3A
+ + all
=
A
a (3 + ra A/-L(3 + --L (I gl t) Aa/-L
, fJ /-LfJ .1, f.l.
Igl2
1
But r
a
/L{3
=
\g12
(j) 0 S =
(S ,a ga (3);{3 =
\ (I gJ !S ,a
lf (3) ,{3 ・
Ig\2
(Here (g) has been used.)
A-- =
axil ax v A
f.l. v
ax il a x v /-LV
implies that
T
aX Il axV
A det
( ) det (A
v) det
( ) J2A
= =
Il
axil ax
v
A.a A +
Ka A
=
, ,a
o =
g;a
=
g,a +
Ka g =
2gr t3t3a +
Ka g
K
a
= -
wr(3fJa .
v u (u u)
・ =
2u. V
u
u =
0 ,
f f(
dx(3
)
dxa d s.
ds -
(3
=
ds ds
equations
E... (Q' u
a
) = ! Q' uauy (1)
ds ca(3 2 cay ,(3
where
(- d:: d
t3 )= =
1 and u
a
;:
d:: have been used. Now since
a
sL (Q' a dua dx Y a du
+ uY u
a
u ) +
(3,y
u
(3 (3,y (3
= =
ds ca(3 ds ds ds
252 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
2 a
d 1
uauY g
)
x
g
afJ
_
2
+
afJ' Y
_ _
Q
2 c:u.Y'fJ
= o .
(2)
ds
Now, use
uauY g =
uauY 1. (Q .
+ g,., )
afJ'Y 2 C1(lfJ'Y -YfJ,a
2 T
d x 1 T
_
+ _
gfJ ( + g,., _
Q uauY
)
fJ ,Y -YfJ ,a
ds 2 2 caY'fJ
(3)
2 T
d dxa dxY
=
x
+ rT =
O.
2 ay ds ds
ds
lationship s =
f(A). Then derivatives are related by
2 2
d £.. d £.. d
-
-
f' -=
f" + f,2 (1)
ciA ds 2 ds
ciA ds2
where £' =
.
With the new parametrization then the geodesic equation
becomes
d
2
x
a
+
fH dx
a
+ ra
dx(3 dx Y =
0 (2)
fJy
・
2 ds ds ds
ds £'2
The components of
Solution 7.12.
VpP are
( pfJ +uaporfJ )
d
(V
p p)(3 = mu
a
(p(3,a +r(3aa pa) =
m
dT aa
.
(1)
In flat space time, one can always find a global coordinate system
(Minkowski coordinates) in which all of the Christoffel symbols vanish.
In that coordinate system, conservation of 4-momentum,
: =
0, can be
written as
CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS 253
v p =
0 (2)
p
a dPl r
a a
and therefore
dPl a a a 1 o
p p ar (aa)l p P gaa,l
= =
= .
ciA 2
2
dx dx
a
d x
0
raQ
-
+
-
.
2 tJY
dA
2 i k
o =
dt +
(gij/ goo) dx dx (1)
to get
k f 2 k
d
2
x
k
+ r
dx
k
d/ r.
gkf dx dx
+
d
2
t/dA
g.
dx =
0 .
jkf Jk dt
_
gjk 2 dt dt JOO
goo
dt dt
(dt/dA)2
dt
2 2
(d t/dA ) _
- -
2l' OkO
dxk/dt
(dt/dA)2 goo
and use the expression for the r's in terms of the metric to get
2 k k f
d 1 dx dx
x 0 (2)
(Yjk,f+Yjf,k -Ykf,j)
_
+
-
,
Y"k
-
J 2 2 dt dt
dt
254 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
where
Yjk
== -
Solution 7.15.
(a) The geodesIc is the path between two velocities which minimizes
the arc-length between them; but arc-length in the velocity space is just
principle, we could solve the geodesic equation for the metric in Problem
6.8, but this is very tedious. An easier way is to notice that, by symmetry,
() =
cp =
constant, X =
s (where s is an affine parameter). To get a more
general geodesic let us view this geodesic from a moving frame. Since
1
1 2
X
=
tanh- V is a monotonic function of p =
yV [where y ==
(I _V )-2],
we can write the geodesics in terms of the non-affine parameter
1
pes). In
be in the x-direction,
1
2 2
u =
[(I+p ) ,p,O,O] -oo<p<+oo.
need only find its transformation under a perpendicular boost, say in the
1 1
u' =
[y'(I+p2)2, p, (l+p2)2 y'{3, 0] (1)
1
2 -2
where y' =
(1- (3) .
1 1
2
V/(1_V
--
)2 =
pn+(1+p2)2y'{3m
- -
(2)
Equation (2) as
t
{32
[
1 -
V= pn+{3m. -
(3)
1+p2
- -
This equation gives us the general geodesic of velocity space. One picks
a
{3 (\{3\ < 1), two perpendicular vectors m, n and gets a geodesic
general geodesic is a "straight line." (This does not mean the space is
fl at! )
For our problem there are two cases. In case (i), in which either
angle 0 V 1 V2 or 0V
2
V1 is obtuse, the distance of closest approach
to the origin 0 of the geodesic (straight line) connecting Yl and Y2
\ \ 1or \Y2 \. in which both OV V and OV V
is simply In case (ii) 1 2 2 1
are acute, the distance of clos est approach {3 is (by simple geometric
arguments)
\Yl Y21x
{3 =
IYl Y2\
-
Y2
o o
Y2
(i ) (ii)
256 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
o =
constant), so
o
Aa;cP Aa,cP ra{3cP A{3
+ (1)
= =
.
sin 0 cos 0 A cP
A
O,cP -
= 0 (2)
O
AcP,cP + cotO A =
0 .
(3)
0
A = a cos (cp cos 0) + f3 sin(<p cos e)
ACP =
-a sin(cp cos O)/sinO + {3 cos(cp cos O)/sinO .
0
At cP =
0, A =
eO' i. e. A =
1, AcP =
O. Thus a =
1, {3 =
0, and
0
A =
cos (cp cos 0)
ACP =
-sin(cpcosO)/sinO.
At cp =
2", after transport around the circle, the vector is
A =
cos (2" cos 0) eO -
2 2 2
(A.A)21T =
cos (21T COS 0) eO.eO + sin (21T cos O)/sin 0 e
cP
.
e
cP
=
1 =
(A.A)o'
CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS 257
Solution 7.17.
(i) V u (TJa
{3)
=
Vu(C e(3) a
'
=
(VuC a
)' C{3 +
ca' (V u C{3)
=
AYe .
e + A Ye .
e
a y {3 {3 y a
Aaf3 +
Af3a
=
.
V e A f3 e ( Ay(3e ) e == Q. e
(1)
(3
= = e .
{3
-
ua a a a
y
where n(3y =
A(3y is the 4-dimensional version of a 3-dimensional anti-
(ii) Since u = e
o
is singled out, decompose Q along u and
orthogonal to u:
f),a(3 =
vauf3 _
u
a
v{3 + waf3 (2)
{3 _w{3a, {3u{3
a a
where w =
w =
0 and va is as yet unspecified;
without loss of generality we can take v.u =
O. Now Equation
(1) gives
Q'u=-Vu=-a
u
(2) gives
Q. u =
-v
so v = a and hence
Q =
a@u-u@a+(a).
a (3
(iii) The tensor w has only three independent components and is
are non-rotating.
sent the three degrees of freedom in w af3 . The relation between (a) and
w
af3 is
258 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
{3
Ea{3AauAwa' 1 aula
a a
w W -
E lA-I\,
u/lwAa
= =
・
V u ea =
(u @ a -
a @ u) ・
e
a
.
Any vector e
a satisfying an equation of this form is said to be "Fermi-
Solution 7.18. Let the two vectors be x and y. Then the Fermi-Walker
a@u).?{
vu y =
(u@ a -
a @u). y
product rule we evaluate the change in the dot product along the curve:
Vu(x.y) =
(Vux)' y + x. (V u y)
=
(a.x) (u.y) -
(a.x) (u.y) =
0 .
Vux =
(u@a -
a@u)'x ,
V x =
0 '
u
Solution 7.20.
(a)
;{3u{3TP TP;{3u{3u (VVV). V
Ua =
a
=
(b)
VU;{3u{3 TP;{3v{3 VV y VyV [V, y]
-
= -
""
(c)
Ta{3;yVUW{3UY y. (VVT). W =
v{l;{3v
(d)
(3;yUY WU;{3(v{3;yUY) V(VVy)W
= =
;yUY);{3u{3 TP;{3(w{3;yUY)
a
(W VV(VV W ) V
(VVW)V [V,VV W ]
-
= -
=
.
Solution 7.21. The paths of light rays can be obtained from the geometri-
{3;{3
a
cal optics limit of Maxwell's equations F = O. With the identity in
Using the spatially isotropic, diagonal form of the metric and noting that
k'f
J
Ei F Oi' Bk one sees that the above equations have the form
E
Fjf,
= =
v .
(f )
=
0
1
V x (JL- B) =
a(f )/at
1
where f =
JL
=
(f/ goo)"2. Thus light moves as if in a medium with an
1 1
n =
(fJL)-"2 =
(goo/f)"2
Solution 7.22. For clarity first consider the Newtonian case. Let P (v, n)
be the probability of the velocity being y after n boosts. We want to
P
(y, n) has equal contributions from points on the sphere of radius
260 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
P(v,n)
--
= < P(v+t1v,n-1?
-
sp h ere
t1v y,n-1)+
P(y, t1v z,n-1)] -
2
P(y,n-1) + (t1v)2 V P/6 .
(1)
ap =
(t1v)2 n2
v p (2)
di1 6-
03(y) is
( )
3 2
2 3v
(417)-2 (nt1v /6)-
2
P(v, n)
-
exp
=
.
2
2n t1v
In the relativistic problem the same arguments hold except that veloci-
ties do not add linearly; we must use the relativistic velocity addition
formulas. Since t1V? c, however, the proper velocity t1v does add
linearly in a frame momentarily comoving with the rocket ship. Thus, the
diffusion Equation (2) is locally valid in velocity space; we only need
take into account that the global metric of relativistic velocity space is
2
different. This is done by solving Equation (2) with V representing
the Laplacian in a curved-metric velocity space, with metric (see
Prob lem 6.8)
dlJl2 (dv dv )
2
dV;roper
2
=
+ sinh 1J1 + sin e (4)
P.
,a
;a =
g- t (g t ga{3p (3 ) ,a
,
(5)
cp
CHAPTER 7: SOLUTIONS 261
ap v2 1 2
[
ap
( sinh 'P
)]
=
6 (6)
an sinh 2 'P a'll a'll'
2
P(v, n)
-
=
(417)-t e- t t-t sinh'll
'II
e-('P /4t)
(7)
asymptotic behavior
'II 2
2 -.t(l--)
dP 'II 'II
d\P
(417)-t e-'P /4t-t+'11 =
(417)-t e
2t
tt t
Only the exponential is of significance here, and this tells us that 'I'
has a mean value < 'II > 2t, and a standard deviation 'II ""oJ
V2i, so
'I'
I<'J.I > 0 as t 00. The mean rapidity < 'II > increases linearly with
number of steps, but the average boost per step is v2
13. A sober pilot
would increase his rapidity by v step, 3c/
each v
times as much.
bullet, the directions look biased outward from you (headlight effect).
Solution 7.23.
(a) If the hypersurfaces are given by f =
constant, then
k oc Vf k =
hf
JL ,JL
and so
(1)
kJL;v h,Vf,JL hf,JL;V
+
=
2
k[,.L;v k,\] h,[v f ,/lhf,'\l + h
f,[,.L;v f ,'\] (2)
= ・
262 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
The first term obviously vanishes and the second term vanishes because
to k =
Vf for some f.
k =
hf
a ,a
null,
f f,a =
0 .
,a
k
a,
.
(3
k(3 =
(3
f + hf
(h "a,a ,
) hf,(3 .
(3
, 2,
and thus
k
a, {3
.
k{3 =
(h f,(3)
k
a
,p
a a
so the geodesic equation V kk oc k is satisfied. If k =
dx IdA, we can
2 ay
a
[ (a )]
d F dy dF d
o = + _
CIS dX dX
.
ds dX dy
dy2
Since dy Ids affine parameter) and since dF Idy 1= 0, this
=
0 (for s an
Solution 8.1.
(J/Jx P ) =
f3'
and a. f3gaf3.
=
The answers are:
01
1, 0, gOl' g gOO.
any vector v
--'
la II la II la II s=:-1 1 1
v. g e =
v' e .
g e =
v' g g
=
v' u =
V = < dX v>
,.
a a /l
/l pn.
df =
dr, since -" --'
< dr, e"" >r
= < dr, e
r
> =
1
--'
-1
<dr, 0
eO> r
<dr,ee>
= =
・
-0 then
Now suppose there exists a g such that dg =
CA)
<dg,
o = < d g , e",,>
r
= < dg, e
r
> =
ag/ar
--
-1 -1
1 <dg, <dg, eO> ag/ao.
eO>
= =
r =
r
263
264 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
sum
.
1 A..
.
lJ
...
((;,.,,
1 J
....) in which there are exactl y P elements in each
1,j
term in parentheses. Since the distributive law holds for wedge multipli-
cation and addition, it will be sufficient to prove the identity for monomial
Solution 8.5. We show that the two definitions are equivalent by showing
that dg has the same components in an arbitrary coordinate basis when
calculated from either definition. Start with the definition in terms of the
r O
O[a{3.. .y;o] O[a{3' ...y ,0] [ao {3 f... y]
= -
(1)
rf Of -...-r
[{30 [yu a{3o fl-Or 'y ,u ]
-
la{3'
-
- ・
...y f J
. . .
a
・
start with
g = 0 "J;{3
a " ...
. y
ap' ..y
dQ =
(dO a{3.. 'Y) A (d; ch{3 A A ...
A d;Y)
(2)
+ {} d ( d;a " d;{3 " ...
" d;Y )
ap"'Y
,
CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS 265
-" -
a
df =
f dx
,a
,f3;
=
・
y
...
dg =
Q dx "dx
a
" dxt-' ・ ..
"dxY .
at-' Y ,u
. . .
so that =
g;h2
g
and
==
[Xl.[l f x2 ,'"
( xl,
xn)d ] ,
2 -3 -"2
d it =
g ,1 . " i 2 -1
g ,1 dx = "dx + g
,3
dx "dx + ...
Now
g,l
=
1 1
I xl
o
f'( xl,x2...)d =
1 0
: f( Xl,x2,"')d
1
f( xl,x2,"')I -
I f(o
xl,x2,...)d ,
266 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
g, I
=
f ( XlX2,
,
...
X
n
)I = f (Xl, X2, ...
X
n
) .
Next, da =
0 tells us that
3 1 2 4 1 2
da
f,3 dx "dx "dx +
f,4 dx "dx "dx + 0
= ...
=
g,3
=
[Xl r. fJ xl,x2,...,xn)d ]
0, that finally
=
0 ・
Similarly g 4 ,
=
g 5
,
= ...
g , n
=
so
1
d
2
Ad;2
l f (x ,... x
n -1-2
) dx "dx
g,l a
= = =
, x .
o =
dF =
F
/LV ,A
A AA d;v
d;/l.
*F[Aa;v]
=
0, but this is equivalent to (see Problem 3.25)
o = E/lvAa *F =
2 **F/l
V
= _
2F/l
V
Aa;v ;v ;v
'
tetrad e \. ,x
e"" e"" e",. If the surface is spacelike, we can choose the
y z
tetrad so that e'f is the unit normal. The 3 orthogonal, linearly inde-
any other orthonormal tetrad we might have chosen is related to the first
is spacelike or not. Hence the three vectors are always spacelike when
the surface is spacelike.
CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS 267
are
e}}
and e
z (spacelike) and e
t
+
ex (null). In the time like case,
e'2 are spacelike. Again these results are unchanged by Lorentz trans-
formations.
, x{3 XU)
v
3 1 a(x
d ( a, b ) = E d a d b dc
,
Il IlV{3U
.
c
a(a, b, c)
,
3!
)
I
a( a, b,
I a(
c
da db dc da d{3 dy .
a, (3 y),
Provided (a, (3, y) has the same orientation as (a, b, c), the Jacobian is
d 3 ( a"c
b ) .1 E
a(xv, xP , xu) iJ(a, b, c) fJ d y
da d,Q
Il 3! IlVPU a(a,b,c) a(a,{3,y)
v P xu)
= 1. E
a(x , x ,
da d{3 dy
3! IlVPU a(a, (3, y)
=
d3If1.(a,{3,y)
which completes the proof. With differential forms, the invariance is
3
obvious since d I can be viewed as a 3-form
f1.
3
d 1 = 1. E hV A Ah
Pu .
f1. 3! f1.vpu
Solution 8.10.
k 2 At m
e = f d S
k
= fk 1. E
klm
2
de =
fk,n 1. E nA + fk 1 (dEklm)
lA m A lA ・
m
2 kl m 2
268 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1
1
-- 1
1
g,n dx II gl2 dx / g.
dE klm =
d(1 gJ2[klm]) =
[klm]
n
E
n
g,n
=
2 k1m 2
Thus we have
1 (1
-
k --1'-" m
)
1 n
de
\f g,n /g dx dx Adx
= + E A
2 ,n 2 k1m
1 1 ......,.-.. --
1 k n 1 m
\ g\ 2"
(I g\2" f dx
-
"dx "dx
),n
= E .
k1m
2
-1
--
m 1m 1
"""'2 3
But in three dimensions, dxn" dx "dx =
\ g\ 2 En dx " dx "dx and
n1m n
E
klm
E
-
-
20 k'
so
1
k
-
-'1 -2
de =
f' k \gl2dx "dx "dx 3 .
f V
v. i dV =
Ii'!!S
dV
・
(b) e -
-
flLd3 =
f/l E (:} ,, a{3
,, Y
IL 3! IlflfJY
de =
=
\ gl t flL) ,\
g\-t(1 E
/lUfJY
,, ,,
a {3
,\ "d;Y
3! '
=
-1
(lgltf/l)X,/lUfJY EAaf3YlgltdxOA lAd;2Ad;3
E t:).
3! 1 g\ 2
(\ g \ t flL) , ,\ 0'\/l 3! I g I t d; " ,, 2
1 0 1 3
= "
1
3! \g\2"
1
-2 -3
-
0 -1
dx dx
f/l;/L I gl2 dx A dx
= A A .
I \g\ t
1
4 3
f/Ld
V.f d x
I/L'
=
n ao
CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS 269
(c) 8 =
FILV d2
IL V
=
FILv !. E d;a A d;{3
2 IL va fJ
1 v -._
de = -
2
d(FIL E
IL va fJ
A
a
dx
) A dx fJ
Igl-t(lgltFflV),,\ElLVa,8;G'\A aAd;,8
where we have taken d E as in part b. Now
lLva {3
Eflva,8J;A A a
AJ;,8 8 J;KA
J;a Adx T
Eflva,8 (1/6)
=
= -
(1/6) E EyAa{3 E YKur J;K d;u J;rA A
ILvafJ
= -
E EyAaf3d3 y
ILva {3
=
2oyAd3
v IL y'
de =
Igl-t(lgltFILV)\oyAd3 ,/\ IL V Y
=
2F ILv d3
;v IL'
and finally
1
an
FILV d2
ILV
=
2
1 n
FILV d3
;v IL
・
k
(d) Let e =
Ak dx = .
exterior derivative is
.........k
-.
J
dx
de =
Ak ,j dx . A
=
A
k,J
.0[koj] m n
mA n
=
1
A
k'
E
rkj E J;m A n
2 ,J rmn
2
=
(VxA)rd s
_ r
Solution 8.11. Suppose there were such a tensor. What would be its com-
{3l1a{3°
=
Thus the tensor must be some algebraic combination of
l1a{3'
"zero," and possibly
a
f3yo.
oaf3 and E You can very quickly convince
a
f3yo gives
indices, e. g.
oaf3 Tfay Tff3y
and the E zero by its antisym-
=
metries, or else just gets some of its indices lowered). Since we chose
Solution 8.12.
r V e
e/l.
=
1Jil{3
.
{3 a
In a coordinate frame
1Jil{3 a
]
e/l. [e{3' e
=
=
0 ,
r + ra V + e V
e/l. {3ea {3e/l
.
=
1Jil{3 /l{3 a
V ) V 0
(3(e/l' e
(3(T//la)
= = =
・
Solution 8.13.
(a) We use the fact ("usual rul for a derivative operator") that for
x<A,v> < =
(x A)a ==
x
A
a
= <
x
A ' ea >
x<A,ea>
-<A' xea> (1)
-
(3 A, [x, ]>
Aa,{3x < e
= -
A
a,fJ
x{3 AY'
< [ x{3e
-
y
fJ'
e
a
]>
=
A
a,fJ
x{3-A
Y
< Y,(x{3c
fJa
°e _x{3e
,a fJ u
?
=
A
a,fJ
x{3 x{3,a AfJ
+ -
A
Y
x(3cfJa Y .
(2)
( xA)a Vx<A,e =
a
>
-<A,(Vxea-V e
a
x?
- -
=
<V
x
A, e
a
> + < A, Vex> a
The connection coefficients do not really enter into the defini tion of the
Lie derivative; they cancel out of Equation (3) to leave Equation (2).
(b) For simplicity, work in a coordinate basis:
x
T =
x (Ta e (l;;;,{3 )
fJa
(!!.x -ra(3) e
a
f3
+ -ra
f3(!!.x e
a) it,f3 + -ra a
f3e (!!.xit,f3)
xY e a ;,{3 xY + rz x{3
;,(3 Ci,Y
a
=
rz -
T
(3
e
Y Y (3
e
a
fJ , Y ,a ,
=
(T
a
xY -
T /1 x
a
+ rz xl1 e ) ;,{3
(3 ,y (3
.
a
,11 l1,fJ
rz =
Ta xY -
TI1 xl1
xa+ TIl1,fJ
x fJ fJ,y fJ,/1
Solution 8.14.
1\ R
., r-l
"
,
a(P I ) a(P 3 )
P3
PI
=I
=O (PI)
At the points
Po and P
1
consider two tangent vectors A(P 0) and
by which the vector field B fails to connect points of equal A along the
K =
[B(P 1 )+A(P o )] -
[A(P 1 )+B(P 3 )]
=
[B(P 1 )-B(P 3 )] -
[A(P 1 )-A(P o )]
T 2
= ATBY
,T
e
Y
+ (9(A2B) -
B AY
,T
e
Y
+ (9(B A)
=
[A, B] + (9(f3) if IAI (9(f) \8\
K =
[A, B] =
fAB .
A
(oIL ) = oIL \ x + all.. xA
-
_
oA xlL A =
0 + xlL v -
xlL
v
=
0 ,
x v
V,/\ A,v v' "
vector fields, it will hold for arbitrary tensors. This is because the
function, then
u vf- =
v uf vVuf
uVvf- [u,v]f = =
[u,v]f.
Now let w be a vector field, then
u - vw
v - uw
[u,v]w [u, [v,w]]
= -
[v, [u,w]] -
[[u,v], w] =
0 .
The vanishing of this last expression (the Jacobi identity for commutators)
can easily be checked e. g. by writing out all terms. This completes the
proof for scalars and for vectors, and hence in general.
Solution 8.17.
(i) First the scalar case:
(I)(P N) =
(I)(P 0) + [xlL(p N) -
(I)(P 0) -
g IL <I>,fl '
and (I)(P
N) =
<I>
<I>,/l /l
=
・
a
A
fl(PN)
=
(ax / axIL)
AIL(P N )
=
(oafl- a,fl)Afl(PN) .
274 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
A/L(P N )
=
A/L(P 0)
-
A/L,f3 f3
to get
A/L
A/L(P o)
A
/L(P N )
= -
A/L(P o ) Aa,f3
(aa/L - a,/L)(Aa(Po)- (3)
-
A/L,f3 f3 Aa a,/L +
=
・
=
(a/L + a (a f3 /L,a) v
-
f3,v)[Taf3(p0) Taf3,ye] -
=
Tilv (P o ) -
T/l
v,y
e -
T /l
{3 {3
,v
+ T
a
v,a
/l
T/l
v
=
T/l
v,y
+ T/l
y
{3 (3
,v
_
T
a
v,a
/l .
v v =
u(a.v) -
a(u.v) a == V u
u u
requires, in addition, a metric for the dot products. The Lie transport
equation V v -
V Vu =
0 requires u to be a vector field defined off the
u
curve, not just a tangent vector along the curve, because the gradient of
u in the v-direction must be defined, and v is not in general along the
curve. Although the (ormula above includes V's, a connection is
actually not needed, because the l's cancel out due to the antisymmetry
), and consider
x Z
and Lie transported from A to B. Let u
-
=
(u , u
Y
, U
the identity
CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS
275
V v
u
-
V
v
u =
[u, v]
- -
=
2. u v = -
2.v u .
(1)
2.vu =
0,
and noting that the Christoffel symbols vanish, we have
v
U
v = 0 =
UiV k .
=
0 (2)
,1
Y X z a -
1
-u =
U =
au z =
0 .
Z
So !. can be nonzero (and have U 1= 0) only if
a=O. (3)
geodesics.
If the field is F-W transported along itself, we have
V u =
(u a-a u).u (1)
u
where a =
V uU' Thus
a =
u(a.u) -
a(u.u) .
(2)
2
Now dot u into this and get a.u =
u
2
(a.u) -
(a.u)u =
O. From (2) we
2
have that either u =
-lor a =
O. The first possibility means that any
The second says that the tangent vectors of any congruence of geodesics
o =
2. u u == [u, u]
UadX
a
. First calculate
d xU:
fiJ =
(xaU(3 ,a + U
axa,fidxf3
d(fiJ) =
Now calculate
x(diJ):
-
----
dU Y Adxa
Ua,ydx
=
- -.. ---
x(dU) x(Ua,y)dxY
a
= Adx
-
Ua,y x(dXY)Adxa ........
+
Ua,ydx
+ Y
x(dxa) A
........ - .-....,I -- - -
dx Y A dx
T T
=
xTU dx Y A dxa + U xy dx A dx
a
+ U x
a
.
(2)
d( xU) x(diJ) =
.
Solution 8.22.
(i) (\IS/- =
c:,i.VS =
hid;i.VS =
hiaS/ax
i
.
(VXV)i =
!gl-tEijkVk" ,J
=
Ig\-tEijkV k ,j
.
" "
(V X V)i = 6)i. (V x V) =
1 1.
V V I gl-z [I glzV
l 1
],i
1
(h 1 h2 h 3 )- [(h 1 h2 h 3 ) hi Vi],i
・
=
=
.
V
2
S =
Igl-t(!glt ga l3s,I3),a =
(hlh2h3)-1[hlh2h3hi2S),i'
Solution 8.23. We use results (ii) and (iii) of Problem 8.22 with xl =
r,
2 3
x =
0, x =
cp and with h
1
=
1, h 2 =
r, h3 =
r sinO. (For simplicity
we follow the usual notation here and omit the carets indicating physical
components.)
2 2 1
V ・
A
-
=
(r sin 0)-1 [r sin 0 h:-
1
A.]
1 ,1
.
2
=
(r sin 0)-1 [(r2 sin 0 A)
r ,r
+ (r sin 0 A
O), 0
+ rArt.. rt..]
,
(VxA)r =
(r sinO)-l [(sinO Aq),O-AO,q)
(VxA)O =
(r sin 0)-1 [Ar,cP-(r sinO AcP ))
1
(V x A)CP =
r- [(rA O ) ,r -
A
r, 0
] .
Solution 8.24. If forms and exterior differentiation are used, this problem
- -
done. The trick is that the total antisymmetrization implicit in the d's
2
Solution 8.25. In general, ds dxfldx13 Since xi =
constant along
rul3
=
.
2 2
any of the geodesics, ds =
eo' e
i
=
gOi
= 0 at r = 0, and
d(u.e.)/dr = V (u.e.)
1
=
0 + u. V e. =
u. V U
1 u U 1 e.
1
u .
V u = 1. V (u.u) =
0
e.
1 2 e.
1
Solution 8.26.
-A
(a) From the point of view of modern differential geometry,
r and
Il V
r v
are the component description of "machines" which map two vectors
A V
(nu m b e r) =
r a
A
U ll v == < a,
t7
v u >
Il V v
since
f<a, Vvu> 1= <a-, Vv(fu)> =
f<a, Vvu> + <a,u> Vvf
and likewise with "bars" over the V's for g . If however we subtract
give the same result, i.e. are just directional derivatives. Thus
S v
IS
a tensor.
2 A \ v A 2
r dx dx dx d r dt
+ =
0 ・
V
dt 2
dt2 dt dt
dt
dr
a
To eliminate the dr / dt term, multiply by dx / dt and antisymmetrize on
a and A to get
A
a du A du
a
A a
PI
A V
u
dt
_
u
dt
+ (r u
V
_
/lV
u ) ulLU = 0 '
a a
where u == dx / dt. If the world lines ua(t) are geodesics for both g
and g then the above equation must also hold with r replaced by r.
Subtracting these two equations gives
oa SA
(a Il)v
-
oA(a Sa =
0 ・
/l)v
A A A
a a
S
a(l)/l +
(I)a
=
all
1
(I) -
S /l
a
5 all
lOOt a
CA) =
e dt
=
;e{3J;
wO =
eYcW
"
;"cP =
e Y sin (] d4> ・
280 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
waS A c;"S
r
v-" ;,X =
-
v
/iA- CA) .
We now use these formulas for the given metric; let dot denote a/at
d =
teaa'.h dt A =
a' e-{3 "; A t (1)
d6;; =
e{3 dt ch e-a ;;.,t 6;"; A =
A (2)
de::. e =
eY y;IT A.de + eY y' d; A dO
,," ,," (3)
=
e
-a
y
t
A ;., () + e -(3 y' r
A
()
dw4> =
eYy sinO dtAdif> + eYy'sinO d;Adif> + eY cosO deA.ij
=e-a y C;/-A;;,4> + e- f3 y'c;,?Ac;,4> cotOe-y eA;;,4> + (4)
dCA)
-
t -
t A CA)
-
r
-CA)
-
t"
A CA)
-
0 -CA)
....
t"
A CA)....
-CA)?
=
() cp
"
""
(3 CA)-t
"
t r , r
(5)
- .... - -
CA) e + K CA)
t
= =
CA)
1
a
r
" "
"
....
t"
....
() -
()
CA)
()
=
CA)
t =. K 2 CA) (6)
" "
"
cp
Co)rP't
". ..
t...
K3 Co) (7)
Co)
4>
= =
where K 1 ,
K
2, K3 are functions we must find. Similarly, Equation (2)
implies that
CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS
281
;.,t -
-
e-a c;,;+ K
4
wt (8)
-,;" -0 -
0
CA)
() -CA)
KsCA)
= =
r (9)
-; _2 _:1..
'f'
CA)
'f'r K6 CA)
-
=
CA) =
.
(10)
c:,0t =
e
-a
yc:,O (11)
c:, e-{3y'c:,O =
(12)
-
0 - :;.. _:1..
CA)
-CA)'f'O K7 CA)'f' (13)
= =
,c:, t e-ayc:, =
(14)
" "
-(3 y' c;,CP
;"CPr =
e
(15)
"
."
c;,CP 0 =
cot () e -Y ["cP .
(16)
we find
'" "
CA)" =
a e +
r
i;)to =
e-ayc:,O
"
"
=
e-ayc:,CP
t
"
-;" - , - ()
CA)
()
=
-e CA) y
';-e-{3y,
=
O
-cote e-Y c:, .
"
" "
c::,>.
But
rv/lX =
" "
,.
{3
r\ t -T"""-
r -
-
.L -
ae
tt
" " .
rt rr
=
rrt; =
(3 e-
a
r
t""
r
o" r
t " "
r
J.." -a
()()
=
t()
=
cpcp
=
tcp
=
ye
r "" 0"
[' ?() r
? " "
r
2 " , -
tJ
?cp
= - = = -
y e
= -
()() cpcp
rO;p -r = =
e-cotOe- Y .
k =
V() .
o k. k k. V () V
= = =
k()
i. e. () =
constant along the rays. Consider two rays differing in phase by
11 (). Obse A
ver computes 11() as
!!..O =
O(T+!!..T A) -
(J(T) =
(!!..T A) \l 0 =
(!!..T A)uA.k ・
UA
A B
8 =80 +68
TA
CHAPTER 8: SOLUTIONS 283
11() =
(I1r B) u B k
'
rB(u.k)A (u'P)A
then bisect that coordinate box with a geodesic diagonal, forming two
nate box will be the sum of the interior angles of the two triangles, the
2
angular excess of the coordinate box is 11 [Areal a ].
The best coordinate patch constructed of lines of longitude and lati-
tude is that near the equator. Clearly there is no angular excess, and
- -
AC =
BD, but
8.
2 -/18 CD -
AB =
al:!cp-aI:!<f; sine ; -MJ)
al:!cp ( (})2 ,
B =
(Equator)
so
- -
Area
1. ()21.
CD-AB
2
cp 2
AC a
symmetric with respect to interchange of the pairs (a{3) and (yo) there
are M(M+l) independent ways of choosing afJy8 when the pair sym-
284
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 285
R 0
Aa{3yo +
Rao{3y +
Rayo{3
= =
{3yo
.
components is then
2 2
M(M+l) -
n!/(n-4)! 4! =
n (n -1)/12 .
READ I, J, K, L
SET SIGN =
1
IF 1= J OR K =
L SET RIEMANN = 0 AND RETURN
SET N1 =
(5*1 -
1*1)/2 + J
SET N2 =
(5*K -
K*K)/2 + L
SET N =
(13*N1- N1*Nl-12)/2 + N2
SET RIEMANN =
R(N)*SIGN
RETURN.
r() ra
R(}cp(}cp g()(}R(}cp(}cp g(}(}{r(}cpcp ,() r(}
(}cp ,cp r(}(}a cpcp
+ ra
cpa cp(} }
-
= = -
・
286 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2 2
From the metric r r sin () find that the only
cp we
= =
, non-
g()()
vanishing Christoffel symbols are
()cp
,
and, therefore,
2 2
()
R()cp()cp r sin
Rcp()cp() R()cpcp() Rcp()()cp
= = = - = -
.
v
Solution 9.5. The only nonvanishing Christoffel symbols are r = v
uu
u u 1
and r uv
= r vu
= v- ,
so that
R =
R
v
= r
v
-
r
v
+ r
v
va
rauu -
r
v
ua
PIuv
vuvu uvu uU,v vu,u
=1-0+0-1=0.
cpgCP()
= = =
,
formula for the Christoffel symbols now gives the nonvanishing r's
directly
rCP()()
-1
= -
a (b+ a sincp) cos cp
----1-----
I b
II
---- -----
I
I
I
I
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 287
Solution 9.7.
(a) In one dimension there can only be one component R 1111 , and
system as
R
( g{3o
y of
g{3y)
=
{3yo
-
but
Ra{3y8
=
}( y
g{38
-
g{3y)
8R ・
+
b(gp.A g",a gp.a gvA)
R
-
・
Rva
=
a(3R va -
So we must have
1
a=l b=--.
2
288 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
R =
a(R+3R)+ b.6R =
(4-3)R .
Solution 9.8. We give the proof for a tensor of arbitrary rank. Choose
locally flat coordinates so that all Christoffel symbols (but not their
A A
R =
r rA: = -
2r
A
Y[V,K]
-
. a. . ・ ・ ・ .a
r fJ
・ ・ . . ・
(T a. fJ
) " VK -
-
,
VK a. . .
a v,K a.. ・
av , K
It follows that
aVK-
-
・
a... aVK
(S ,a);{3 S S ra
S;a{3
= =
,a{3 a{3
-
・
,a
From this expression and from the result of Problem 9.8 we also have
S;a[ y]
=
S;aRaa y ・
C
a
{3 =
-
A
a
{3 _
A
a
{3 ・
a {3 {3 Ra
c
p.v
= _
A
a
a p.v
_
A
aa
R{3 a
p.v
so that
cILV/LV = -
AUVR/LU/Lv A/LURvU/LV - = -
AuvR uv +
A/LURU/L =
0 .
t3y u.
=
t3y
we displace A from P by u we find that its components become
[A (displaced by u)]U = AU + A
U
u t3
,t3
a a
ut3 Y u t3 a
A + A
f"lyt3 A A
= - =
t3
.
[A (displaced by a
t3 t3
f"lYt3 AY
a
u then v)]a =
A + A
it3
v -
Aa-f"lYt3AYvf3 Aa-f'O-Yt3,8AYvt3u8. =
We could have reached this same point by travelling around the other side
f'O-Yt3,8AYut3v8
a
[A (displaced by -v then _u)]a = A -
.
The change in A in making the complete circuit is our first result minus
our second
8 8
AYv t3 u AY u t3 v
8 AYvt3u8
a a a a
8A = _r + r _R
YfJ, 8
=
YfJ, 8
.
Y fJ
..
-u
..
U
290 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Solution 9.12.
R(A 1 +A
2 , B) C =
R(A 1 B) C , + R(A 2 B) C , .
Furthermore,
V fA VB VB VfA V[fA,B]
- -
R(fA, B) C =
fR(A, B) C .
(2)
sider f(P) =
0; then Equation (2) tells us that R =
0 at P whenever the
R(A 1 ,B)C -
R(A 2 ,B)C =
R(A 1 -A
2 ,B)C =
0 .
This completes the proof for A and, by symmetry, for B. The proof for
C follows similarly.
(R(A,B)C)a =
(VAVBC-VBVAC)a
A
=
2A [a (B ] Ca. A)'
a , ,
=
2A aBACa. [A' , ,
a ]
.
RL CILAAB a
p)..a
a a
n =
ax / an .
Write
u =
a/a'A, n=a/an.
vector, according to Problem 8.14.) Now use the Riemann operator (see
Problem 9.12):
R(u,n)u ==
VuVnu VnVuu V[u,n]U VuVnu VuVun
- - = =
,
where the last equality follows from the vanishing of [u, nJ. In com-
D 2 na
cL\2
=
(V u V u n)a = _
Ra,Q
fJ y
ou{3nYuO .
292 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2 2 2 2 2
ds = -
(1-2M/r) dt + (1+2M/r) (dr + r [d0 + sin 0 dcp2]) .
For
r O
a circular equatorial orbit, u =
u =
0 so
Du I dr
r
=
0 = u
a
Fa{3u{3 =
(u
o
)2 Foo (uCP)2 rrcpcp
+
and therefore
(dcp/dt)2 (,)2
-rroo/Fcpcp
= =
.
(211/Period)2
2 3
(U = =
M/ r .
This is the same as the Newtonian result. In Problem 9.13 the equation
of motibn is derived for n, the vector joining points of equal proper time
D .Q. ru d
+
_
-
dr
・
dr dr
Furthermore
.£.
[ ( )] d.£.t
M
O
.!l = u =
1+a '
dr dt r
2 2 2 2
so we can approximate D /dr d /dt .
Using these approximations
and the equation of geodesic deviation we have
2 i
d g i 0 2 j
0
-
+ R
J
0.0 (u ) g =
l=X,y,Z.
2
dt
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 293
Skylab
/ /
Garbage
i j
( )
i i i 1 M 3X X
R 0'0 1 rO = -
g OO = -
0.. -
00
-
. . .. .
J , J J ,
0 2 , lJ 3 lJ 2
r r
x =
r coscut, y =
r sin cut ,
z+cu2 z=0
2
x2 gx
+ cu =
3cu cos cut (cos cut gx + sincut Y)
2 2
gy + cu gy =
3cu sincut (cos cut gx + sincut gy) .
gz oc sincut
11 coscut
22cu =
10
2
+ 12cu _
23cu 111 =
0 .
These can be solved quite easily to find the four independent solutions:
1 2
[17 ,
17 ] =
[1, wtJ, [0, 1], [cos wt, 2 sinwtJ, [sinwt, -2 cos wtJ .
jettisoned at t =
0 (i.e. gx =
gy =
0 at t =
0) is
,x =
A[cos 2cut-3 + 2 cos cut + 3cut sin cut] + B[4 sin cut -
sin 2cut]
gy =
A[sin 2cut+2 sincut -3cut coscut] + B[cos 2cut+3-4 coscut] .
velocity with which the garbage was jettisoned. The nonperiodic terms
in the solution correspond to the fact that the two orbits are of a slightly
different period, so the relative distance will exhibit a secular growth in
ti me.
a a
R =
2r
{3yo {3[0,y]
・
a
R
2Il{3[0,y]] 2Il{30,y]
= =
[{3yo]
・
Since the Christoffel symbols are symmetric on their lower indices the
right side must vanish, and by lowering the first index we have
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 295
U a a
2U = -
U R
[{3y] {3y
・
; a
a
{3y;o
and
u a u
2ifl;[[{3y]0] 2U U R
[{3y;o]
= = -
;[{3yo]
.
a
From Problem 9.8 we have for the tensor U that
;{3
U U
Ra
U {3 ayo if;a {3yo
2U -
R +
;{3[yo]
= ・
Since
UU;{3
= 0 at the point we have
if;{3[yo]
a
=
0 and hence
UU; [{3yo] =
O.
follows that
a
R = 0
[{3y;o]
・
Since the Riemann tensor is antisymmetric on its last two indices, this is
u a u
R + R + R -0
{3yO;f {3cy;o {30f;y
-
R{3o;f R{3f;o + +
R{3of;a =
0
R. (
,
-
R{3c t:l
,fJ
-
RIca ,
=
0 .
( i 8 (VR);v RV(;V
V
GV(;V =
R =
R;(
-
-
must vanish.
Riemann flat, parallel transport around a closed curve does not change a
ax{3
therefore
aAa
=
aA{3
ax{3 ax
a
so we can choos,e Aa
=
cP ,
a'
and similarly for B, C, and D. We can
summarize by defining
and we can define four functions <1>(0), <1>(1), <1>(2), <1>(3) such that
w(ll) =
V (I)(Il) .
W(Il) w(v)・ =
[W(Il). W(V)]p =
111lV ,
(J<I)(a) (J<I)({3)
gllV V
=
.,.,a{3
axil ax
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 297
Solution 9.18. If the Weyl tensor vanishes, the metric can be written in
2
ds =
e2 ds 2 o
=
e2 11
IlV
dx ll dx
v
a
where is a function of x . The null geodesics
dt =
n.dx, n. n =
1
--
2
show that they remain null
of ds remain null curves for ds . If we can
To show the curves dt = n.dx are geodesics we need only show that
2
d x
a
=
dpa _
-
0
2 dA
dA
al1
[-cP ,11 TJyl3 +cP ,13 TJYI1 +cP ,y TJI1I3]
a
r =
TJ
Y13
so that
pyp13 01Y13 =
2 pa(VcP' p)
and
dA dX"
2
ds are null geodesics of ds .
the
Notice that, while beams of light have undistorted cross section
factor 2cP
sectional area, like all areas, is affected by the scaling
e .
cross
298 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1. 1.
r {j
a a
(log \ g\ 2) ,/lV + r + (log \ gl 2),a r
R/l
= - -
a
r
y {3
=
TJytJ
=
raytJr pa
Y =
6cp,/lcp,tJ
-
2(Vcp)2 TJ/ltJ
1
-g
=
e 8, log \ g\2 =
4
1
a 2
(log \ g\2),a r y{3 = -
4(V )
l1y{3
+ 8
,{3,y
1
In the above expressions raising and lowering have been done with l1/l v ' e. g.
2
cp
,a ==
TJpa cp ,/l; V cp ==
rF' cp ,pa; (Vcpi ==
rF cp ,/l cp ,a ・
R
/lv
= -
2 II v
'r
+
2 II 'r'
V
-
2
e- 2cp 6e- 2cp [V cp+(Vcp)2]
V
R
R/l/l TJ/l R/l
= = -
==
V
C
Ra{3yo +
( R{3o
y
=
{3yo R{3y
o g{3y Rao + g{3o Ray)
- -
1
( g(3o
y g(3y)
oR
-
-
6
1 2 rP
(
R(3y 11(30 Ray)
e
(3y Rao
_
2
1 4rP (l1
l1ao 11(3y) R
e
11(30
-
-
6 ay
2CP
e
[TJay(CP ,(3 cP ,0 cP ,(30) TJao(cp ,{3 cP ,y cP ,(3y)
= - - -
11
(3y (rP ,a rP ,0 rP ,ao) 11(30 (rP ,a rP ,y rP ,ay)
-
-
+ -
(V cP i(
+ TJ TJ + TJ
ao TJ (3y)]
-
ay {30
・
'"
'" '"
'0
- -
W
t
=
e
a
dt , w
r
= e (3 dr, =
eY dO , rP =
eY sinO d1> .
(1)
'"
In Problem 8.27, we com puted the 6 connection 1-forms c;)p..v from the
equations '" '" '"
-
d 1L _wJ1",
-
=
' V CA)
'" '" = -
CA)
'" '"
(2)
IL V
.
v VIL
'"
The Riemann tensor is most easily found from the 6 curvature 2-forms
lLv:
'" '" '" '"
a ",
IL",
v
dwlL",
=
v
+ wlL",
a
A t7J
v (3)
'"
v
/l =
2
1. R v"' (3 a
'"
w
aA
i:J(3 (4)
'" '"
()
'\
9{. =
d(a' e
(a- (3) dt + e{3-a J;) + c::, % A c::, r + C;/- A c::, cP1
=
[a"+(a')2 -a'(3']e -(3J;
a
A dt + ( +-a )e(3-adt
2 J; A
=
[e -2acfl + _
a'(3')] 6)tAW; .
(5)
300 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
""
Here a dot denotes a/at and a prime a/ are Notice how the term d t""is
"" r
""
+ e -(a+{3) ( yy .,
-a
, .
y+y -y
., ,
fJ
-
) CA)-
';
A CA)
-
0
(6)
9tt
if>
=
d(ey-ay sinO dcp) + w A
w';i> i}o ;/)i> + A
=
[e- 2a (y+y2 -ay) _e- 2 {3 a'y']i:Jt A
""
+ e-(a+{3)(yy'_a'y+y'_y' ) A ';
6:J (7)
i:J';if> i;)i> 0
""
+ A c:, + A
-0 -';
[ e -2{3 ( y
"
H ,2 ' ' -2a
{3 y ] CA)
.
=
+y
-
(3 y ) -
e A CA)
""
. ""
+
e-(a+{3)(yy'-a'Y+Y'-Y'{3)w A t (8)
9t'; if> =
-d (ey -{3y's in o.ij)+ c:,\ A
c:,tif> ;)0 + A i:J0
-2 fJ H ,2 , -2a .
- -
';
[e
'
fJ y
-
""
. ""
"" "" "'"
"" ""
O
9tO = -
d(cos 0 .ij) + c:, °t A c:,
tif> + c:, r
A c:,r
i>
"" ""
We can now read off the non-zero components of the Riemann tensor from
Equation (4):
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS
301
"",..
R tr"""", =
A
tr
"" ""
"" ""
RtOW ""
=
RtCPtif> =
B
"" "" ""
"" "" "" ""
R
""
R C
'f'tr/J
=
';r/J
- -
';0
=
to
= =
ROif>Oif>
",,""
=
D
""
r',.I.. "'r0
R
""
'f';cp R
""
=
'rO
=
E (11)
where
{.:l
A
-2a
( fJ + fJ 2
.
-2 t-' (" + a ,2 ,
(.:l'
e
afJ ) )
-
- - -
e \a
-
a
fJ
2a 2
B =
e- (y+y2 -uy) _
e- {3a'y'
C =
e
-(a+{.:l)
fJ
.,
(y + y y
.,
a
,.
Q '
)
y fJY
- -
D =
e- 2y + e-
2a
y2 _
e-
2
{3y,2
E =
e
-2a
fJY
.
-
e -2{3 (Y H
+ Y
,2 -
Q'
fJ Y
'
) ・
(12)
"" "" ""
a
Rya
"" ""
R - ""
{3 y{3
-
・
This gives
""
R t"" =
A + 2B
t
""
R t"" =
2C
r
""
r
R = A + 2E
r
ROe =
Rif> if> =
B + D + E
""
t t '; ; o
0
""
R
""
R
"" "" ""
r/J-
・
a ""
R =
R =
2A + 4B + 2D + 4E .
(14)
a
302 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
- - -
a - a 1 a-
G
-
-
R u R
{3 {3-
-
2 {3
Le.
-
Gtt' =
-(D+2E)
-
G t", =
2C
r
-
r
G _
r
=
-(D+2B)
'" '"
O-
G
-
O
=
GcP '"
=
-(A+B+E)
- -
-
t t r- r - o
G G
-
G
-
0
'"
G G (15)
0=
=
o = = =
null tetrad basis oriented so that the wave vector Vu == k is one of the
tetrad legs: 1
k =
(2)- 2 ( +
e;)
1
} =
(2)-2 (t -
e"')
z
1
m =
(2)-2 (e-x + ie-)
y
m =
(2)- 2 (e'"
x
-
ie"')
y
(1)
YIO
Ra{3yo lam
R 1mm1 = m etc. Since the Riemann tensor is a function
only of retarded time and since the only nonvanishing dot products of the
basis vectors in Equation (1) are
-
k.} =
m.m =
1 , (2)
one finds
0
Rabcd,p (3)
=
where (a, b, c, d) range over (k, I, m, Iii) and (p, q, r.") range over
0
Rab[pq,l] (4)
=
0
Rabpq,l (5)
=
R =
R =
0 (6)
abpq
,
pqab
taking into account the symmetries of the Riemann tensor, we see that
there are only six independent components. These six components corre-
tional wave in the generic metric theory of gravity. Einstein's theory has
only two degrees of freedom in a gravitational wave.
2 u
d x
=
e
F
U
U {3
dr
2 in {3
U
It is convenient to think of the 6 components of F as the vectors
{3
and In
. the comoving frame of one particle, it has zero velocity and
so feels no magnetic forces. Measuring its three components of accelera-
tion gives E .
Measuring the acceleration of a second particle as seen in
tion. Thus at least three particles are required to meas ure all components
U
of F
{3.
The reader is invited to figure out the answer for the Riemann tensor
D2 a
2
= -
/Q
fJ yo
u(3 yuo .
dr
are interested then only in the Riemann components with indices 1 and
2, but there is only one such independent component, R 1212 . The non-
R
ij kl
ex
(gik gil
-
gil gj k) i,j,k,l =
1,2.
Solution 9.24. Let the interior of the circuit be subdivided into infinitesi-
mal parallelograms, and consider the change in angle for one small rec-
Circuit -
oA
a
= -
R
afJl1-v
A{3ul1-v v
=
K ( Q: g
-
gav g A{3ul1-v
)
V
・
11-fJV fJl1-
BaoA
a
=
o(AaBa ) =
IAIIBlo(cosO) =
IAIIBlsinOoO
and
BaoA
a
=
K[(B.u) (A. v) -
(B.v) (A.u)] .
Now choose a locally flat coordinate system on the surface with u "'J e
1
and v "'J e
2
then
1 2 2 1
IIAllBlsinOoOI =
K(B A _B A )uv
=
K IAxBI uv =
K sinO IAIIBI. (area enclosed) .
that circuit will be equal to the change in A due to transport around all
the rectangles into which the circuit is divided, and the area of the circuit
W R (1)
K( {3 g{3y)
==
ryo o ay {3o
- -
ay{3o
W
ay{3o
Aa A{3 BY BO = 0 (2)
W
ay {3o
+ W + W
ao {3y
+ W
{3yao
=
0 (3)
{3oay
.
306 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
W =
W (4)
ay {3o aoy(3
.
W =
W (5)
aoy{3 {3oy
・
W + W + W =
0 (6)
ay{3o aoy{3 a {3oy
and find
W =
0
ay {3o
R
K,A (gay g(3o g{3y)
=
(3YO;A gao
-
o = R + R + R
a
(3YO;A a {3Ay;o a (3oA;y
R/lK 3Kg/l
=
R =
12K.
C>"P.VK R>"P.VK ( v
RP.K g>"K Rp.v gp.v R>"K gP.K R>"v)
+
- -
= -
+
(g>"v gP.K g>"K gp.v) R
-
so that
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS
307
CAP.VK
=
K(gAv gP.K -
gAP. K)
- ・
3K(2gAv gP.K -
2gA
p. K)
1
+
12K(gAv g/lK gAK g/lv) 0
.
- =
.
u
a
(n{3u{3);a =
o =
n{3;a ua u + n{3 U ua
(3 {3 ;a
-Ka{3u u{3
a
=
+ 2n'
2 2 i
ds = -
dr + g.. dx dx j
lJ
where
(xk)
2
g I].. =
a (r) y I] .. .
Solution 9.30. From the definition of the Lie derivative (Problem 8.13)
we have
nPa{j P {3;y nY
=
a
+ P
y{3n
Y
;a
+ P nY
ay ;{3
nY
(ga{3 na n(3);y +
(ry{3 nyn(3) n +
a( nany) n {3
Y
= - - -
Y + (1)
(na n(3);y n + n
-
n(3;a
=
a ;{3
K.. =
-e.' V.n = -no .
= _1 (n. .+n.o') (2)
lJ J 1 l;J 2 l;J J,l
where we have used the fact that K.. is symmetric. If we are using a
lJ
general coordinate system (i.e. not one in which 1, J lie in the hyper-
surface), then Equation (2) can be rewritten
308 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Ka{3
= -
(n,,;O+no;y) PY a
P
°{3 (3)
Ka{3
= -
nP
a{3
・
(xl,
3 2 3
Solution 9.31. Let the surface be x =
0, where x , x ) are Gaus-
sian normal coordinates (see Problem 8.25) based on this surface. Then
the area is
J gt 1 2
A =
dx dx (1)
J gt 1 2
oA = ° dx dx ・
o gt =
g
t gij 0 = 1. g
t gij g.. 3 a x
3
gij 2 lJ ,
1
K.. = - -
g 1J..
1J 2 , 3
f gij K ij gt
1 2 3
oA = -
dx dx ox
3
Since A is a minimum, oA =
0 for all ox , and hence we must have
ij
K =
g K.. =
0
lJ
.
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 309
derived are tensor equations and so will be valid independent of the basis
so
spacetime,
(4)V.e, 1
=
a..n + fJ
k..e
k
.
(1)
J 1J 1J
(n.e i =
0):
(4 ) V (4 ) V ( 4 ) V. n 0 + K..
,(n. e,) e.
・ =
"
E a.. = e, = -
n .
1
lJ 1 J 1 J J lJ
J1
'.
k 1 J
The last equality follows from the fact that the Christoffel symbol can be
computed directly from (3)gij. With these coefficients Equation (1) be-
(4) V . e. = E K.. n +
(3 )
r
k
.. e .
(2)
1 J1 k
J lJ
R =
where
[V Vo ] (4)
R(e y eo) V[ey,eo ]
= -
・
, '
y
[e j , e
k
] =
0 for a coordinate basis, and
1k
e
m )
J J
m (3) m
= E K' .n -
E K' K e + r . .e
k J m
1 k ,J m
.
1k J 1,
(3) n
+
(3)
r
m
lk (
E K, n + r . e
n)
.
(5)
Jm
.
mJ
310 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Evaluate Equation (5) with J and k interchanged and subtract the two
R ( e.,e
k) e. =
E(K.1 k\ J.-K'. )n + e [E(K..K m-K.1 k K.m)+(3)Rm.. k ].(6)
J 1 lJ \k m IJ k J IJ
Codazzi equations.
The components of the Riemann tensor with two n's can be found
[n, e
k
] =
0 so the last term in Equation (4) vanishes and thus
( 4 ) V' ( 4 ) V (4 ) V (4 ) V
R ( e k' n )n =
k n
n -
n
n
k'
(4) V
But
n
n =
0 because n is tangent to a geodesic (Gaussian normal
coordinates), so that
(4) V V
e R(e k n) n e
n(Kkme ) Kki,n Kkme
. .
=
nei
.
= -
.
,
i i m m
Now [e, n] =
0 im plies that
(4 ) V e. =
( 4 ) V. n = -
K.j1 e .
n 1 1 J
so finally
R.In k n =
ERn.In k =
K
k 1, n
.
+ K.j
1
K'
J k
・
Solution 9.33. The Riemann components were found in Problem 9.32. Con-
traction gives
(4)R =
gik?(4)Rnknj+(4)Rmkmj)
i i
=
(3)R iJ .
+ E (gik K.
kJ , n
+ 2K
m
K
m
.
J
_
K
J
.
K) (1)
i
where K == K
1
.. Now gik ,n
= -
gim gks Q
cms,n
(see e. g. Problem 21.1) and
g ms,n
=
2K in Gaussian normal coordinates, so
ms
im ik
gik,n =
2g gks K ms =
2K .
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 311
(4)R iJ . =
(3)R iJ .
+ E (gik K. +g
ik
K .
_
K
i
.
K)
kJ, n ,n kJ J
i
=
(3)R iJ .
+ E
i
(K J,n
.
_
K .
K) .
(2)
J
(4)R n
=
E(4)Rana J _(4)R n i
E(K I J._Ki..) (3)
J \1
. . = =
. .
J 1 J
n
= E gij(K..lJ +K. K
m
.) =
E(K -K. K
mi
). (4)
, n 1m J , n 1m
(4)R =
(4)R n
n
+ (4)R i .
1
=
(3)R+E(2K -K.
1m
Kim_K2) (5)
, n
G
n
=
(4)R n
_! (4)R = _!. (3)R + ! E(K 2 _
K. Kim) (6)
n n
2 221m
(4 )Gn (4 ) R n K '.
1
(K 1 J \ ) (7)
.
=
.
=
E .- .
J J J 1
(4)G
i
.
J
=
(4)R i J _1 oi.J (4)R
.
2
im 2
(3)G -Ki.K-10i.(2K
i i
= .
+E[K .
-K. K _K )]. (8)
J J ,
n
J 2 J ,
n 1m
Solution 9.34.
going to the usual spherical coordinates r, (), cpo These are clearly
Gaussian normal coordinates and
2 (2 i k
)gik dx (d()2 + sin2 () dcp2)
2
ds =
dx =
r .
Now K so
gij,r
-
gij,n
= = -
ij
1 1 1 2
K
( ) 1/ a
""""
K = - = - - -
r = -
()() ()() 2
g()() r2 ,r
1 1 1 2
(
2
() 1/ a.
.
K ,/..,/.. (1)
""""
K ,/..,/.. = - = -
r sin = -
2
'fJ'fJ
cp
'fJ'fJ 2
sln2 ()
.
r
,
r
the 2- geometry is
2
dcp2
2 2
ds = r + dz .
1 1
K
( ) II a
"" ""
= =
gc/>c/>,
-
-
C/>C/> 2 r
c/>
.l
K""""
(_l2 g
) 0 (2)
-
-
=
zz zZ,r
gzz
2 2
dy2
2
ds =
dx + + dz (3)
the surface is
f( x, y, z) =
0 (4)
CHAPTER 9: SOLUTIONS 313
where
2
f = -
(ax +2bxy+ cy 2)+z. (5)
n =
Vf/!Vfl =
[-(ax+by)ex-(bx+cy)ey+(e z
)] (6)
where
1
N _
K.. =
-e..V.n = -n.. = -n..
lJ J 1 J ;1 J ,1
since the connection coefficients vanish for the metric (3). Because
N =
N =
0 at the origin, we have
,x ,y
[: :] ・
a-K b
o =
det(K.. -
Kg..) =
(8)
I] IJ
b c-K
2 t
[ ]
c+ a c- a 4b
K+ =
:!: 1 + .
(9)
2 2
(c_a)2
a-K+ b V
=
0 .
(10)
b c-K+ V
314 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
V:t =
(e x +a:t e y)/(3:t
a+ ==
y [1 :t (1+ y-2) 2]
1
2 2
(3:t ==
(l+a:t)
y ==
(a-c)/2b .
(3)R ffi
. .
=
(2)R ffi
. . + E (K.. K kffi -
K'
1k K.ffi)
lJ k lJ k
.
lJ J
lJ k
= 0 because
(2)R = _
E(K) K.i_K.iK))1 J 1
.
(1)
J
xi (2
the coordinates measure lengths away from P. Then
)gij = a
ij
at
elements. Hence
[ ( )J
(2)R = __
E -1. + 1. - 1. + 1 = .-L ,
pi p Pl P2 PI P 2
[pi ( )J
(3)R = -
E -1. + l + -1 _ -1. +-1 +
P P Pl P2 P3
2 2 2
E
( + +
)
=
.
PI P 2 P2 P 3 PI P 3
CHAPTER 10: SOLUTIONS
2 2
dcp2;
2
Solution 10.1. The metric is ds =
d0 + sin 0 the connection
coefficients are r ifJ rifJ cot (); r() sin () (); all others
ifJ()
= = = -
cos
()ifJ ifJifJ
are zero. Now:
'a;(3 +
(3;a =
a =
(3 =
cp: cp,cp = -
sinO
O cos 0 (1)
a =
(3 =
0 :
0,0
=
0; :.
0
=
f(cp ) (2)
a
0,(3 cp: O,cp cp,O + 2 cotO
cp (3)
= = =
.
Substitution of Equation (2) in Equation (1) gives cp,cp f(cp) sin 0 cos 0
= -
which implies
cp =
-F(cp) sinO cosO + g(O) (4)
where F(cp) ==
f f dcp. Next substitute Equations (4) and (2) in Equation (3):
:J :
2 2 2
+ -
F(cos () -
sin ()) =
2 cot () g -
2 cos () F
or
( CW-2cotOg(0))
df dg
+ F(cp) = -
・
dcp
Since the left side is a function only of cp and the right side only of 0,
df/difJ +
f fdifJ =
b , (5)
dg/ dO -
2 cot 0 g = -
b .
(6)
315
316 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2
Equation (6) has an integrating factor exp[-2 fcotOdO] =
sin- 0, giving
d
( )
g =
-b
CW 2 2
sin 0 sin 0
2
g(O) =
(b cot 0 + c) sin 0 .
(7)
d2 f + f = 0
drp2
f =
d cos rp + e sin rp
F =
d sin rp -
e cos rp .
Equation (5)
-
d sin rp + e cos rp + d sin rp -
e cos rp = b
shows that b =
0, and hence from Equations (2) and (7) that
O
go =
d cos rp + e sin rp =
g
2
cP
2
Thus
=
(d cos rp + e sin rp) 1- + [c -
cot 0 (d sin rp -
e cos rp)] 1-
ao arp
arp
( cos rp .£
ao
-
cot 0 sin rp 1-
arp )
sin rp 1- + cot 0 cos rp 1-
ao arp
Alternately, "dot"
fe g
notation. with two arbitrary vector fields A
and B:
o =
B,VA +
A,VBe 2AaBf3 (a;f3)'
= =
Solution 10.3.
[u,v]g (fufv-fvfu)g
= = 0 ・
(aua +bv a bV
);(3 aU +
=
;(3 ;(3
・
a a
Thus if u and v
satisfy Killing's equation, so does au + b v.
Solution 10.4. The three Killing vectors describing rotations are just the
an g ular momentum operators, Jz =
x a
y
-
Jz =
( -
yo' xo' 0)
Jy =
(zo' 0, -xo)
Jx =
(0, -
zo' YO)
so Jy =
a Jx + bJ y + Jz =
0
a [J x
' J y] + b [J y J y], + [J z' J y ] =
0 ・
whole sphere, Jx ' Jy '
Jz span a 3-dimensional space. The explanation
Problem 10.3. By hypothesis any Killing vector must be a sum (wi th con-
means that a and b must be zero, Le. that the commutator vanishes
everywhere. (B. Carter, [Commun. Math. Phys. 17, 233 (1970)] has proven
that
[ (cp)' (t)] 0 under very general conditions even when there are
=
g v; A. A
v
( g/l: ,,);
a
,
+ R
vag = _
,,-
.
and we are left with the desired result. The variational principle is easy
to write down if we note that g11,'V is antisymmetric, just like the electro-
Av'"
-
A".v =
Av "
-
A" v
and
, 11,,.,..,.,..,,,- '-'
f =
Il;V
gll;v _1
2
R
Il V
1l V
1
4
and a r f \g\2 d x =
0 will give the correct equation. This can be verified
a; P /l
-
a; /lP
=
RAa P /l A (1)
by the definition of Ra{3yo' Add to Equation (1) its two permutations and
ap/l /lap + +
PW
0
=
o
a;PIl a;IlP gll;ap +
Il;pa p;lla p;all'
+ (2)
-
= - -
o = -
ga;IlP -
' (3)
a;PIl Il;pa
f =
g0, or
(3,y +
Y y g(3y (30a + =
.
Since =
(1,0,0,0) this
y proves that
(3,t
=
O.
of
{3 independent
Time reversibility (definition (i)) means is t
that
gti
=
0 is equivalent to the hypersurface orthogonality of =
a/at.
If gti =
0, then =
a {3
= = 0
tunless a = t. Hence
a
is
proportional to t
, a
i. e. is orthogonal to the surfaces t =
constant. If
=
0
[a; {3 y]
.
this becomes
With Killing's equation
(a;(3) 0,
=
gives
( a;{3- {3;a)e +
2.a {3 2.{3 0a - =
2
==
.
that is
( -2(3);a ( -
-2a);{3 =
0 .
'a =
h 2
,a
gtt and
=
a we have
t'
=
gtt
t h,a.
i
Putting a =
t we see that
h,t
=
1 or h =
t + f(x ). By choosing a new
i
time coordinate t' = t + f(x ), we have
CHAPTER 10: SOLUTIONS 321
gtt h gtt t' i 0
=
git'
= =
,
1 ,
also
/' ,
a a
JX
ga' =
g{3 =
JX _
=
(1,0,0,0)
ax{3 at
so
{3
is still independent of t
2
(11; v)
=
11, v
+ gv, 11 =
0 .
(1)
Equation (1):
Sl
.Il =
a.1l
1
i=1-4 (2)
where a.
1
are constant vectors.
1km
g =
0, g =
E X
m
k =
1- 3 .
(3)
Check:
=
g =
x E.
k ( Il,v )
.
m, ( J
. .
k ( 1,3 )
1 )k m
0
0mO Ei)km -Ek(ij)
= = =
.
Sil
k=O[Ok]
11
x k =
1, 3 .
(4)
Check:
l
[o[Ook]+o[Ook] ]
k o.
S = =
(11, v) 2 11 v v 11
322 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
v u(n .
=
)(Vuu). + u .
(Vu .
)
Now V
un
=
0 since u is tangent to a geodesic, and u' Vu =
0 since
a f3 a f3
u V u u
a;f3 =
u u
(a;f3)
=
0
・ =
・
Thus u. =
constant along a geodesic.
JIl;1l
=
(TIlV gV);1l
gv TIlV
TIl 1l +
gV;1l
=
TIlV
0 +
g(V;Il) 0
= =
.
When =
a/at, then JIl =
Tllo = -
TIlO at infinity where goo =
-1.
Thus J is the negative of the energy flux vector for a stationary observer.
conserved quantity:
1
Ja'a
1
'
=
O. The result then follows from the identity
a
J ,a
.
=
f Ja.,a \g\ t d
f (\g\ t j ) ,a d
f Jad31
4 a 4
o = x =
x =
L L
a 3 a 3
=
j d Ia -
j d Ia ・
F
2 Fl
CHAPTER 10: SOLUTIONS 323
Solution 10.13. From Problem 10.11, we know that for each Killing vector
T l1
JI1
, ==
v,v is a conserved vector, i. e.
1 1
a
JI1.,11 =
\ g\- 2" (I g\2" J ) ,a =
0 .
(1)
From Problem 10.9, we know that in flat spacetime there are ten linearly
independent Killing vectors
i)' i =
1 10. Thus there are ten con-
-
served vectors
TI1V
JI1(i) ==
(i)v .
(2)
From Equations (1) and (2), one may construct ten globally conserved
quanti ties
J
1.
0 3
Q(i) ==
\ g\ 2
J (i) d x, i =
1 -
10 (3)
since
dQ(i)
J J
1. 1.
0 3 k 3
dt
=
(\g\2 J(i) ),od x = -
(lg\2 J(i) ),k d x
J
1.
k 2
= -
\ g\2 J (i) d
Ik .
tion 10.12.]
conserved energy and momentum; the three derived from rotation Killing
of the three derived from boost Killing vectors, write (e. g. in flat
Q =
f TOV vdxdydz
=
f xTOOdxdydz f TOXdxdydz t
-
(C.M.) t)
M tP M
(C.M.) (X (C.M.)
=
X =
V
(C.M.) (C.M.)
- -
x(C.M.)
U
a
=
ga /(_ySl:Y)2
a;fJ a
Y;fJ Y fJ
a =
u QU
fJ =
+
a 1 3
a;fJ 1-
(_ y (-
Y)2 Te)2(_ f1 f1)2
fJ;a fJ 1 ( fJ fJ);a
i [log (- fJ fJ)]
= = =
aa
・
2 ,a
+gy gy (g gy)y
Not all values of E/ JL are possible for trajectories through a given point
in spacetime. For example, particles at radial infinity must have E/ JL 2: 1.
1
(1- v ) -"2;
2
with v a 3-vector and y
=
the time Killing vector has com-
ponents =
where the dot denotes the scalar product in the local Euclidean 3-space.
Evidently, a necessary (but not a sufficient) condition for an extremum
Here v ==
Iyl, g ==
1£\. Now we distinguish two cases: If is spacelike
(e. g. in the ergosphere of a Kerr blackhole), then we have
go < g; and
inspection of Equation (1) shows that all values of EI fl. are possible,
that is -
00 < EI fl. < + 00. This is the answer for regions in which is
there is a nontrivial lower bound on EI fl.. Writing Equation (1) and using
Equation (2) with the upper sign, we obtain
2
o =
(EIfl.) [(EIfl.)2 _
g2 + g ]
.
2 2 2 ,:'
(EI fl.) =
go -
g = - ・
.
We see that the allowed range of EI fl. at a point depends only on the
( -
.
) 2" < E/11 < + 00
for timelike.
AM =
0
;11
AIl;Vv _
Rilv A V =
0
only A cp =
constant is non then
ero, A cp ex r sin e, or in conventional
3-dimensional notation,
=
a r sin e (a =
constant) .
r- eO) =
.£ .
there is a uniform magnetic field parallel to the z axis. (This problem
is due to Robert M. Wald.)
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS
Solution 11.1.
dJ/dr d( x) dp dp d( x)
x
(i) p + lix p
= _ _
dr dr dr dr
=u p-p u
1 1
P P-P o.
m P=
=
collision,
x =
x = x
( k )1 before ( k )1 after ,
( )
J (k) =
x p p (k) I x
I after
-
( )
x p x
P(k ) I before
=
(k) I
-
before
(k) (k)
I J(k)lbefore '
(k)
Solution 11.2.
327
328 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
we have
Ja{jy,y = oa
y
T{jy + x
a
T{jy,y -
0{3
y
Tay -
x{j
,y
=
T{3a
y -
rz{3 =
0 .
Thus J
a
{3 ==
J J {3y d Iy
a 3
is a conserved quantity, by Gauss' theorem.
{3(x
J (aaT{3Y-a{3TIY)d3Iy+Ja{3(xu)
a u U
(b) J +a ) =
.
J{3y duB
( )
dS
a
= _!
2
E
a{jyu
So' i3 + .
dt dt dt
The first term on the right vanishes from part (a). The second term vanishes
Ja{j(x a
+ aa) =
aa p{j _
a{j pa + Ja{j(x a
) .
and thus
{3yB(aap{3-a{3I?a)pB/ 1P1
U U
Sa(XU+a ) = -
E
a
+
Sa(x ) .
The first term on the right vanishes (E is totally antisymmetric and p/l
a a
occurs quadratically) so
Sa(x + aa) =
Sa(x ).
u
a
S
a
= _!
2
E
afJYu
So' J{jy uou a
=
0
O a
by antis ymmetry of E and symmetry of u u .
with the center of mass of the gyroscope. Because there are no torques,
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS 329
that S. u =
0 :
o =
V (S'u)
u
=
( Vu S). u + S. (Vu u)
gu.u + S.a
=
g + S.a
= -
.
Thus
V S
u
=
(S. a) u
V S =
(S.a)u -
(S.u)a
u
with S.u =
O.
Solution 11.5.
l 00 3 .0
l 3
r x T d x =
0 (center of mass) and fT d x =
0 (center of momentum).
Thus we have
J
3 oO iO
JiO =
d x (xiT -
t T ) = 0 ,
E
a {3yo S u =! E
a {3yo E ]ILVuGuS-'
y a
_
.
U
2 YILVG
o JILVuUuo
o
- = -
jI-f3 u
uo
=
Jaf3 saf3 == .
[Only the J
a
{3 terms are kept in the sum; by part (a) we cannot have a
which the center of mass of A and that of B would collide. About this
J
a
{3(O) Asa{3 sa{3
=
+ = -
E
a
{3JLV (S u + S u )
A+B B If K #- If
A
J a{3
1
Sa = - -
E
A
u
c 2 aafJ C C
1
E E a{3JLv (S U + S U
A
u
v)
-
a{3A
-
.
2 a JL v =u.
A A B B C
E
afJrlIv -2u JLV
Eaa{3A
=
aA
sot ha t
A
a JLVA (S )u
S U +
I.L u
= -
C
a a JL Av v
A B B C
-Sa(U'U) Sa(U'U) +
ua(S.u) +
ua(S.u)
-
.
A AC B Be A AC B Be
dS/dr =
u(a.S) .
x =
r cos wt
y
=
r sin wt
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS 331
o x dx Y Z
u 0
.
u =
y, =
Y
-
= -
cur y Slncu t ' u =
y cur cos cut, U =
dt
1
2 2-"2
where y ==
(l-r cu) . Now a =
du/dr so
o
o x dux Y 2 2 Z
a =
(y =
const), a =
y '
a = -
y cu r sin cut, a =
0
dt
and hence
We have therefore
O O
dS dS 0
dr
=
y
dt
= u (a.S) =
y(a.S) (1)
X x
dS dS
dr
_
-
y
dt
_
-
uX(a. S) = -
cur y sin cut(a. S) (2)
dS Y dS Y Y
=
y =
u (a. S) =
cur y cos cut(a. S) (3)
dr dt
dS
Z
_
-
0 .
(4)
dr
SX =
Sr cos cut -
Sf} sin cut
SY =
Sr sin cut + Sf} cos cut
r
dS / dt = cu Sf} (5)
f} 2 r
dS /dt =
-cuy S .
(6)
2 2
y2 Sr
2
/ dt
r
d S = -
cu Sr =
A cos (cu y t+a), A, a const. (7)
332 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
sf} =
-yA sin(cuyt+a) .
(8)
sX =
A[cos cut cos (cuyt + a) + y sin cut sin (cuyt + a)] (9a)
sY =
A[sin cut cos (cuyt+a)- y cos cut sin(cuyt+a)] (9b)
sz =
const. (9c)
2
S2 =
311 /4.) These conditions imply a =
0, A = 11 (2)- t; and Equations
2- t 11 [e -i(y-l )cut
icut
SX + i SY =
+ i(l-y) sin (cuyt) e ]. (10)
The first term on the right hand side of Equation (10) and Equation (9c)
indicate a preces sion around the z-axis with angular velocity
(y l)cu 1. v
2
cu (11)
cuThomas
= -
of the center of mass of the body. Treating the center of mass as the
j is
tion of a mass element at position x
2 j ":'
k
-
-
-RJ..................x (1)
2 OkO'
dt
-EiijipRTokOxk,
th
The i component of the torque per unit volume is then
......
j
where p is the mass density at x . The total torque, which is just the
dSr
J
":'
l' k 3
-EiljRJ 6£6 px d (2)
=
x x
dt
'"
d
dt -EiljtfkRjOkO (3)
=
'
where
J
1 k 2 Th 3
8 )d x
t'ik ==
P (x x -
r ・
taf3
If one now defines the quadrupole tensor, to be such that
taf3uf3 =
0
DS K K{3all a A l1
E
t{311 R (4)
u
uJiu
_
aaA.
-
(iT
Note that either in the case of a spherical body, or a body small enough
so that Riemann x (size of body)2 0, Equation (4) reduces to
DSK/dr =
O. (Cf. Problem 11.4 with a =
0.)
Solution 11.9. We shall use two coordinate systems: the XYZ coordi-
nates are the spatial coordinates of a local Lorentz frame with spatial
origin at the center of mass of the Earth. The ecliptic plane is the XY
plane, and we shall assume that the Sun and the Moon move in circular
orbits in this plane as seen from the Earth. The xyz coordinates are
the spatial coordinates of a similar Lorentz frame, but with the z-axis
to the X-axis. The relation between basis vectors for the two coordinate
systems is
e =
e
-x -
x
1/"
e
.....y
=
cos 'fJ ev- -
sin tfr e z
i/fIIetItI
J.
y
0
1
・
Here tfr 23 is the angle between and the Z-axis, which remains
2 1
constant if we ignore the small nutation. As time goes on, J precesses
Let.£s be a unit vector pointing to the Sun. If the sun has polar
cos 0 =
e
-z
.
e
-s
=
(sin 0/ + cos
Y 0/ (cos CPs
z). x CPs
+ sin e
y )
=
sino/ sincps
and similarly,
,I,.
sin 0 sin rf...
'P
=
e
.
e =
cos 'f' sin rf...
'Ps
_y -s
sin 0 cos cp =
£x '.£s
=
cos
CPs ・
From Problem 11.8, the equation of motion of the spin vector J of the
dl =
N
dt
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS 335
N.1 = -
E ..
k
t. R
kO m O
.
lJ Jm
f
3
p(xjxm_ o jm )d
2
t =
r x
jm
・
f
2 3
c =
p(x +y2)d x
f f
2 2 3 3
A =
p(x +z )d x =
p(y2+z2)d x ・
2
t = -
(C -
A)
zz
3
1
t =
t =
(C -
A)
xx yy 2
so that
Nx = -
(C -
A) R zOYO
Ny
=
(C- A)R zOxO
N = o .
2
a (I)
R =
zOiO
az axi
(I) (I)
=
SUN
+
(l)MOON ・
336 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
Since
M
(l)SUN(X, y, z)
s
=
we find
2
a (I) =
3Ms sin () cos () cos cp
az ax 3
0 r
s
az ay 3
0 r
s
Thus has
SUN (x, y, z) components
!i SUN = 3a (C -
cos cp, 0)
=
3a (C -
where a == M ,/r s3. Since the Sun's angular velocity about the Earth is
s
much greater than the precession angular velocity we wish to find, we can
2
the Sun's orbit. The term while
average SUN
over sin
fjJs gives ,
!!SUN is UN
N UNNi
= =
a(C -
A similar expression holds for the average torque exerted by the Moon,
with a replaced by b =
MM/r .Thus, at t =
0, there is a torque in
the X direction of magnitude
N =
(a+b)(C-A) sinlfr coslfr .
dJ Ndt
dX = =
T =
217 J sintP .
Put J =
Cw, where w is the angular velocity of rotation of the Earth.
Then
417 C 1 (i)
T =
.
3 C A -
cos tP a + b
Putting
C/(C-A) =
305.3
tP =
23.45°
5 1
(i) =
7.292 x 10- sec-
M
s
=
1.989 x 1033g
13
r
s
= 1. 496 x 10 cm
MM =
7.349 x 1025g
10
r
M
=
3.844 x 10 cm
we find
T =
25,600 years.
This agrees with observation to better than 1%; some error in the calcula-
tion arises because we treated the orbits as circular and because the
( _ .
) 2" . Thus
1
=
eo [ =
,u] =
u
[V (- . )-2"]
where we have used the fact that [ ,] =
O. But
V (
=
(. a )a);f3 2 f3a;f3 a f3 = =
0 ,
0
since
g(a;f3) 0 by Killing's equation. Thus O. Also
ej
= = =
eo
338 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
since
ej connects points of equal t along any observer's world line.
ft;(Qa...j3 ea '" ej3)
=
+ ...
+ if'" f3 ea '"(ft; ej3) .
Only the first term on the right-hand side is nonvanishing by part (1), so
:t Qa... 13
(since Qa...j3 is just a scalar function). Measured in units of proper
.E.. Qu'" =
V if...j3 = -L V Qa...j3 = -LJi Qa...j3 .
I I dt
u
dt I I
dS "'
'
" '"
J k 1
E",=,"''''Ct) S
Jkl
- =
dt
'"
a
where S is the gyroscope spin vector. Now u so
Ejkf EOjkf EUjk1'
= =
'"
(3
'"
" "",
=
U'" E
a {3yo Ct)'" S'"
dt
a
yo
that is
13 '" '"
dS u {3yo
dt
=
g",a E Ct)"
yo'
S'" (1)
We wish to derive an equation with the form of Equation (1) and read off
w. We know that S is Fermi-Walker transported (see Problem 11.4), i.e.
v S
u
=
(S.a)u (2)
and
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS 339
S.u =
O. (3)
Equation (2) becomes
2
v 5 =
(5. V ) I /
1 (4)
S. =
0 .
(5)
From part (2),
dS Cc>
S S V
= =
V -
s (6)
(it
.
V =
w + A -
A (7)
(V )
・
=
V = - .
(V )
we must have
A =
(V )( .
. )-l
Thus Equations (6) and (4) give
dS -1
= _
(S V.
) (
.
) + S. V = S. w .
(8)
dt
ga;{3
= w +
Aa g{3 ga A{3
-
a {3
A Aa f3y Aa {3y
B :=
a;{3 y E W
y (9)
=
E
{3
.
Express w in terms of B:
a {3
B
A a{3y
E -w
{3SyOpaK
=
ApaK a
A
E B S
_
K
w oa{3y S K
{3 Sy
-
ApaK
-
a paK
Since
Wa{3 {3 0, =
the only non-vanishing terms occur when y =
K, so
EApaKBA K -2wpa K K =
.
'"
dS{3 =
s J;S _12
=
s EraS K ByS'K
J: e: 8)-1
dt a a Su
wy = ! BY (g
2 a
a)-l
Eyaf3a
and, by Equation (9) this is equal to
a;{3 012 aa.
(4) The vanishing of w oCCUrs if and only if
ga] O.
[a;{3
=
But this
a
DS a
=
(S. a) u , Sa
ua
=
0 .
(1)
dr
th
The locally measured time derivative of the j component (relative to a
£. .i (S. D D
&-
J
=
dr J )
=
dr
(S'eJ ) S. dr = e
J
dr
'" '"
1
=
s.rloea =
r osar1j6s =
(2)
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS 341
where we have used Equation (1) and the definition of the Christoffel
symbols. Now, using the fact that the Christoffel symbols, in an ortho-
normal frame, are antisymmetric in the first two indicates, Equation (2)
may be written as ;A..
dS j
EjkfDk Sf (3a)
=
'
dt
where
n;A.. = ! E """, r ",...,..,;A..
(3b)
ltk klj IjO'
-
2
4h. dx j dt
2
ds =
-(1+2cP)dt + (1-2cP)0'J k dxidxk -
J
.
(4)
Here
cP = -
M/r =
0(£2)
Jxr 3
-
h = -=--=
3
=
0(£ ) (5)
r
Newtonian limit, where velocities are (9(£), and will keep terms of order
wO =
(l+cP)dt + 2h.
J
J;j, C:;J =
(1- cP) dx
J
.
(6)
- -
eO
=
(1- cP) a/at, e
J
=
(1+ cP) l..: -
2h. a/at
J
.
(7)
ax J
1
.
J 0 O 2
u = v. u , u =
1-cP + v (from u'u =
-1), (8)
J 2
j -7" 0
< wJ
u
v = =
, u > /< W , u
> =
(1- 2cP ) v.J .
(9)
J 0
u
The basis vectors in the orthonormal frame comoving with the gyroscope
are obtained from those of Equation (7) by a Lorentz transformation, a
boost -
\17:
J
e = Aa e-
a a a
where
":'
-
2 o
ADO 1 + v A ' -
AJ 0
-
Y ==
Y
-
=
, . = v!
,
J J
-
(10)
Ajk = ojk + (y -1) v
j
v
k
/v
2
.
This gives
(1- I/>
2
eo
= + v + + v a/ax
(11)
formula 1
r = -
(c /lva + c -
c )
/lva 2 flaV vall
(12)
c =
[ e e ]
va'
'
e
/lva /l'
(- I/>,j Vj,k)a/ at
2 2
[9' eo] + V v v
vj, t
v
- - -
=
,j j , t k
2 2
[
1 1
+ V .-cP
k ,j,j
.v
k
+
2
v
,
.
J
v
k+ 2 v v
k,J ,+v,vk
J, t
Vk),m] a;ax
k
+ v V
j m Vk,m
-
(Vj ), t V
k
-
V
ml/> ,mO jk -
v
m (Vj .
Since (a/ax ).
a
(a/ax{3) =
{3'
we get
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS
343
[ ,e6] k e
111
(vjvk),t
+
v
vmVkVm,j VmCPf Ojk (vjvk),m
-
-
2
-
2 m
.
2
Thus
(13)
1
+
2 vm(vkvj,m-VjVk,m+vkVm,j-VjVm,k)
and
[( v2\
1 1
[e"'J ,ek]
'
=
1- 2cp + 2 v + v,v -
k ,J k t
.
J, ,j k ,j
+
i vjvmvk,m] aNt
[1>,lkm i (vkvm),j v/vkvm),t] ajax
m
+ + + -
/j kl
so
1
[J e
k] ( 1 cP + 2 v2 (v.J, k
) .) + 4(cP ,j v k cP k J) 2(h k ,J h.
・
eo
=
v v +
-
k)
' -
- -
,
k ,J
. .
.
, J,
(14)
1
+ v
k vj,t- Vj v k ,t+ 2 vm(VjVm,k-VkVm,j+vkVj,m -vjvk,m) .
r
jk6
=
dv.
(15)
( )
J dv k
1
=
2( cP ,J V k
.
-
cP k
v .) + h
k ,j
.
-
h.
k
+ v
k
-
V '
, J J, 2 dr J dr
where
dv. avo avo
J
== ---2 + v =
-cP , J .
+ a. .
(16)
dr at m
m J
ax
rjk6 =
(1) ,j v k -1>,k V j) +
hk,j hj,k (17)
-
344 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Q = h x
+
<I>xy, (18)
("\ 3 M
( V fJ fJ )
__ __
l£ = - -
e -
V e
cp
.
-geo d etlc 2 2
r
where
1.
1
2 2
M 2 (sin2fJ
( )
v =
_
sin a)
(J r
sin fJ
1
M 2 sina
v- =
( ) r
sinfJ
are the spherical components of the particle's velocity and a is the in-
clination of the orbital plane to the polar axis. To this order, it does not
3 M 2
( )
("\ M "
£. "'"'W - -
"'"'W
8 per year
g 2 R 2
R
Q :YL
)
3
(
1- J
Q
L T
= -
J+ "'"'W "'"'W
0.1" per year.
-
..
3 -
2 3
r r R
This term could also have been obtained from Problem 11.10 since, to
3
ord er f ,
jOkl
o
[k,
"'-
E
oj _
oj R:: 1]
2 Y y
CHAPTER 11: SOLUTIONS 345
Here
0 =
1, =
o
-(1+2cp) and g.J = -
2h.
J
,
so
'"
oj O=Vxh.
Ejkl h1,k'
=
CHAPTER 12: SOLUTIONS
2
Solution 12.1. Equating gravitational acceleration Gm/ r to centripetal
-
1
3
acceleration (U
2
r gives Kepler's law: (U =
(Gm/r )"2. The average
1
.
3
density inside the sphere of radius r is p =
3m/417 r , so (U =
(417Gp/3)"2.
This result means, for example, that a grain of sand would orbit a steel
ball bearing at the ball bearings surface with about the same 90 min.
Solution 12.2. Spring tides occur when the sun and the moon are in the
same line as the earth (new moon or full moon); neap tides occur when the
sun and the moon are at right angles. Let the height of the tide be h.
For a rough estimate, take the sun and the moon to be in the equatorial
sun moon
O =
g ( r B+ h) + r B R 2020 + r B R 2020 .
(1)
sun moon
O =
g (r h)-+ r B R 1010 + r B R 1010 .
(2)
3
x
tidal bulge
,/ \j
Ji;u- "
2
_
--J '-
x
/
e -")
...."')
I J('\ ,..
C'
'--
-'..
346
CHAPTER 12: SOLUTIONS
347
o =
2h g'(r B ) + sun
(R 2020 R
sun
R
moon moon
r + R ) (3)
_
B
-
2 un
2
R
sun
=
a <1>s = --
a M0
1010 2 2 2
)2] t
a x ax
x=y 0
[(X-X s un
)2 + (y-y sun
)2 + (z-z sun
R
sun 3
1010 (x sun-
-z -0 y
sun- -R)
sun- ,
=
M
0
/R
sun 3
1010 ( Ysun Zsun -0
R -2M
-R) 0 /R
-
=
x
- - -
,
sun
R O(xsun=zsun=O,
Ysun=R) = -
2M
0/ R3
sun 3
R
2020 ( Ysun-zsun-
-0-
,
x
sun
-R)
- =
M
0
/R
and similar expressions for the moon. Spring tides occur when the sun
and the moon are in a line, say both on the y-axis. Equation (3) then
gives 4
( )
M M r
3 moon .-!
h .
=
+ =
39 cm .
s prln g
4 33M EB
R R
o moon
Neap tides occur when e. g. the moon is on the y-axis and the sun on the
r
( )
M
h =
3 moon
_
M0 =
15 cm .
neap 4 M EB
R3moon R30
The actual tides are, of course, considerably larger than this in many
to the tidal driving force of the Riemann tensor. (This is not true for the
hydrodynamic ocean tides.) Thus the fourier spectrum of the earth tides
will be the same as that of the Riemann tensor at earth. Since (in Newton-
ian order at least) the tidal force is linear in its sources we can treat the
(7-1)
2 2 M 3X
R xOxO =
a U /a x =
3
r
(1)
3XY
(7)
2 .
M
R =
a U/CJxdy =
xQyO 3
r
etc. for YY, zz, yz, xz. In the frame of the rotating earth, the apparent
orbit of the sun or moon is given by the standard formula of Keplerian
x =
r cos (w + v) cos cpt -
r sin (w + v) cos ( sin cpt
y
=
r sin (w + v) cos f COS cpt + r cos (w + v) sin cpt
z =
r sin (w + v) sin f . (2)
the equatorial plane, respectively. The angle cpt is the hour angle of
r =
a(l-e cosE), cosv =
(cosE-e)(l-e cosE)-l
217
E -
e sin E =
t -
Ot
T
and where T is the period of the orbit. Working only to first order in the
E =
Ot + e sin Ot
2
cos E =
cos Ot -
e sin 0t
3
(3)
3
r- =
a- (1+3e cosOt)
cos v =
cos Ot + e cos 20t -
e .
Now substituting Equation (3) into Equation (2) and substituting the re-
R =
x (constant terms + time varying terms) ;
jOkO
a
the generic time-varying term has the form (here scos means either cos
2 N
3(scos 0t
-
2e scos Ot + 2e scos Ot scos 20t) x sin f cos f scos
cpt or
2N 2
cos f scos cpt .
2H
n t 2c/J 3e COS (
(vi)
2
30 3e sin (
(xi)
350 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
23to :t 5° due to the 18.6 year nutation of the moon's node. (This induces
further splitting of the spectrum that we have neglected.) With these
3
values, and using the fact that (M/ a ) is 2.2 times larger for the moon's
orbit than for the sun's, we get the following estimate for the ordering of
former components by strength (M =
moon, S =
sun):
M(i), M(v), M(ii), M(iii), S(i), S(v), M(iv), S(ii), S(iii), M(vi), M(viii)'" .
positions. The position of the sun in the sky is displaced by the finite
given by
d(E/M(B) =
GM
0 v
2
dt 2 c
r
2
but E/ME!) GM the energy loss rate implies dr/ dt 2v / c.
0 / r,
= -
so =
2
Since GM this is easily integrated to give
0/
v =
r
c 2 2
t -
to =
(r -
ro ) ・
4GM
13
In particular, the earth's orbit has r =
1.5 x 10 cm, v =
30 km/sec, the
10 4
radius of the sun is 7 x 10 cm, so () 10- and t
to
ro
= -
10
1.3 x 10 sec 400 years. This is much less than the known geologi-
cal time during which the radius of the earth's orbit is known to have been
cons tan t.
CHAPTER 12: SOLUTIONS
351
where
Urad. is the energy density of radiation. Since the light diffuses
outward in many scatterings, U satisfies a diffusion equation and
ra d .
F='=£'VU rad.
3Kp
aT/m p
2
/gm). The
2
=
.4 cm relation L =
417 r F between flux and total luminosity
ra d .
417C 2
r
which is the net light pressure on a unit area slab of matter of thickness
2
dr. We equate this to the downward gravitational force -
GMp dr/r to
38
417,?Mc
(MM )
L = =
1.38 x 10 ergs/sec.
T 0
Microscopically, we could also get this result by noting that since the
2
scattering cross section is forward-backward symmetric (oc 1 + cos 0), a
electron at radius r per unit time is just proportional to the net radial
La
T
(momentum)
( )
L x
x =
aT
=
( tim e) 417 r
2
(1iUJ) 417 r
2
c
Momentum per unit time is a force, and we equate this to the inward gravi-
tational force on the proton which is associated with the electron:
LUT GMm
p
=
2 2
417 r c r
Solution 12.6. Let cpg and cpe be respectively the gravitational and
(I) =
mcpg + ecpe ,
(m, e =
electron mass, charge) and the force on an electron is F = -
V(I).
ducting surface, and hence (I) must be a constant on the inside surface.
2 2
Now there is neither mass (V cpg =
0) nor charge (V cpe =
0) inside the
2 V2(1) 0
container so V (1) =
O. The solution to Laplace's equation =
then introduced into this field, it will feel no force. [Note: Since the
electron is. introd uced at the center of the container, image-charge forces
can be ignored by s yIhmetry .]
; ;
2
dM kN dT ( since air is diatomic; N is the total number
ing to c =
rises which acts to decrease the weight (distance to earth's center in-
h h
Zcg
= ,
"
dz
[l-( YJ
cg mgh
dT
=
:g Sin ' 11 ==
2kT
) ( J)
dz
2
( [
dM Cg 7 gkN 2g l 1-
dW =
g + M dT = _
mN dT.
dT dz dT 2 2 Rm mg 2
sin h
.
cg c Q7
11
2
11 7 g R(B 10-
8
1 _
> =
.122 x .
4
sinh211 c2
5
This implies that 11 > 6.05 x 10- and that h =
2kTl1/mg > 218 cm.
1
T '
Jk k ,
= _
(U U
417' J'k , k
+U .U k k-U n 'U
"J " J
n) =
PoU , J . ・
dv. at
J jk au-a
Po -
= _
- -
Po
=
--:
-
(T.k+t. k) k
J,
.
(1)
dt J
axk ax J axk
apo/at +
(POV ),k = 0 . (2)
From Equation (2) and the expression for the convective derivative
k
write
d/dt =
a/at +
vka/ax ,
one can
( )
dv. av.
J J k'
Po dt
=
Po dt
+ v
vJ,k
=
(POv j ), t +
(po vjv k) ,k
(p 0 v j) + (T j k + t j k + Po v j v k) k
=
0 ・ (3)
,
t ,
354 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
one force is
dE. = -
F. .
a + (dE.) (g/ c )
2 .
x.
1 -1 -
1 _ _1
dE
M £'
= -
.
Thus
)
g..x.
I F. Mg. a
_1
a 1-
dEtotal
-
= - .
-
-1 -
2 _
-
g' x.
1
F.
_1
( 1- =--=
C
2
) = -
Mg
_
.
2
F.
_1
(1-g.x./c ) _
_1
=
-Mg;
or
-f p(x)(1-!'!ic2)d =
-M
f f
.!
-
pdA .--..
+ pg.
2
dA = -
Mg .......,
G r
r'.!
=
dr ,d = :t
dA r'we
have
CHAPTER 12: SOLUTIONS
355
JP
GM
-A[p(r+dr)-p(r)]e
-r
-
dr e
22-r
dA =
-M g =
Adr p
GM
e
c r
_
2- r
r
and thus
dp GM
( )
= _
p +
.E. .
dr 2 2
r c
(such theories are called metric theories) and is independent of the field
equations. Each theory, however, gives its own prescription for finding
M(r), which is defined such that the local acceleration of
gravity is
2
g
= -
GM/ r .
motion
2 j
d x
= -
a (I)
....----
2
dt ax j
2
d t =
0
2
dA
2 j 2
d a (I)
(d )
x
+ = 0 .
2 d/\
dA ax j
a (I)
rj all other
r{3y vanish.
- .
--:-,
-
00
J
ax
The standard formula for the components of the Riemann tensor gives
2
a (1)
. .
RJ
a
R JOkO - -
.
OOk .
k
'
J
ax ax
356 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2
R
a a cI>
gja R
=
jOkO OkO
=
g. ,
Jm m k
ax ax
but
a
R
gOa R o -R
= =
xj =
x
j
(t, n) .
2 j 2 2
axj a2xj
( ) ( )
a (1)
( ) ( )
a n a a a a (I) k a a (I) k
= = -
n n
_
= -
= -
-
'
2 2
at2 at an an at an ax j axk ax j axkax j
2 j 2 j
where we have used the equation of motion a x /at =
-acI>/ax . The
2 a
D n
= -
R
a
ny u f3 i>
f3y8
.
2
dr
uO =
l+(:J(f), u
j =
(:J(f), r
a
f3y
=
(9(f2)
2 j
d
.
n
RJ
k
-=
2
-
OkO
n + aCE) .
dt
2
a (1)
.
RJ -
OkO
ax ax j
k
in the Newtonian limit. Note that, unless the velocities involved approach
the speed of light, the other components of
R{3yo do not enter into the
metric everywhere. Only TOO should enter, so we first dot into two
universal time vectors:
Vt T Vt t T
a
{3 t
(or
,(3)
・ ・
,a
.
becomes
J
Vt.T(x'). Vt 3 '
a =
G I d x
grav 3
t
(I 1)"2
.
=
constant
3
where I is the spacelike vector connecting x' to x and d x' is the
proper volume element on the constant t slice. This is not yet con-
a
grav
=
G
j Vt.T'3Vt U+(u.l)U]d3x,.
(1.1) "2
358 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
which are acausal. The reason for the difference is that this problem has
gravitational forces
2
d 11z R
z
u {3 l1Yua
{3 Ya
- = -
・
2
dt
Since the particles start from rest, if we confine our observations to short
j so that
time, u 0,
2
d 'YJz
., z z
= -
R Oz 11
0
・
2
dt
L 2M
( )
Z M
R Oz 0
= -
Z
= _
.
2 3
aZ Z
q
a = -
Ee
-z
m
CHAPTER 12: SOLUTIONS 359
Thus
2
d 7JZ 2M q
2
=
3
7Jz -
m
E
dt z
time xll L. Then at the end of the experiment the gravitational forces
1. 2M 2
07JZ '-
2
7JzL .
z3
z
But l1 < L so
B(L3)
Z
0l1 = .
q !. 2
B(L2)
Z
0l1 '- _
m
.
E .
2
L =
Solution 12.15. The geometrical object which tells about the charge is a
scalar, vector, 2-tensor, etc. for spins 0, 1, 2, etc. For example, the
charge density of a particle of rest-charge qo moving along a worldline
xll =
zll(r) with 4-velocity u is
f
U 4
p(X ) =
qo 0 [xlL -
ZIL(T)] dT (scalar)
J
4
JIL(xU) =
qo u li 0 [XU -
ZU (T)] dr (vector)
(1)
J
4
TILV(x )
U
=
qo ulLu 0 [XU
v
-
ZU(T)] dT (spin 2)
f
4
TW"'P(x )
U
ulLuv ..
.u P 0 [XU ZU (T)] dT (spin s)
qo
-
= ・
360 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
J
00".0 3
q
=
T d x
(la b frame)
Substituting Equation (1) into Equation (2) gives the measured charge of
a single particle
J J
3
q= qo d x dr (_u.uLAB)s 8 4 [xa_za(r)]
J
3 4
=
qo d xdt (_u.uLAB)s
( i) 8 [x
a
_za (r)] ・
LAB
Integrating out the delta function, and using u.u =
-y and dr/dt =
s-l 2
(1 +T )
s-l
1/y, we get q=qoY qo v f or v?c. Now f ora
2
perfect gas we have < v > =
3kT
/mo' So when we sum the charges of
[1 ]
1
e )
s
Q =
q
=
nqo + J
2
and from the temperature dependence given in the problem we now read
off s =
5.
plane waves as solutions. Also since the field is spin-2 it must couple
V
to a symmetric, traceless "charge" tensor Jfl .
Moreover, for weak
fields and slow velocities, "charged" particles which are much smaller
than a wavelength must couple predominantly through their JOO (Le. the
"Coulomb" limit).
CHAPTER 12: SOLUTIONS 361
ql' JOo =
can define a polarization vector (analog of the electric field E) for the
field -1
ql q2
V
-
==
( -
m
1
- -
m
2
) (x 1
--
-x
2 )
V
-
-
V
-
implying V
-
=
O. What is wrong? We assumed that the particles
responded differently to the field. We now see that .!1 =.!2 for all
v
have JflV =
Tfl (e.g. we cannot introduce Tfl since this is not spin-2).
fl
v
We have shown that our "arbitrary" spin-2 field is coupled to Tfl .
Feynman has pointed out that the assumption of a "point" particle, with
no intrinsic polarization vector, has entered crucially. Thus it is possible
to have the field couple to individual particles with spin; but for un-
10
c =
2.998 x 10 cm/sec
2 20
c =
8.998 x 10 erg/ gm
2 28
G/c =
0.7425 x 10- cm/gm
1
4
G 2" =
2.582 x 10- esu/gm .
362 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
( ) ( Gt)
=
c
2 (esu/gm) c
2
e e (esu) 21
(c ) 2.042 10
'-
x
_
-
-
m
(gm) (esu/gm)
G2m
GM
5
M0 : (gm)(cm/gm) 1.48x 10
<:><
(d) = <:>< cm
(erg/sec)(cm/gm) 0l7x10- 26
( )(c2Jl\ ( )
G l
()
e
L0
=
L0 C
<:><
.
c
2 (erg/gm)(cm/sec)
( )
o
(300 K) k
0 c COK)(erg/OJ()(cm/gm) 63
(f) 300 K =
<:>< <:>< 3.42x 1O- cm
c
2 (erg/gm)
17
(g) (1 year) =
(1 year) c =
9.460 x 10 cm
(erg/esu)(esu/gm)
( ) Gt ( 1.)
1 erg
(h) (1 vOlt)= 9.58X10-28.
299.8 esu 2
(erg/gm)
c
Solution 12.18.
1
*
33
L =
G/c3)2 =
1.616 x 10- cm
1
44
T* =
{trG/c
5
)2 =
5.391 x 10- sec
*
5
M =
(1rC/G)2 =
2.177 x 10- gm.
covered his constant. They are now called the Planck length, mass, and
time. They are uniquely defined up to factors of order unity (e.g. using h
( 2 y:\
2 2 2 1
N/
Gm r
mN(U
=
・
2
2mw
G9 = n1r .
2
r =
2n n2 /Gm .
The lowest energy level is the n= 1 level. In this level the separation is
24 6
r =
21I2/Gm =
6x10 cm 6x10 light years!
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS
tLv
field equation is
( -a) R,tL =
81TT':;v ・
On the other hand, if we contract our field equations first and then differ-
entiate we find
811
(1- 4a)
R,11 T,11
=
z-a
T
,:;v K
T,11 K
=
'
== .
1-4a
In the Newtonian limit, and for a fluid with density p and negligible
ap V.
ap
-
+
(Pi) =
K -
at at
were not ) this would differ from the Newtonian continuity equation,
and violate the conservation of mass in Newtonian order.
Solution 13.2. The vanishing of the Weyl tensor allows us to write the
=
e 2cp 11
gflv 11V
364
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS 365
2
R _6V cp .
equations become
-
ij
6cp ,1J a
..
=
K P .
For K =
2411 this is the usual Newtonian equation for the Newtonian
potential cp. The solution to Problem 12.11 implies that Newtonian tra-
For the metric of a massive object like the sun the function cp must
falloff far from the object where spacetime approaches flatness. To see
that light is not deflected we need only notice [see Problem 9.18] that the
null geodesics of
gp.v
=
11
Il V
, which are certainly not deflected by the massive object. Thus when
we compare, in the asymptotically flat distant regions, the directions of a
photon's motion before and after it interacts with the massive object, we
2 2cp (z) 2 2 2
ds =
e (_ dt + dx + dy2 + dz )
Thus a photon loses energy at the same rate as a particle and the proposed
theory agrees with Pound-Rebka experiment, as any theory based on
Solution 13.3. The static field equation for the Brans-Dicke scalar field is
t72,/.. 811T
v
'P
= ・
(1)
(3 + 2(1))
T
Mo(r- R)
=
-p =
(2)
2
411 r
cpI =
cpl ' r < R (3a)
,/.. -,/.. 2 M
'PII
-
'P 00 +
3 + 2(1) r'
r >R (3b)
where cpl and CPoo are constants. Matching cpI and CPII at r =
R gives
2 M
cpl =
CPoo +
3+ 2(1) R
(4)
Now, we also know that in the Brans-Dicke theory, the local gravita-
-1 4+ 2(1)
G =
cp
( 3+ 2(1) ) .
(5)
Thus
,/.. =
4 + 2(1) 1
'Poo 3+2(1) c;-
oo
[1 cPooR :+2w)J
1
G1 =
and finally
G1 =
Goo
[1 G;.M (2;(,))J
-
.
(6)
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS 367
This solution is correct only to lowest order in M/R, not only because
of the terms neglected here, but also because in higher order one would
have to account for the changed metric g due to the mass and use the
f1.V
curved space V in Equation (1) rather than the flat space one.
stress-energy of the vacuum must look the same in any Lorentz frame. The
tensor looks the same in any Lorentz frame that the stress-energy
l1f1.v so
v f1.
The field equations with vacuum and matter sources are
Rf1.
V
!. f1.V R v
8 17 ( Tf1.
Pvac )
f1.V
g + g
-
_
-
2
.
matter
When we compare this with the field equations including the cosmological
term
Rf1.
V
_ 1. g
f1.V R + A f1.V
g
=
817 Tf1.
v
2 matter
we see that we can identify the cosmological constant with the vacuum
2 2 3 6
mass density would be c- (Gm /A)/A =
Gm c
2
/fr4. For protons this is
22 41
of order 10- grams/cc and for electrons 10- grams/cc. The
23 22
density of our Galaxy is 10- grams/cc so the 10- grams/cc
368 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
n
4 3 2
( )
m c Gm
.
3 cn
11
For n =
1 we get somewhat reasonable mass densities. The Zel'dovich
/lV
the local Lorentz frame in which
T': is diagonal, T,1
= -
P + Px + Py
+
Pz'
where p x , py , pz are the (principal) pressures. For all known equations
of state P 3p so
T,f should always be negative and R should be
positive.
R =
0 if the only stress-energy is electromagnetic.
T!W{3 =
'AWa ・
(1)
-Atimelike ==
P, and T = O.
The 3 x 3 matrix
Tjk can be diagonalized by a spatial rotation, and
from Equation (1) we see that the diagonal elements are the remaining
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS 369
TafJ
whom
tha t is
is diagonal. The weak energy condition is that
-rafJuaufJ 0,
-2 -2 -2
P + v 1 Pl + v
2 P2
+ v
3 P3 > 0 (2)
where j
arbitrary and
2
v is v 1. The necessary and sufficient condi-
p O p +
Pi 2: 0 (3)
a test which can be made by the original observer after he has solved
n =
1 the statement is u.T.u 2: 0 for all timelike u. This is just the
u.T =
(-p, [Energy flux]i) so, by the dominant energy condition, Ipl >
( _l)n u
.
T T ・ ・ ・ ・
T. u ::; 0 .
statement for n -
2. But we have shown that the dominant energy condi-
energy condition implies the statement for all n. The converse follows
gf1.V gf1.V
t < 0 (this is clearly empty space) and =
(arbitrary functions of your
gf1.V
370 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
derive
o
(g[a;{3 gy]);y
=
(RAYf3a A RXay
Y A RXYf3
f3 A a)
+ +
first term above vanishes by symmetry and the remaining terms give Ricci
components, so we have
o =
gA[a
T
) f3]
=
U[a g{3]
The last term vanishes trivially so we can conclude =
0 and
hence u oc .
V
Solution 13.10. From the Bianchi identities G
J1.;fl == 0 we have
1..... G
VO
== _
G
vi
.
_
G
a fl
r
v
_
G
va
rJ1. ・
at ,1 afl afl
Terms the right cannot involve third derivatives of the metric with
on
Vo
respect to time, hence G cannot contain second time derivatives. It
VO VO
follows then that the four equations G =
811 T serve as initial value
G ij =
811 Tij are the dynamical equations.
coordinates: = -1 and =
O. We now appear to have six field
goo gOi
ij Tij which
variables
gij'
six dynamical equations G = 811 we can solve
2 2 VO VO
for a g /at and four initial value equations G =
811 T giving
ij
,
surface.
We can now differentiate the four initial value equations with respect
to time and use the dynamical equations to eliminate terms of the form
2 2
a g.. /at . This generates four new relations among the initial value data.
1)
[These new relations must be independent of the original four because
vo vo vo
aG fat =
811 aT fat, and we can specify aT fat independently of
any previously considered constraints.]
We have now eight constraints on the twelve initial value functions
g..
lJ
and agoo/at.
1)
It follows that we can independently specify four initial
value functions on the hypers urface.
If we think of these four initial value functions as the values of two
{3
[ {3 A f.l
a
(-g) t L-L
=
(161T)-1 9-
a
,
A 9- ,f.l
-
9-
aA
,
A 9-{3f.l,f.l + 1
2
ga{3 g\nf.l 9-AV,p 9-Pf.l ,
V
_
gaA gf.lV 9-{3v,P,
9-f.lP A g{3Agf.lV 9- ,p 9-f.lP A
av -
,
+
gA J1. gVP 9-
aA
,V,p
9-{3f.l
ga
P
rz
T )9- , /\ ,f.l
where
9-
a {3 ==
(_ g) t ga{3 .
-
0 .
{3L_L
a
Notice that all terms in the expression for t involve the product
of the derivatives of two 9-'s, so to lowest order t
a {3 will go as the
product of the first derivative of (I). We need to keep therefore, only the
00
If we keep only the 9- ,1
.
[ ]
a {3 1
(1611)-1 _gi j 9- '9-{30'+ 8 (2galg{3m_ga{3g1m)9-00 1 9-o0,m
aO
t = ・
L _
L ,1 ,J ,
{3 00
From this, with ga{3 l1
a
and 9- .
,1
=
4c/>.
,1
we easily find
[ ]
oo -1 ij00 00 1 00
lm 00 -7 ij
m m
t
_
(16 11 ) -
u .
9- .
+ -
u
9-
_
- -
u 'V. 'V .
9- 1 9-
-
L -
L ,
1
, J 8 "
m
811 '
1 ,j
Oi
t =
0
L-L
(I),m\.
[1. (20ilojm_ O ij
] (411)-1((1) 1. 0 (I)
00
t ij
L-L
=
(1611)-1 8
Olm9-009-
,I,m
=
\..
.
,1
(I) .-
,j 2
..
lJ,m )
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS 373
Note that the spatial components tiL_ L agree with the stress tensor
(P))
cpold(x
l1eW new
cpnew (x ) ) _
cp a
a,
.
v
old
v
new
= a(x ) Vold(xold)
f1. v
a(x
new
)f1.
=
(OVf1. _
)v
(Vold(xnew)
v
_
VoId
v, a
a)
,11
Vold(xnew)
f1.
_
V
v,f1.
_
vV
f1. ,
a
a.
Tnew(xnew)
f1.v
= a(xo1dt a(xOldl TO (xold) v a fJ
new f1. new
a(x ) a(x )
V)
(T (x
a
- (oft
new
a{3 ,a
) )
( /l) T
-
= -
T -
T/l{3
d -
T
v{3v -
/l
T/lV,a a ・
Notice that
a ( a
+ ara ) =
ga +gar f1.O.v
gp.a,v
gf1.a \s
_
gf1.a S
_
s S
-
-
;v ,v av
f1.;v
and that
(/l;V)
=
ga(/l
+
a(g/lv,a)
V) ・
O
a
- 1k X
V V a
o =
h '
=
Re [ik A e ]
V V
O a
1k
aX
-
a a
o Re [ -ka k ]
h v,a A ve
= =
.
ld c
bh ew = ho 2 +
ca
,v) l1 vs,a
-
s(
・
v v
O a
1k X
a
Clearly the gauge transformation must be of a plane wave e form.
ik x
a
a
With
g iC e we have
= -
Caka
A
=
A W (C/l
d CVk/l)
-
+ +
"'/lv
・
V V
Anew k = -
k C k + k Caka = 0
V
o =
(A old)Il + 2C.k
o =
A -
d C/lk o )
(COk/l + +
"'/lO
C.k ・
old 1. old Il
o =
A -
(C 0 k + C k
0)
-
11 A
o 2'
f
o .
o =
A -
di
(Cok +
Cik o ) .
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS 377
T From the
xx Ox'
form of the linearized field equations
oh == h , Y = -
1617 T
a
(3 (3
a,y a
(3
and from the fact tnat all components of h should be retarded integrals
a
(3
over the source, the solutions must be related in the same way that the
sources are:
hoo =
hx x
= -
ho x
'
a
(3 a
(3
h and the above relation is also true if we remove the bars on the h's.
a
(3
For a photon moving in the x-direction with affine parameter '\,
2
dx (3
d a 2
2 dx dt
ry
( d'\ ) (rY 00 + r y xx + 2r y Ox'
)
= _ _
=
dA 2 dA dA a(3
2r y ox ry ry _!. (h +h 2h 0
o x,y )
+ t = - =
oo xx
2 O,y
0 xx,y
2 2
so that d y/d,\2 =
0 and similarly d z/d,\2 =
O. Thus the photon con-
tinues to move parallel to the beam of light and therefore two thin beams
of light initially moving parallel will not attract each other to the lowest
order in each of their mass-energies. (In fact, it turns out that there is no
Solution 13.18. From linearized theory we know that in the Lorentz gauge
oh = -
1617 T
(3 (3
・
a a
Since the source, and hence the field, is stationary this becomes a
-
2-
Poisson equation V To calculate need
ha(3=-1617Ta{3' hOY we
TOy.
For a spherical mass configuration of mass density p rotating (in the
378 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
TOy
=
r Op sin () cos cP. Notice that TOy is proportional to the real part
therefore write h
OY
=
f(r) sin () cos cP and the Poisson equation becomes
£ r2 .Q.
dr [ dr
f(r)lJ -
2f(r) =
1617 r Up .
r
2
r2
r/R for r < R
4MO
fer) = -
x
3
(y for r> R
40
-
r.
M
hOY hOY Sln() coscP
= = -
gOy 3 R
・
By symmetry
4
o J...
g"
'fJ
=
go y I cP= 0
= -
3
OM
( )
1.
R
sin ()
and
"
(V = -
g°cP =
g°cP =
go =
40M
.
1
gcPcP 2
r sin () 3R
( cP)
Inside the shell then locally inertial frames will rotate relative to inertial
frames far away. Mach's principle states that the inertial properties of
spacetime depend on the motion of distant matter. The dragging of in-
law, so that the inertial properties are not primarily determined by nearby
matter, but rather the influence of all the matter in the universe must be
considered. (But aside from a few idealized examples such as this one,
no one has ever been very successful in "deriving" Mach's principal from
1
,v
.
"V v
-
(1617)- 0 hr =
0 rather than T =
O. The difference between T/l
,V /lV ;v
and
T/l v is of order Tr. But both T and r are of the order of h
a (3
so the inconsistent tenTIs are of second order in the deviation of the metric
from flatness.
other masses with which it gravitates. Thus a positive mass attracts both
positive and negative masses, and a negative mass repels them both.
Here, then, the acceleration of the negative mass is toward the posi-
2
tive mass, and of magnitude GM/e .
(Since e? M, we are in the
direction and of the same magnitude: the two masses try to chase each
other.
The problem is more complicated once the particles are moving, be-
cause each sees the retarded field of the other.
o 1617 T
h/l (1)
= -
V /lV
T
/lv(t', ')
J
3
-
h (t, x) =
4 o (t'+ \x-x'\-t)d x'dt' .
(2)
/lV
\ \
- ' - -
x-x
- -
x/l =
z/l(r) (3)
we have
380 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
T
,.w(t,.?!)
=
m
f u u 8 4 (x z(r)) dT =
ll v
o
where we have used dr =
dt/u to do the integral. Substitute Equation (4)
in Equation (2):
o3 [x '
f
ulluV
- -
4m
hllv(t,!.)
=
0
u
I.!-.!'I
(5)
uin (n8(t'+I.!- (nl-t)dt'
=
4m
f uO(t') \x-z(t')\ - -
.
Let
R(t') =
\ x-z(t')\ = f [x-z(t')] (6)
f
-
hllv(t, x)
_
4m .
(7)
r
uOR
dull /dT = -
r {3uau{3
Le.
a
= 0 .
(8)
hoo =
2 2
O 1 h 02 X
h 00 0 x x
(10)
du ld r =
2 0 0 0(,
u -
u ) +
,x
u u + h
o x,x
u
1 h 02 2
h 02 h 0
du
X
/d r =
(U -
U
X
) -
Ox, 0
u -
00,0
u U
X
.
(11)
2 00, x
! uOo'(t'+R-t)dt'
(t')8(t'+R(t')-t)dt'
J
u
h =
4m -4 m
00,0 at R(t') R
df dz
=
1 -
(v(t'), v =
....-:-? .
d? dt
Then
uO
J
d ;J dt'
[
-
hoo,o 4m o(f df
t)J
= - -
R df df
J
O
[R df] o(f-t)df
d u dt'
=
4m
df
[ )
dt" .!L dt"
(
u
=
4m
df dt' R df
f=t
[ ] t'=t-R(t')'
1 u
=
4m (12)
l-(v dt' (l-(v)R
O
Since duO /dt' ,....,
m, to linear order in m we need not differentiate u
[ J
-
0
( vu
h -
-
4m (13)
OD,D 2
(1- fv)2 R
ret.
R(t'). But
vet') =
v(t) + (dv/dt)(t'-t)+...
=
vet) + (9(m)
1
o 2-
and similarly for u =
(1- v )-2, and
R(t') =
([x -
z(t')]
=
([x -
z(t) -
vet) (t' -
t)] + (9(m)
=
f [x -
T
/lit,.?!)
=
m
f
-
4m
hlLv(t, )
=
uOI.!-.!'I
(5)
u/l(n (n8(t'+I.!- (nl-t)dt'
=
4m
f uO(t') \!. (t')1
.
Let
R(t') =
I x-z(t')\ = f [x-z(t')] (6)
UILUVO(t'+R-t)dt'
f
-
h
IL vet, x)
_
4m .
(7)
uOR
dull /dr = -
r {3uaul3
Le.
hoo =
d u O ld r 1 h 02 X
2
h 00 0 x x2 (10)
=
2 00 °
(u
,
-
u ) +
,x
U U + h
o x,x
u
1 h 02 -u X 2 h 02 0
d u /d r
X
(u ) X
(11)
ox,ou hoo,ou U
= - -
oo,x
.
J
(t')8(t'+R(t')-t)dt' uOo'(t'+R-t)dt'
J
u
h =
4m -4 m
00,0 at R(t') R
df 1
dz
dP
= -
fV(t'), v =
"';'7; .
dt
Then
uO
J
d ;J dt'
[
-
hoo,o 4m o(f df
t)J
= - -
R df df
uO
J [R df] o(f-t)df
=
4m
d dt'
df
[ )
dt" L
(
=
4m
u dt"
df dt' R df
f=t
0
[ ]
1 A. u
=
4m .
(12)
1-fv dt' (l-fv)R
t'=t-R(t')
O
Since duO /dt' m, to linear order in m we need not differentiate u
1fVUO
h 4m
[ (13)
-
-
00,0
(l-{viR2jret.
where rete means evaluated at the retarded time t' =
t -
R(t'). But
vet') =
v(t) + (dv/dt)(t'-t)+...
=
vet) + (9(m)
1
-
O
2",
2
and similarly for u =
(1- v ) and
R(t') =
f [x -
z(t')]
=
f [x -
z(t) -
vet) (t' -
t)] + B(m)
=
f [x -
thus
R(t')(l-fv) =
f[X-Z(t)] .
have °
f vu
hoo , °
=
4m (14)
(zl -
z2)2
where the quantities are evaluated at the instantaneous time t. Similarly
x -
-
U
hOx,o
=
° hoo,o (15)
u
2
X
( )
_ _
hxx,o
=
hoo,o' (16)
o
u
f -
4m
oo,x aR R
[f ]
°
f
°
dt' dt' d
=4mf -
!!.-o(f-t)-df+
df
!L--o(f-t)df
df df
R
R2
[ }]
uO uO
{
1 d
= -
4m f + '7:"'?
v) R
2 (1 -
f v) d t (1 -
f v) R
(1 _
f re t.
J
°
[(1-l'v)R2
u u fV
= -
4 ml' +
(1_l'v)2 R 2 ret.
O
4mfu
- -
(17)
2
(zl -
Z2)
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS
383
Similarly x
h
-
U
=--h (18)
Ox,x o oO,x
u
hxx,x
( : )2 h (19)
=
oo,x
a
Note that the gauge condition h =
0 is satisfied by Equations (14)-
p., a
(19). Write out the equations of motion, Equations (10) and (11), for
0
particle 1 letting
x
u =
y, U =
y v, g =
m/ (z 1 -
zl
source mass in Equations (14) (19) -
is negative.
dYl /d r = -
gY2 v 2 (1 + v +
)2gY2(1 v yi) + v
l
-
4g Y2 v2 yiv (20)
d(Yl v 1 )/dr
=
gY2(1+ v
-
)4gY2 v YI +
2gY2 v
2
(1+ v )YIvl .
(21)
sign.) Since v
1
=
v
2
at t =
0, then v
1
=
v
2
for all t. Thus
zl
-
z2
is constant for all t, i.e. zl
-
z2
=
E. We can drop the subscripts 1
and 2 in Equations (20) and (21) and get, after some simplification
dy/dr =
gv/y (22)
d(yv)/dr -
g/y (23)
1
2 2
d v / dr =
g( 1 -
v) , (24)
and hence
2 -1
2gr =
v / (1 -
v ) + tanh v (25)
where r =
0 when v =
O. Thus
384 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
dz dz dt dr -5/2
2
(1 v )
_
= - -
dv dt dr dv
implies
1 -t
[(1 ]
2
z2
= -
v) -
1
3g
(26)
+ e
z2
=
zl
and similarly
dt dt dr -5/2
=
_
- 1. (1- v 2 ) (27)
dv dr dv g
implies
1
[ J
2
v 2-"2 v 2- 2
"3 (1- )
t =
(1- v) + v .
(28)
g
Equations (26) and (28) are parametric equations for the trajectories with
v as parameter. Note that while the coordinate separation of the particles
zl (t 1 )
-
vet -
t
1 )]
t' =
y [t -
t
1
-
v {x -
zl (t 1 )1] ・
where
Thus the trajectory of particle 2 in these coordinates is z'2 (t'2)
Z'2 =
y [z2(t 2 ) -
zl (t 1 )
-
v(t 2 -
t
1 )]
t'2 =
Y [t 2 -
t
1
-
v { z2 (t 2 ) -
z
1 (t 1 )}] ・
z'2 (t'2 =
0). Let
(3 =
z2(t 2 )-zl(t 1 ).
CHAPTER 13: SOLUTIONS 385
0
Now t'2 =
implies
t
2
-=-
t
1
+ v{3
so
(3 =
z2(t 1 + v(3) -
zl (t 1 )
2
v 2{32 d z
z2(t 1 ) + v{3 dz / dt
2 t +
z
-
Zl(t 1 )
t=t
1 dt t=t
1
2
= -
E + v {3 + a(m/L) .
2
(1- v )
Thus
2
-
z'2 (t'2
=
0) = -
y(/3 -
v (3) ye .
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS
v
Solution 14.1. First we determine what is the appropriate Tfl for a
position, so
T/lV
J 84(x
a V
oc
-xa(r))u/lu dr
04(x
v
already transforms
a
uflu as a tensor, but -
04(x a -
j J 84.1 (_g)t
0 4(X
a a 4 4
1=scalar= _x (r))d x= d x .
(1)
(_ g) 2
J
u/lUV
84(X
J
a
Tfl V = m
-
xa(r)) dr ==
p ufluv dr (2)
.1
(_ g) 2
J
V
o =
Tfl v ,
=
[(puV).vufl +
,
(PU ) u ,
v]
dr ・
(3)
0=
J [-(PUV);v +
p(Vuu).u]d r ・
(4)
4-velocity. We conclude therefore that the first term vanishes and hence,
from Equation (3)
386
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS 387
f
V
o =
(PU ) u/L;v dr ・
V
This implies that u ull
.
=
0 wherever the (delta function) P IS nonzero,
,
v
V
that is, wherever the particle is! But u
ull,v
,
= 0 is just the geodesic
equation.
ture T B =
1
2
T( -
gOO) =
constant
v
(p + p) ullu + pgllV, thus the equations of motions read
ulluV (p + p) (ull.vu
v
uIlUV v ) gllV
o =
TIl v (p + p )'
"
=
v
+
",
+ .
+ p
v
・
388 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
a (3 {3
・
The result is
o =
P Tllv
all ;v
v
=
0 + P
all (p+p)ull.vu '
+ 0 + p
,v
gllV p
all
v
=
(p+p)ua.vu + p + p uvua
, ,a , V
To take the Newtonian limit (see Solution 14.8), write the Euler
equation as
o
Set u =
1, U
o
=
-1, u.
J
=
v.
J
and get
O
r
PO(dvj/dr +
Oj ) p.
-
,J
But
O 1
r -r = -
cP
OOj 2 go 0 j
・
Oj , , j
Thus
dV
j 1
-
dr
-
-cp ,
'-
J
-P'
P o,J
(p+p)Vuu =
-Vp -
uVuP .
Killing vector, so
u =
/1 I ・
i
(In components, this means that only u =
0, where =
a/at.) From
1
V u
u
=
2
V log Ie. I .
Vp =
-(p+p)V log 1 .eI2 .
1 1
But e. e =
(a/at). (a/at) =
goo' so I ・
e \2 =
(- goO)2, from which the
result follows.
ap a 1
-p
2
log (1+ 2(1)) -p ..
ax v
ax
v
ax
v
(Problem 14.4) p A
,
=
(p + p) [log (- goo) 2] ,
A we get
f
.1
1 dp
-
log (- goO)2 =
4 p'
This integrates to p =
constant x (- o)-2.As long as
goo is finite,
2 2 2 2
ds =
g tt dt + g
zz
dz + dx + dy2 (1)
z =
0 is W(O), where
W(z) =
f T;; dxdy =
f TZZ dxdy
z ・
(2)
tl
We wish to show that W(O) depends only T T tt and on no other
on
t
=
We have .
390 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
o =
'fO-{3;{3 =
I gl- t (I gl t 'fO-(3),{3 + ra T{3y .
(3)
{3y
dent of x, y and t:
o =
J Ttt
, t
dx dy +
J Ttx dx dy +
,x,y
y
J
tz
+
2r\z T dxdy ・
(4)
tl nd
The 1 st term vanishes because T is time-independent. The 2 and
rd tx
3 terms give terms proportional to T and Tty on the boundary of the
J
1 1
-1 tz
o =
I g \- 2 gtt (\ g I 2 gtt T dx d y
), z
.
(5)
1
tz
Thus \ gl2 gtt .r T dx dy is independent of z. Since this term vanishes
Now put a =
z in Equation (3) and integrate over x and y:
0=
JTzt,tdXdy+J TZX,xdxdy+ JTZY,ydXdY+ Igl-t(lglt J TZZdxdy),z
JTttdxdy J
z ZZ
+ r
z
+ r T dxdy ・
(6)
tt zz
st nd rd
The 1 term vanishes as above, while the 2 and 3 give boundary
contributions which vanish. Using Equation (2), we find
J
1
1
u
(\gtt I2W ),z =
1 gtt 1 2,z T dxdy. (7)
top
i I
1 1""""
tt
W (0) =
1 gtt I 0 ! dz dx d y \ gt t 1 2 , z
T , (8)
o
,...,...
tt
which depends only on the component T .
(Solution due to W. Unruh.)
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS 391
Killing vector =
a/at. Dot this into the Euler equation (Problem 14.3)
for the flow of a perfect gas:
(p+p) .Vuu - =
But
.
V u =
V ( .
u) -
( Vu u = V (
). .
u)
u u u
-
and hence U
o
=
constant x .
p+p
P
=
goo
= -
(1+ 2rp), Irp\ ? 1
2
1
p/po ? 1, v << .
Here
Po
=
nm
B
is the rest-mass density (m B =
mean baryon rest mass),
17 is the specific internal energy, cp is the Newtonian potential and v
o 2 1 2
u =
(1_v )-2" 1 +
2
v ,
and
392 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1
1
U
o
=
(- goO)2 u
O
1 + y2 + cp
2
,
(1 y2
cp)
constant x n
+ + =
po(l+1T+p/po)
tha t is
(1 + y2 +
cp) (1+7T+p/po) =
constant
and finally
y2 + cp + 1T +
p/po =
constant .
Solution 14.9.
fu =
au (1)
connected events of equal proper time; here we find a from the condition
0
, = ・
u =
0 along the world lines:
o = V ( u) ・
= ・
a + u ・
V ・
(2)
u u
u'(Vue-v u) -a
=
and find a = ・
a. (Recall that u.
V
=
u V (u.u) =
0.) Thus we have
(3)
Vu V u .a)u
+.(
=
.
) =
0, is equivalent to
・
Vu =
0, or by Equation (3) to
f3(u
a a ;f3
+ u
a a(3)
=
0 .
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS 393
+ 0
u(a;{3) u(a a(3)
=
1
0
aa{3
+
(}Pa{3 u(a;{3)
+
u(aa{3)
= =
.
u =
0 leave 5
a {3 a {3
independent equations. With the condition () =
0, we have 6 independent
constraints altogether.
d(} =
u{3(u a
). =
u 13 ua =
u 13 (ua -
Ra uy )
dr ,fJ a
.
fJay
. .
,a ,fJ ,afJ
(1)
=
u{3u a
-
R u13 u
Y .
;fJa fJY
But
a
13 (3 ) ua a {3
a ( u.,fJ, u
u u u
_
-
,fJ''a
-
'a
. .
,fJ
aa;a
-
(wa{3+cfl{3+ ()fP-{3-aa u
{3)
x
(w{3 a
+ a13 a
+ 1.
3
(}p{3 a
-
a13 u
a
) (2)
of
where we have used Problem 5.18. Using the symmetry properties
a{3
, ,
d(} =
aa. _
a
2w
2
2a
2 1 £)2
R
a
u {3
a{3u
u
-
a +
- .
= -
;a 3
394 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
u =
cu
;(3 {3
・
a a
equation.
l1a{3 along
box along its worldline, he chooses =
u and his
eo e{3
=
ea'
world line. From each point peT) on his world-line (T =
proper time), he
sends out spatial geodesics orthogonal to u, with affine parameter equal
to proper length s. If n is the tangent vector to the spatial geodesic
through the point P near his world-line, then he assigns to P the
o k k
coor d 1na t es
.
x =
T, X =
sn .
2
d x
a
r
a dx{3 dx Y
+
{3y CiX"
=
0 (1)
dA2
where we can take A to be the proper time of the particle. The 4-velocity
1
)-2.
2
(y, yy), where
a
of the particle is dx IdA =
y
=
(1- V First change
d/dA to d/dt in Equation (1) using d/dA=yd/dt:
d 2 xa + 1 dy dxa + r
a dx{3 dx Y = 0 (2)
{3y <It
・
2 Y dt dt dt
dt
Putting a =
0, we get
1 dy + r
0 dx{3 dx Y =
o
{3y dt
.
y dt dt
dv j
(IT
+ (-vjr
O
+ rj ) dx{3 dx Y
O.
{3y
=
{3y dt dt (3)
d vj j 0
.
J J k
.
v r + r + 2r 0
v (4)
-
dt 00 oo kO
.
dv j j 0
.
k'J k'
(IT
=
v r 1
00 x-O
-
rJ
00 1 -
x r oo , k l -
2v
rJkol x=O .
(5)
.,!-o
_
_
x=O
r {3 e =
V e = -
o{3 e
a O (3 u a a (3
r
Q/3a uAw u
aa u/3 Ea/3Au
-
= == +
a/3ua
-
/3ao
・
a
Since u =
(l,Q), ua =
(-l,Q), aa =
r = 0 if (3 =
a
{3a 0
r = -
r = -
a
OjO jOO j
m
r r
EjkOmCUm EjkmCU (6)
= - = =
kjO jkO
The r's with no O-index are found from the condition that the coordinate
a k k
lines x =
(T, sn ), where T and n are independent of s, are geodesics.
Thus,
2
o =
d x
a
+ r
a dx/3 dx Y
ds
2 {3y ds ds
O + r
a j nk
jkn
=
・
r .
= 0 ・
(7)
aJ k
396 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
a a a a
R r r r
+
/lr/l{3o raO/lr/l{3y
=
{3yo {3o,y
-
{3y,o
-
.
This gives
Rj
rjoo,k =
OkO
+
rjok,o rjk/lr/lOO + rjO/lr/l
-
Ok
・
At x =
0:
rjok,O
m
cjkmw
= -
,0
rjk/lr/l OO
=
0
o
l1 rj rj
'O/l r
J m
r =
r + r
Ok 00 Ok Om Ok
wI
n
+
cmjnw
=
aja k c
km1
and thus
dv j k j m n 1 m k
(R OkO-Cjkm W ) 2
,0+ajak+cmjnW
-a -x c w +
_
v
cjkmw
-
dt j km1
. . .
k
.
-RJOkOx
-aj(l+ .!.) + (x x [
,o)1- x )x2 (v x]J)1
+ .
The first term is the" inertial force" due to the acceleration of the refer-
k
.
2
(1)/ax j ax l x- 0 xk
k
a
j
+
RJOkOx =
(a J.)abs + a /axj
I x
-
-
o
+ a _
- -
=
(a.) + a (I) / ax j I
x =x
Jabs
-Partie Ie
.
_
the second and third are the centrifugal and Coriolis forces respectively.
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS 397
we have
o =
411 T v. =
(I) <I> ,V + (I) <I> ,v. _!. a v
(2 <i>a;v<I> ,a )
11 ,v
.
,11,V ,11 ,v 2 11
1(1)
\
II'V
(I)
V'II )
(1) ,V m
+ '.I:'
m,V
11'.1:' .
・
,11;V [ ,p.,v ]
(I)
,ara v]0)
=
so only the last term in our equation survives and the
0(1) =
-
(I)'v = 0 ・
;v
Solution 14.14. In the proposed Equation (2) the term ReI> is indepen-
dent of the size of the laboratory in the same way that the p term is. In
principle then, if we measure the <I> field we can measure the Ricci
curvature; the conformally invariant Equation (2) then violates the spirit
The (I) field due to this stationary particle of charge 111 satisfies
m
'.I:' .
,j _ !. m
R '.I:' =
11 1 u
(r ) .
,j 6
curvature other than the Ricci scalar. Pres umably (and in fact) these
eI> = -
exp 1 {- r / a , I a
=
R-2
112(1),r /l1112/r2 [1
r
F = =
+ r/v/6a] exp {- ria v/ 6 1
2
r 2
"J
r p mas s
2 -energy
12a
14
"J
[r(cm.)]2 [P/Pnuclear]' 10-
Thus, even if the scalar forces are being measured inside matter at
14 3
nuclear dens ities, P nuc 1 ear
=
10 g/ cm , a very large (r "J
1 00 km)
miniscule.
411}11 =
Fl1v. = -L (I gl t F/l V )
,v ,v
Iglt
'
V /l
Igl2 Igl2
Fl1v
,v
=
411}11
A
F
Av,11
= -
I1 V I1 ,v
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS 399
and hence
v ,11
-
AI1,v + A =
411}11 .
(1)
,v ,v
allowed in flat spacetime, and then apply the "comma to semicolon" rule
we get
V
-
AI1;v + A ;11 =
411}11 ・
(2)
;v;v
If, on the other hand, we apply the rule directly to Equation (1) we get
V ;11
-
AI1;v + A =
411}11 .
;v ;v
V a
-
AI1;v + A ;11 + R l1 A
a
=
411}11 .
(3)
;v ;v
As of 1975, there is no
experimental evidence to tell which is correct.
=
411 }11, where the term in parentheses mayor may not be present. Since
the Ricci tensor vanishes in vacuum, the only hope of detecting its term
gm. cm
・
3
)t y
( (t ,E)(P/gm.. cm-
minimum
oAI1 .
)
-.,
14
All 1.16 x 10 cm
p =
1. One can also dream up fancier curvature coupling terms like
the magnitude of the effect resulting from such terms. Since the equations
the photon rest mass do put some limits on K, but so far they are not
useful ones.
4 7T Tllv = _
(FIl
\1 a
F
av
+ !. gllVF Fa (3
4 a{3 ) (1)
{3;Il
( 1.
)
av a
T llv
4 7T.V -
F Il Fav + F
FIla.v + F F =
0 (2 )
{3
= ・
,
a'v , , 2 a
_Fa{3gp.r( Fa{3;r+Fra;(3) = -
Fa{3gllT(Fa{3;r+ F
ra;{3-Fr{3;a)
= -
F
a
{3gfr (Fa{3;r Fra;{3 + + F
(3r;a)
oc F
a
{3glff F [a{3;r] = 0 .
-
4 7T T llv -
-
-
,.V a ,.v'
Solution 14.19. First note that H has been normalized to have dimen-
dx ll / dA =
aH/ a7T (1)
11
a7T /dA = -
aH/ axil (2)
11
CHAPTER 14: SOLUTIONS 401
V
pf.1 =
gf.1 (TTV -
eA
v
) .
(3)
eA ) (TT -
(TTv
-
eA ) ・
dA 2 ,a f.1 /l
v v f.1 ,a v
dTTa d fl + )
( f.1p eA
_
a
CiA dA
dplL p{3
=!!
cafl cIA
+!!
caf.1,t-J
p{3plL + eA
a
,t-J
+
dA. f.1 " a
o =
(gf.1f3 gt-JY ,a
)=
gf.1f3,a gt-JY + gf.1f3 gt-JY, a
gYv gf.1f3 g
V
gf.1 ,a
= _
t-Jy,a
.
Thus
dpY + gay is 1
\ p f3 p fl -
gaYeF Pfl .
\ f.1,f3 gf3fl,a)
-
CiA 2 af.1
402 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
Since
(j11-!.
p ( )P {j11
gal1,{jP 11,{j {j,11 P
-
2 + ,
we
get, finally
dpY eFY I1
dX"
+ r
Y{jl1 pfJpl1 =
I1P
can guess that for a charged particle, 1T. is conserved, where 11' is the
served quantity.
v p
p
=
eF.p
that
v (TT ) (V V (V eA V
pp) + p + e
pA) +
. . .
= . .
P p p
=e .F'p+O+e(VpA)' -ep'VA .
Here we have used Killing's equation to set the second term to zero and
to rewrite the last term. Note that the order of vectors in the dot products
in the first line is immaterial, but F has two "slots" and we must keep
the vectors in the correct positions. Now the fact that the electromagnetic
field admits an ignorable coordinate is expressed by the relation
o =
fA =
V A
VA
-
v (11' =
)e ・
F.p + e ・
(V A) ・
p
-
ep
・
(V A) .
p
=
e .F'p-e .F.p
=
0
equations -
0
F[aJ3,v] F[aJ3 ,v]
= =
1 1
Fllv. \ g\ 2
[FIlV\ g\2] ,v JIl
-
= =
411 .
,v
Since
vQ 2 -lIn-vQ
-
2 "V
-
"V IIn
Fr
_
gr- g
fJ F =
f gr- g fJ F =
f F r
J3 J3
_
a a
g ==
Det( t3) f4g
=
11-
it follows that \ g!2FIlV =
\ gl2 Fllv so that
2 1
f
-
FI1V. = -
[I g1 2 FI1V] ,v =
411 JI1 =
411 gJ1fl Ja
1 gl t
,v
2-
=
417 (fgl1a ) fJa =
411 f JI1 ,
and therefore
FIlV =
411 JI1 .
;v
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS
Solution 15.1. When the particle moves in the equatorial plane, we have
2
L =
( =
a/acp is a Killing vector so 'p
is conserved; see Problem 10.10.)
quantity (under rotations) and then evaluated the invariant in the original
torial
Po
=
0 and 0 =
71/2 we have
p =
conserved .
But in general
2
gOO r2p gcf>cf> 2 p
L = +
r2p =
PO +
sin
2
0
Solution 15.2.
orient the coordi-
(a) Using the spherical symmetry of the metric .we
nate axes so that the particle is at 0 =
71/2 with 0 =
0 at r =
0; then
i (r
2
0) =
r
2
sin 0 cos 0 2
is 0 =
71/2 for all r.
404
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 405
2
(b) Using the constant of motion L of Problem 15.1, we have
(L .p )
2
'\
_
4 2
r s1n 0
[d<:)T :4 [2K8L
2
= -
2K8pcp
-
K (8e)2]
and hence
2 2
d (00) K
= _
00 .
2 4
dA r
Solution 15.3. We have two constants for radial fall: u.u = -1 and
u
・
a/at =
u
o
= -
(1-2M/r)uO. From these we get
-(1-2M/r)(uo)2 (1_2M/r)-1(u )2
r
u.u = -1 =
+
=
[_ (1-2M/r)+ (1-2M/r)-1(dr/dt)2] (uo)2
=
[- (1-2M/r)+ (1-2M/r)-1 (dr/dt)2] (u o )2 (1-2M/r)2 .
(dr/dt)2 =
(1-2M/r)2 [1- (1-2M/r) (u o )-2] .
"" 1
radial distances dt =
(1-2M/r)-2 dr so he measures velocity
dr d
"""" = (1-2M/r)-1 ..l
dt
.
dt
406 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Solution 15.4. From the first integrals of the geodesic equation (see
Problem 15.3) -
U = -
E =
constant
o
gOOu grr(u )2
r
+ =
-1
we get
O dt E
u = =
(1)
dr 1 -
2M/ r
d 1
-
r 2
=
d (E -1+ 2M/r)2 (2)
-
u =
The minus sign for the square root in Equation (2) corresponds to an in-
falling particle.
dr
dr =
(3)
1
(2 2: t
-
! t
fr
[2 ) l)J
R3 2
( ) (
r -1 2r
T = -
+ cos -
(4)
8M
\R R
2 R
so that we have
f (1 J
Edr
-
t dr 1
=
E dl1
2r d11 1_
2
1-
3 2
( 8M )
R
t (1+ cos 11) dl1
J
2M
=
(1- ) R
1- 4M [R(l + cos 11)]-1
(7)
r -+ 2M.
1-
3 2
( )
r =
2 L
- -
+ constant (8)
3 2M
and since
dt _
-
dt/dr
dr dr/dr
we get
1-
1
t = -
2
3
r3
( )
2M
2
-
4M
( 2M )
r
t
+ 2M log ( 1
+
r
1
+ cons tant .
(9)
(2 t -
1
Case (iii) .
By analogy with case (i), choose R such that
2
- -1 v
2M 2 2 00
- =
E -
1 =
(1 -
v) -
1 =
R 00
2
1 -v
oo
t
_( : )t r ( :) 1)]
1
T =
+ -
cosh-
( + .
(10)
408 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Note that T = 0 at r =
0, and T = - 00
at r =
()(). Put
1
.,.,
=
cosh-
( +
1)
and get
r =
(cosh.,., -
1) (r =
0 at 11 =
0) (11)
.1
2
R3
T = -
( ) 8M
(sinh 11-11) (12)
R 2
)
11
+ 1 + coth
2" \t
( [
2M R R.
log +
1) 11+ (slnh 17-11) (13)
= -
.1
.
2M 4M
)
R 2
11
-
+ 1 -
coth -
2M 2
which implies
gOOu +
gCPCPu +
rur2 = -1 .
(1)
From the Killing vectors a/at and a / a,p two more firs t integrals are
L =
cons tant
u,p
=
u = -
E =
constant
o
- -
where Land E are respectively the angular momentum per unit rest
,I..,p L 2
-
2 00 2 'P
dr 1 E
( )
g g
- - -
=
(2)
dT r
L2 i\ t
-1
{[ ( ) J( })
2
-
2 2
dr/dr =:t -1+E 1- 1- (3)
-"l
・
From u,p =
g,p,pL we have d,p/dr =
L/r 2 .
Combining this with Equation
(3) gives us finally
-
1
2
2{[ ]<1-2M/r)}
dr 2"
-
r 2 -1 L
=
:t -1+ E (1-2M/r)
-"l
・
d L
such that pr =
dr/dA and p =
d /dA =
r-2p ,then
dr =
pr
(fi
.
d,p p
From p'p
= 0 we get a relation amongst pr, pcP, and po which can be
1/r ] (1)
where y ='
p /pconstant.
=
If we now introduce u ='
M/r, Equation (1)
becomes
2 2 2 3
(u,)2 (1-2u)-1 ( )
2
=
(1-2u) [yM _
u ] =
yM _
u + 2u
2
(3)
"
u + u =
3u .
u
o
=
(M/b) sin,p .
approximately
ui +
u
'
3u =
3( Y sin2 =
( ) (l-cos 2 ・
)
410 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
u
( ) sine/> +
( y (3+cos 2e/? .
Now we can find the total deflection angle by calculating the two angles
at which r = 00
(u= 0). These angles must satisfy:
2 sin cf> -
cf> -
Solution 15.7.
2 2 2 2 2 3
(du/dcf? +(u-u o ) -f U
o
=
6u (u-u )
o o +2(u-u o ) ・
(See also MTW, Equation 25.47 or Weinberg, Equation 8.4.29.) The terms
u =
U
o (1 + f COS cf> )
where f is the eccentricity. Now note that the first correction term is
(m 2\
3
2 '" 3 2 '"
6uo(u- u o ) =
u(u o ( ) =
u (
\r )
(u-uO)3
(:; (3)
and the second is =
(9 so we can ignore it! Thus, first
(du/dcf?2 + (1- 6u o ) (u -
u
o
)2 =
u f2
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 411
1
Now define tfr ==
(1- 6u o )2" </>, /1 =
u -
U
o
so that
(du/dtfr)2 + /12 =
u f2 /(1- 6u o ) .
</> =
277(1- 6M/r o )- 2" so that the change in the periastron is given by
o</> =
3M
277 .
ro
per or b 1 t
[For another way of doing this, better suited to large eccentricity, see
du
2
2(1)(u) 2Eoo
( d<t>)
2
+ u + = .
2 2
L L
3
With (I) = -
M/r -
3 2Eoo
;Y
2amu
(
2 2mu
+ u --- =
2 2 2
L L L
( +
y
(1-c)(u-u )2
2 (u-uO)3 O
-
=
constant.
2 2
conclude that 6au o m/L For
By comparing terms of order u c = .
2
nearly circular orbits L mr so that c =
(1+ c)2" </> so that the angular spread from periastron to periastron is
277 277
</> =
1
=
1
2" 2
)
(1 c)
e ta
-
412 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
and therefore
ocp =
3a
271 2
per or b 1 t
.
rO
(prolate). )
8
(c) In G 1 units 1.5 km. For Mercury .58x 10 km.
c
M0
= = = =
ro
So the relativistic advance is
ocp =
.105 seconds of arc per orbit
=
42 seconds of arc per century
since the orbital period is .241 years. If this advance were due to the
oblateness of the sun, then for the other planets we would have,
ocp =
(42 sec/century) (r Me rc. /r)2 (Period of Merc./Period)
7
=
(42 sec/century) (r M erc. /r)2.
Numerical answers:
r
Merc general relativity oblateness
r sec/ century sec/century
Mercury 1 42 42
Solution 15.8. We solve the problem in two stages: First, compute the
infinity (SOl).
Let DR
be the 4-velocity of the rocket and PR
the photon momentum
at r.
・
V D
SOR SOR PR
=
・
(1)
V
o DR PR
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 413
If v is the proper relative velocity between the rocket (R) and SOR
observer, then in the rocket frame Equation (1) &ives us
V
SOR yv o (l+v cosa)
=
V V
o o
or
v
SOR
=
yv o (l+v cosa) (2)
1
-2
2
where y ==
(1- v) . To
com,pute v, recall that circular orbits have an
angular velocity
o dcp
(IT
-
Q
C )t (3)
= ・
d t
rdcp
[ J
M
v= =
_
-
(4)
dt r(1-2M /r)
(1-2M/r)tdt
The observer at infinity then measures a frequency
V
SOR 1
v =
SOI 0
=
v
SOR (1- 2M/r)2
u
SOR
v
SOI
=
yv o (l+v cosa)(1-2M/r)2
Solution 15.9.
(a) From the first integral of the motion, one has the equation
(dr/dt)2 + V
2
(r) =
E2 (1)
414 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
dcp/dr =
pep =
L/r2 (2)
(d)
-
u )
=
(3)
L2
2 2 -2
2u' u" = -
(2u L -
2 -
6 L 2u ) u' L
or
" 1 2
u + u =
-2
+ 3u ・
(4)
L
For large impact parameter, the right side of Equation (4) is small. Let
u =
U
o
+ fV, with the right hand side of Equation (4) =
B(f), then
U
o
=
A cos cp ,
A =
constant, (5)
Substitution of U
o
into Equation (4) yields
-2 2 2 -2 2
(6)
N
v + v = L + 3A cos rp = L + A (1+ cos 2<1? .
A;
-2 2 -2 2
v =
L + A -
cos 2rp = L + 2A _A2 cos
2
rp
and hence
2 --2 2
u =
A cos cp -
A cos 2
'fJ + L + 2A . (7)
2 2
A cos cp -
A coscp -
B = 0
1. 2
B == + 2A
-2
L
1
2 2 2
A -
(A +4A B) B
(8)
cos cp = -
2
-.--
_
A
.
2A
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 415
cp 17/2 -
B/ A .
(9)
17 /2) the
total deflection angle is
cp 2B/A
=
.
(10)
Equation (5)
A =
M/b .
(11)
Also,
2 2
L
2 =
L
2
=
b (E2 _
m
2
) =
b {32
2 2
M2(1_ 2)
2 2
M m M m
2 2
B =
M (1_{32) +
2M
2
=
M (1+{32) .
(12)
2 2 2
b (32 b b (32
2
d. 2 Ze
-
(myr) =
ymr(c)
--
(14a)
dt 2
r
2
myr (c) == L =
constant (14b)
2
Ze
my
- -
== E =
constant ・ (14c)
r
2
From Equation (14b), d/dt =
(L/myr )d/dcp so Equation (14a) becomes
( )
d2 Z2e4 u=
Ze2E (15)
-u+ 1-
2 2
dcp2 L L
2
!. rcp
Ze E
u =
b
cos +
2
' (16a)
L _
Z2 e 4
1
to
(1_ Z )2 4 , (16b)
2
1 Ze E
u = -
b
cos cp +
2
(17)
L
2
o = !. cos,l.. +
Ze E
b 2'
L
2
2bZe E
CPEM =
L
(18)
(3 )
2
132
2
2 b m
L =
1- (32
Equation (18) becomes
1.
2 2 2
2Ze (1-13 )
CPEM =
(19)
mb{32
Equations (13) and (19) differ because of the difference in the tensor
r* =
r + 2M log (r/2M -1) + constant
*
u =
t -
r .
2 2 2 2
ds =
-(1-2M/r)du -2dudr+r d0 .
(1)
Putting ds =
0, we see that outgoing radial photons travel along lines
u =
constant. The redshift is calculated by comparing the time between
L
infinity to times at the emitter by
using u =
constant along the rays.
r
We must therefore find the component
U
du/dr =
U of the emitter's 4-velocity
U as a function of t.
coordinates and
ut =
U
U
=
constant = -
E (3)
observer observer
falling along r=r('r') atc::x:>
and U.U =
-1 implies
-
1
-
-2
U =
-E -
(E -1+2M/r)2 (4)
r
1 2M/r
-
therefore
1
U
U
=
gUUU U + gurU r
=
0 + [E+ (E 2 -1+ 2M/r)2] (1-2M/r)-1 (5)
and
418 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
E [-E-CE2 -1+2M/r)!]
r
u =
gurU u
+ grrU r
= +
1. (6)
-2
= -
(E -1+ 2M/r)2 .
Thus
-
1
r 2
dr U -
(E -1 + 2M/r) 2" (1-2M/r)
(7)
= =
du u
- -
2
l'
U
E+(E -1+2M/r)2"
Near r =
2M, Equation (7) gives
l)-l dr
u -4M log (r/2M -
1) + constant
1 -
2M/r "J
exp (-u/4M) .
U
u
"J
e
+u/4M .
But u =
t + constant for an observer at fixed (large) r, so finally
- -
(dr/dr)2 + V
2
(r) =
E2 (la)
_
1
2 2
V ==
[(1- 2M/r) (1 + L /r )]2" .
(lb)
2
V max =
[2 + 36 + (1,2 -12)(1-12/[,2)2" (2a)
54
L == L/M .
(2b)
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 419
If a particle has E > V
max'
it is captured. Thus, the limiting L for
capture is found by equating
2
E2 =
V
max
.
(3)
v
2 [2 + 36 + ([2 -12)(1-6/[2) =
[2 + 9
max
54 27
-2 -2
L =
27E 9 (4)
crit
-
.
Corresponding to L
crit
is a critical impact parameter, b crit ' given by
L crl t ' L
crl t
.
b = =
'
crit 1
p 2
)2
2
(E _
m
where m is the particle mass. Capture takes place for impact parameters
b < b
crit
' Thus the cross section for capture then becomes
2 2 2
17L 17M L
2
. ,
crl t crlt
a =
17b = =
cap crit 2 2
(E2_m ) (E -
1)
2
..1-
(
17M
1 +
) (27E2 9)
-
-2 -2
E E
or
( 2)
2 2 2
17b
crl t
'
2717M 1 + ・
(5)
3E
- -
2 2
(b) For E 1, (small (3) we have E 1 + {3 and Equation (3)
can be approximated by
3
2 2
18 + 54(32 L + (L -
12)"2 / L .
2
We can solve for L to first order in {32 to find
420 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
L rit =
16(1+ 2{32) + fJ(f34)
and
2 17M2 L 2crlt .
1617M
2
a =
17 b =
(6)
crit
(3
・
capt
(E2 _
1)
2
2 2
r
r t
r
r
cp )
tt(u) +
cpcp(u
=
0
and hence
rrtt
( t ( )2
2
=
M 1
w = = = =
rr 3 2
r 64M
cpcp
=
t16017M .
From gtt(U
t
)2 +
cp(ucp)2 =
-1 we get
1
dt 3M -2
( )
t
u == = 1 _
=
2
dr r
I'1T =
I'1t =
8017M 251.5M
Paul
.
For Peter's orbit we use the equations describing radial fall (Problem
1-
2
R3
r 2
( ) (1)
.
Peter
=
8M
(11 + sin 11) ・
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 421
The equations for Rand 11 are Equations (7) and (5) of Solution 15.4
(X-1)t + tan TJ
4017 log + (X -l)t
[TJ + (TJ+ sin
TJ)] (2)
=
X
(X -I)! -
tan 1 11
2
4 =
X(l + cos 11) (3)
where X == R/2M.
Now use physical intuition: Peter travels outward for a considerable
time while Paul orbits. Therefore X should be quite large and 11 17.
Since logarithms are slowly varying functions, ignore the logarithm term
and approximate
xt
4017
0+ X17) ・
11 =
2.46029 X =
2 =
17.91737
Tpeter =
468.72M ・
Paul measures a much smaller (about half) proper time interval than
slow." Peter spends most of his time at fairly small velocities and not
r
2
=
e 2IL r2 (la)
2A 2 2IL ctr2
e dr =
e .
(lb)
When these are combined, we get a differential equation for the transforma-
tion r =
r (r) in terms of the known function A:
422 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
dF
r
eA dr
r
r =
constant x exp
(J e dr) (2a)
211 2
/r2
e =
r .
(2b)
A
For the Schwarzschild metric e =
(1- 2M/r)-t and we have from
Equation (2a)
which gives
r =
constant x exp
(f (r
2 _
dr.!
2Mr)
2
)
r =
r(l + M/2i)2 (3)
r =
[r -
M :t (r (r-2M))t] .
(4)
21l (1 + M/2r)4
e =
.
(5)
From this it follows that the area of a sphere with rand t cons tant is
A =
(1+M/2r)4r2
f de sinedc,b =
41Tr2(1+M/2r)4. (6)
Equation (4) the mapping from r to r is double valued and (ii) the
2 2 2 2
(dz/dr)2] dr dcp2
2 2
ds =
dz + dr + r dcp2 =
[1 + + r
2
(1- 2M/r)-1 dr dcp2
2
=
+ r .
The solution is
1
Z =
[8M(r-2M)]Z .
(7)
Solution 15.14.
'" '" '" '"
At""t =
AX""x =
cosh I/r
'P
At"" x
=
AX""t =
sinh';'
so that
a
R"',"' ,"', = A a""A{3 ""AY""A ""R", (J"'
t x t x t x t x a fJ yu
txtx txxt
4 2 2 4
=
(cosh tfr -
2 sinh .;, cosh .;, + sinh tfr) Rt t
2 2
=
(cosh tfr -
sinh tfr)2 Rt t
=
R'" '" '" '"
・
txtx
424 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
3
2M/ r
""""
R R
t t-;
= = -
OcpOcp
3
R R .;}..." M/ r
" " ""
R R
""
= = - -
tJrO
=
t{ftO tcptcp
=
?cp";cp
and the components related to these by symmetry. To show that all physi-
cal components are invariant for a radial boost we can explicitly calculate
20 independent, boosted components in a straightforward manner. Another
I
" '"
+ m == + 1
== e
t e-; n== -e-; eO ecp
and to observe that the Riemann tensor can be written as a sum of products
of the vectors:
1 M.
R =
2 3
{- (n A I) (n A I) + (m A m *) (m Am *)
r
For a boost in the r-direction with velocity parameter tfr, clearly the
e-" =
cosh tfr e'" -
sinh tfr e" ' it follows that
r r t
1 =
e':' + e" =
e -tfr (e", + e",)
t r t r
n = -
e-;
=
etfr (et , +
e-;,)
so tha t
='
l OV'
, 1j1 nv ・
From the form of R then, it is clear that all components are invariant.
To see that this same conclusion does not apply to boosts in other
R"""' p....,
t :i.., =
A a ""A {3 :£. R'" ' '"
r r t
rarfJ
3
= -
(M/r ) sinht/J cosht/J
1= R'" 2
"''''
.
r
tr
given by
3
2 32M 2 2
e- r/2M (-dv +du )+
2 2
ds =
r d0 (1 a)
r
where
r/2M
(2
2 2
-
e = u _v .
(lb)
Setting v =
constant, and () =
11/2 in Equation (la) and equating the line
element to a Euclidean surface of revolution gives
3
-r 12M 2 2
32M 2
dcp2 [1 + (dz/dr)2] dr dcp2
2
e du + r = + r (2)
r
or
2 3 2
dz 32M du
( )
12M
( )
-r
1 + =
e .
dr r dr
2 r 12M
dz
( )
r e
1 + = ・
(3)
2M 2
dr
(r/2M _1)er/2M + v
r/2M
r/2M e
> 1 .
(4)
r/2M + 2
(r/2M_1)e v
2
r/2M log v .
"rhus, for Ivl > 1, there will be a minimum value of r inside which the
d (circumference) < 2 17.
d (proper radius)
-
32rM3 [1 ( YJ
2 / 2M 2 2
difJ2
r
ds = e- -
du + r
(6)
2
2
32rM3 [1 ( fJ
[ (u-v ) :J
r/2M
e-
r / 2M (r / 8M ) e dr
2
+
2 2
=
r
dcp
-
and we require
[1 ( )2J: (u-v Y
r / 2M
2 e > (7)
-
at each r.
2 2
[( ;:J
dz2+[(9/2)M(z-w)2]3d02.
2
ds =
_dw2+ (1)
t
[
2
J
9
r = M (z -
w) ・
(2)
2
(We are led to do this because Equation (1) is manifestly spherically sym-
2
metric and therefore, the coefficient of d0 is a geometrically defined
curvature radius.) With r thus defined we have
(r + z =
w (3a)
dw =
dz -
(2r dr ・
(3b)
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 427
1
2 2M 2 2
( ) dz2 2 2
ds 1- 2
( ) ..L dz dr _..L dr d0
-
=
+ + r
r 2M 2M
・
(4 )
2 2
Next we want to try to diagonalize the dz , dz dr, and dr terms: Define
a coordinate t and a function F(r) by
z =
t + F(r) , (5)
-(1_ 2)(dt2+2F'dtdr+F'2dr2)
2
ds =
2 2
(2r dr (dt+ F'dr) 2 dr
2
+ 2 -'
+ r d0 , (6)
(1_ 2)F' ( 2 f =
・
(7)
(1- )dt r
-
-1
2M 2 2
( )( )
2
+ 2 ..1:.. 1- dr2 _
dr + r d0
2M r 2M
or
line z =
constant.
fies z =
constant (see solution to 15.16). By Equation (5) of Solution
15.16, this implies
428 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
t 2M
-1
( 2M ) ( )
, r
dt = -
F dr = -
1- dr (1)
r
(dr/dt)2 =
(2M/r)
(1- )2 M .
(2)
for a particle falling from rest at infinity) shows that Equation (2) repre-
infinity.
I
-1
U
( p ) (poon+oopo<)
p (1)
=
v =
(1- 2M/r)dr/dt, by using the relationship between U
o
and dr/dt
0 2 r 2
goo ( u )
+
grr(u) = -
1 ,
to yield
v
2
= 1 -
(1- )( ・
Y (2)
oon+: Y
1
1
2
v(1-2M/r)2 nr
=
constant ==
M
.
(3)
1
477
2
(1_v )2
density: n
here
==
mp nusual-
CHAPTER 15: SOLUTIONS 429
1
dp yKny
-
2
a
_ _
-
-
dp 1
1 yKny
-
+ l(y-1)
This implies
2 2
y
-
1 a a (p + p)
yKn =
2
=
n
(4)
1 -
a /(y-1)
or
2
l!..-l
n
[YK(l_:2 Y (5)
=
・
1(y-l)
.
and some vCr), Equations (2), (3) and (5) can be thought of as defining M
as a function of r and v. We can then find the radius at which the flow
get
2M
r =
(6)
/(y_1))2 (1-
2 2
1 -
(1- a a )r 00
where
P
T
00
=
(P ) 00
・
( ) [yK(l- JFI
2 a a
4M a 1 -
M y=l a
2
/(y-l) (7)
_
417 2 2 2 2
[1- (l-a ) (1 a l(y-1)) roo ]
-
2
2a 00
2
a =
, y 1= 5/3 (8a)
5-3y
430 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2
a =
2.3- 2
a
oo ' y
=
5/3 .
(8b)
Using Equations (8) and Equation (6), we conclude finally that the radius
5 3Y
( ) a2
2M
-
rs
=
Y 1= 5/3 (9a)
8
00
32 M
rs
=
Y
=
5/3 (9b)
4a oo
1 1
0(1) =
V.(V(I)) =
(_g)-2[(_g)2gzl'-"(I) {3 ] ,a ,
(1)
1 1 1
OO
2
n (- g) 2 g I {(-g) 2 grr (I) }
-
o (I) =
(- g) (I)
, 0 , 0
+
,
r ,
r
(2)
1
tJO(I) 1 ,1.,,1.,
+ {.( g) 2 g
_
and gOO and gcpcp have their flat space form. It is clear that the third
and fourth terms of Equation (2) have their flat space form (with flat space
2
angular operator L ) and thus, Equation (2) has the form
.
-1
L2(1)
[ ( ]
2M 1 2 2M
0(1)
( 1-
) (I) + r 1-
) (I) + (4)
-
00
= - - - -
・
' 2 r 2
r r,
r ,r r
)( ],r
2M 2M \m L
(1-
2M\m
o =
(I)
,00
_.1
r
2 (1-
r
r2 1-
r/ '
r
_
r
2 r)"Z'
.
(5)
l/1(r,t)Yfm?()'cP). (6)
1/1,00
-
where
2M 2M fef + 1 )
V
f(r) (1 )[ +
] (7b)
= -
r 3 2
r r
Solution 15.20. The Brans-Dicke field equations can be put into the form
o (I) =
Til (lb)
11
(I) =
constant .
(2)
GIlV =
0 ,
solution. )
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS
Solution 16.1. Since an observer's time axis points along his 4-velocity,
if he is stationary in the (t, r, 0, cp) coordinate system then his time axis
2 a a 2 2 2(1)
1 '" '"
f f -
f e
eo. eo
' =
= = =
go 0
-
dt
・
at
-(I)
Thus f = e and
-<I> a
eo
=
e ' (1)
at
The three directions, alaO, alacp, alar are all orthogonal to alat and
choosing basis vectors along them, with unit normalization (same tech-
a -II a -1 a
e -Il r sin v
-1
(2)
L1
8"=e -Il )
.
(
'"
e'" err =
"37}
ecp
=
'
・
r
or
,
() 00 acp
-a a
(3)
,eS>
<w =
(3
U
6J
0 =
ecf>d't, w"; elLfu,
= 6Je =
elLr dO ,
6J = elLr sin 19 J;p. (4)
frame -A -1 -1
_(I) L1
)
.
eO' ecp= (
'" '"
et=e
e
t
,
=er , eO=r
e r Slnu
ecp;
'"
Ih
'"
A
-
0 -:i.. -
c:,t =
e'¥dt, c:,r =
e dr, c:, =
rdO, w = r sinO dcp ・
432
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTI0NS 433
2A
Here the metric is as given in the introduction, except (1- 2m/r)-1 == e .
" "
"
-r -() -,/..
V =
W AW AW
.- -- -
A2
=
e r sin () d r A d () A
dcp
A 2
=
e r sin () dr d() dcp .
The pressure at opposite points on the vertical walls of the fluid element
are the same, but because of the radial pressure gradient, the top and
-A-
I Ptop -
Pbottom I
=
Ip,,
,r
rl I pew
,r
I = .
Thus,
I F buoy.! =
=
Ip ,r e->"()Cl}w 1
=
Ip ,
re-AVI .
-A 2m 2
Fb
uoy.
=
e p
,r
V&--r =
( 1- -
r, r ) p Ve.....r .
3
F =
-F bu 0 = _
(p+p)(m+41Tr p)Ve;- .
gr a v .
y . 1-
(1_ 2:nY
2
r
pmV
p ,r Ve"r = --e"
2 r
.
dcp2:
2
r, dr, and d(}2 + sin ()
ds
2 =
-A(r,t)dt
2
+ B(r,t)dr
2
+ 2C(r,t)drdt+ D(r,t)(d(}2+ sin 2(}dcp2).
434 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1
Choose a new radial variable r' D"2 (r, t). Dropping the prime, have
=
we
2 2 2 2
ds -E(r,t)dt F(r,t)dr 2 2
+ + 2G(r,t)drdt (d0 0dcl>2).
=
+ r +sin
dt' =
H(r,t)[E(r,t)dt-G(r,t)dr]
where H is integrating factor chosen
an to make the right-hand side a
ds 2 = _
e2 <I?(r , t) dt 2
+ e
2 ..\(r, t) dr2 + r
2
(d(P + sin 2 e d<t>2) .
'" 2e -((I)+A) A /r (2)
=
t r , t
r r
'" (e -2A
= _
1)/r
2
+ 2e
-2A
(I) /r (3)
,r
2A
GEE
00
=
G22 =
e- +(1) 2 -(I) A +(1) /r-A /r)
((I) ,rr,r,r,r,r,r
'P'P
(4)
-2<1?
e
(..\, tt +..\,/ <1?, t"\' t)
-
-
.
2dA =
dr
2A r
1 -e
(l_ rlM
2 ..\
e =
.
(5)
Equations (3) and (4) are now equivalent equations determining (I). (They
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS 435
had to be
way to find
equivalent because of the identity
(I) is to add
G{3a;{3 =
0.) The quickest
Equation (1) to Equation (3). This gives
(I)
,
r
= -
A
r
so e
2 (1)
=
f(t) e -2A. By defining a new time variable
l'
dt' =
f2 (t) dt, f can be eliminated, so the final form of the metric is
vestigation of this case (MTW, p. 845) shows there are no other solutions
Solution 16.4. From Birkhoff's Theorem (see Problem 16.3), we know that
infinite values of the M/r terms in the metric. The metric inside the
Solution 16.5. The vacuum field equations for the scalar field tI> and
2 (I)
(l)2,a'fJ fJ, Y
(1)
1
+ <p- (<p
,a;{3
-
o<P)
(3
0(1) = 0 .
(2)
U
(e -Ar 2 (1) , r
) =
0 .
(3)
r
,
A-u
1
e
<P =
a dr + b .
(4)
2
r
r
2U 2A
Near r = 0 the metric functions e and e approach unity. (The
metric is Lorentzian near r =
0.) The integral in Equation (4) therefore
blows up near r = 0 and (I) takes the form
near the origin. But if a is nonzero, the right hand side of Equation (1)
2 2
is of order a Ir (This is not a coordinate effect; the trace of the right
.
2 2
hand side is of order a /r so by Equation (1) the scalar curvature blows
2 2
up as a Ir .) For a solution regular at the origin, then, a must be zero,
Le. (I) must be constant. For (I) constant, Equation (1) reduces to the
g/1v
=
sina
e{j cosa
eO+ e
-sin a
e eO+ cosa e
.
:).
TOO
T"'....... 1
(
()cp
TOe
=
T
"'.......
T 0
.......'"
cp() cpcp
TOe T if;'
=
Solution 16.7. The standard form for the metric of a static, spherically
symmetric star is
2 2 <I> 2 2A 2 2 2
ds = _
e dt + e dr + r d0 (1)
The equation =
0
f3
is most easily evaluated by recalling that it is
p+p dn
dp/dr =
n dr
(2)
(see Problem 14.3). For a static star, both sides of Equation (2) vanish
t
identically. The only nonzero component of u is u and U'U =
-1 im-
P lies ut =
e-(I). Since only p ,r is nonzero, the only nontrivial compo-
t
= -
(p + p) r u u
t t =
(p + p) (I) ,
r
.
Gmp
dp/dr (2)
2
= --
r
p
=
KpY. (3)
438 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
When y =
4/3 the star is neutrally stable; this is seen in the fact that
mer) =
mea r)
3
per) =
a p(a r)
4
-
per) =
a pea r)
is also a solution to Equations (1), (2), (3) and has the same total mass
(
471 -l
dp Gmp P r
( ) ( )
m
1+ 1+ 1- (4)
Jr.
= _
dr 2 P m
r
brackets are all very close to unity. Hence, one can find an exact solu-
Equation (2) [e. g. by substituting into Equation (4) to find a small correc-
tion to p and by iterating]. Call this solution mer), per), per). From
this generate -
"
mer) =
mea r)
3
per) =
a p(a r)
4"
-
per) =
a
pea r) .
Equations (1) and (3) remain equalities, but the ratio of the right hand
side of Equation (4) to the left hand side is, to lowest order,
.
'"
""
rig ht
[ ]
2m
left
=
1 + (a _
1) + 471(ar)3 + .
(5)
p mar
the right side is greater than the left side, hence the pressure gradient is
At
1Tc
EF '"
(1)
R
(In this equation we have ignored such details as the fact that there are
approximately
2
GAm
B
EG (2)
'" -
the same way upon R. The decisive question is therefore the sign of the
1
total coefficient of R- . When it is positive, R will increase, the Fermi
finite R. When the coefficient is negative, collapse will set in and con-
tinue. The critical number of baryons at which the star becomes unstable
3
1Ic 2 57
( )
A .
crlt.
=
10 .
(3)
2
Gm
B
M crl t .
.
=
m
B
A '
c rl t .
2M
0 ・
(4)
{
2
for white dwarf
1
(me c ) -1
R
crit
"'-J
1rc A rit. x
2
(mBc ) for ne utron star
.
{
5 x 10 cm for white dwarf
sphere S passing through P and defined such that the geometry is the
same at all points on S. Then, from the line element, the measured area
--
V A(r) == dA =
811 r dr .
(2)
Thus,
-
22-- 22
dA .
dA =
1611 r dr. dr =
1611 r (1- 2m/ r) (3)
and
1 ----
(A/11)2
(1 )
dA dA .
m r ( ) =
4
-
1611A'
(4)
Solution 16.11.
becomes
2 2M 2 2 n2
ds
(1 -7 ) du -2dudr + r d li (2)
= - .
2M
.
.2
12
(1
2
)
L
..
2 2. 2
2 ur + r () () 'P (3)
= - -
u -
+ r sin
r
.
aL aL
ds ( ) ar
_
a r
= 0 (4)
u -
(M/r )u
2 2
+ r0 2 2
+ r sin () =
20 (5)
u M U u 2
r r r
.
= _
=
r , =
r sin ()
uu
2
'
()() cPcP
.
Similar ly, Equation (4) with r replaced by u, () and cP gives the re-
M 2M M' M
(1 ) (1 2r )
r
r =
r
rOO = -
r
_ _ -
uu ' ,
2 r r
r
() 1
(1- 2)
2 r
r
rcpcp r sin 0 r = r
= _ =-
,
ur
'
r () r'
r
r
0cpcp = -
sinO cos 0 ,
r cPr
cP
=!.
r
' r
CPOcp =
cot 0 ・
rY
110 Y
rY
Ra{3 (log IgI2),a{3 + (log
IgI2),y a{3-r {3or
=
{3,y
-
a
ay
that all the will have their Schwarz schild values (i.e. zero)
we see
Ra{3
except 2
Ruu = -
2M'/r ・
R =
gUUR uu
= 0
2
G uu = -
2M'/r
which implies that
T uu = -
M'/411 r
2
,
and that all other components of T are zero. Since the vector k =
Vu,
.I
M'
T=--k k
2
417 r
radiation.
Solution 16.12. The equations of stellar structure are (MTW, Equation 23.5
or Weinberg, Chapter 11.1)
-1
2111 2
ds 2
(1- 2)
2
r2d02 (1)
i
= _
e dt + dr +
f
2
.
m =
47Tr P dr (2)
0
3
dp (p + p) (m+ 411 r p)
=
(3)
dr r (r 2m) -
3
d(l) m + 417r p
=
(4)
dr
・
r (r -
2m)
Since P =
m =
411r3po/3 (5)
and
M =
411R3pO/3 , (6)
where R is the radius and M the total mass for the star. Substitute
dp =
rdr
471(PO + p) (tpo + p)
2
1- (871/3) r Po
1 1
2
P
= (1 -
2Mr /R3)"2 -
(1 -
2M/R) "2
(7)
Po
3(1-2M/R)t _
(1-2Mr /R
2 3
)t
The constant of integration has been determined by demanding p
=
0 at
r =
R. The quantity (I) is most easily found from the equation:
d(l) _
-
d(l)/dr _
-
1
・
dp dp/dr Po
+ P
Integrate to find
(I)
e =
constant/(po+p)
3 .1 1 23t
=
2
(1 -
2M/R) 2 -
where Equation (7) has been used to fix the constant of integration so that
(I) (r R) 2M /R) t
=
e =
(1 _
.
(That is, so that the metric will match smoothly to the Schwarzschild
1
Pc 1 -
(1-2M/R)"2
=
(9)
Po
3(1- 2M/R)t -
1
3
0 2: Y 1 =
0
- -
of state p =
1/3 p, so the equations of structure (see Problem 16.12)
read
3
4p(m+ 417 r p/3)
dp/dr =
(1)
r (r 2m) -
2
dm/dr =
417 r p .
(2)
gives per) =
(3/14)(417r
2
)-1; substitution of this p and m into Equa-
tion (1) verifies that they are a solution. From the equation of state
[( 2 2 817 3
n
) 417 P dp
PF (3)
= - = -
i
3 3
o h 3h
fF
( )
2 2 817 3
417 P dp (4)
3 PF
= -
P
-
=
P
・
3
o h 4h
3 4
( )
4h P
n(r) = k
817
3h3
N(r)
L n(r)d (proper volume)
=
L
A 2
=
n(r)e 47Tr dr
1417
=
Kr (6)
3
which is finite for all r. [Note: In deriving Equation (6) we have used
rl 7/ .
2A
e == =
r (1_ 2 (r) =
2 2
(3)ds 2 =
g rr dr + r
2
d0 =
(7/4)dr
2
+ r
2
d0
2
.
than r.
(3 )ds 2 2 2 2
=
(7/4) dr =
dr + dz
which implies
1
Z = :t (3/4)"2 r
conical singularity
446 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
metric will be continuous and (matching flat space inside to mass M out-
2 -2
M M
eY =
(1 -
2r ) ( 1 +
2r ) r> R
(2a)
2 -2
-
M M
(1 -
2R ) ( 1+
2R ) r < R
e
a
=
(1+ ) r> R
(1+ 2) r < R . (2b)
In Equations (1) and (2) we have used the fact that the geometry is
at r =
R (in isotropic radial coordinate distance).
""
manner R +(
R +(
L
""
1
L
""
""
(3)
TIS
za
dr dr
Aas TIS LlM e
= ・
== LIM
(-+ 0 (-+ 0
_( R-(
contribute.
(see
The components of Gflv for the metric of Equation (1) are
Problem 9.20) o d -a
(4a)
)
" -a
G o"""J ae """J--
2
(e
dr
G
r
"""J
0 (4b)
r
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS
447
()
G 1>
1 1 d2
[
-at , d
]
G '
-a
) (e
-
-a
() e
)
-
1> +Y (e
-
,a
2 y)
- -
-
2
- -
2 dr
dr
[
O O RH
A
O
=
A
o
=
-(877)-1 LIM
f O
R-f
ea / 2
dr
d: (e-a)dr ......
-(877)-1 LIM
f
ea/2
O
J/ e-
a
)
R-f
or
AD", -M
I\.
(4c)
_
-
0
2
417R (1 + M/2R)3
'"
Ar....=Ar=O
r r (5)
'" '" R+f
2
()O' 1>:;..
l [
/2
A =
A = -
(817)-1 LIM !.e a
(e-
a
) _.!!. (e
-a
y ,) dr
'-P 2 2 dr
f 0
R-f
dr
J (+£
!
[ i (e -a)
/2
= -
(817)-1 LIM
2
e
a
dr
-
e-ay'
f O R-f
or
O M
3
-
(
M/2R
)( )
M
A 1
'"
()
=
+ (6)
817R
2 1- M/2R 2R
=
R(l + M/2R)2 .
(7)
M M
=
2
(8)
417 2 417R (1+ M/2R)4
448 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
ADD -> _
41TR
M
2
'"
Ar"...r =
0
O 2
A
e
=
A ->
M
161TR
3
ITOOI > ITkkl .
(1)
Using the results of Problem 16.14, and integrating Equation (1) through
the thin shell, we have the inequality
-3 -3
M M/2R M
( ) )
1
1+
2R
>
2 1 _
M/2R ( 1+
2R
(2)
2 -
coordinate
9t =
R
(1+ 2Y i > M , (3)
\nfinity (- goo)
Z =
A
-1 =
1
-1 =
(e- y /2) s -1
surface
(- gOO)J
=
1+ M/2R -
1 _
-
M/R
1 M/2R
-
1 -,M/2R
-3
_AOo M
(
M
1+
)
_
2 \ 2R
41TR
3
A() =ACP =
-
IvI
M/2 1+
() cp
81TR2 ( 1-M/2R )( 2R ) .
Ae
()
-=
M/4R = !.z
1 M/2R 4
_ADo
-
= -4A
e /AO
z
e o .
u
t
an d u
4> =
nt
£u,I.e.
.
1-
( )
t
u =
u + 0 .
at acjJ
Let
a a
=
+ n =
+ 0
at aif;
(t) (if; )
V
u
u =
V log I .
\2
t -1
(p+p)V log(u) =
-Vp -
(V t p)u.
(u )
t
(p+p)V log u =
Vp .
450 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
t
o =
d(p+p) A d log u
=
d(p+ p) A
(p+ p)-l dp
which implies that
dp A d p =
0 ,
p =
constant.
since
t
dp ex du .
1 1 i
t 2
(u )-
2
=
1 ' =
12
Igtt+2gtcpO+ cpO1
so on the surface
gtt
+ 2g tcp O +
cp02 =
constant .
V
em p'u em
=
V
oo p'u oo
p'U em
=
Ptut +
PcpuCP =
Pt ut (1+0e)
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS
451
t 1 + oe
z =
u (1+0e) -
1 =
1
_
1
-
2
I gtt + 20g t 4> +0
I:
4> m
Since gtt +
2(}gt (}2 + is constant on the surface of a rigidly rotating
star (see Problem 16.19), the variation in z across the surface of the
s tar is
= z
o e
1
-
2
I gtt + 20g tcp + 0 I :urface
4>
e =
0, Le. = e
O. Thus = z
0 for such an observer.
if its mass (Le. rest mass + energy) does not change under a redistribu-
static observer at radius r catches the baryons and energy and measures
a total mass-energy of
W =
uOpo =
e-(I)CI1 B
oA+ W o ) (1)
-(I)
where e is the redshift factor and comes from the metric
2 2
ds = _
e
2
<Pdt 2 + (1-2m/r)-l dr + r
2
d0
2
.
(2)
With energy W, the local observer must heat and compress the baryons
to local thermodynamic conditions and then open a space for them in the
star
452 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
W
OA
=
(p/n)oA (3a)
(local conditions)
W
open
=
p8v =
(p/n)oA (3b)
placed for the oA baryons can be neglected.) The excess energy left
over is
Wex(r) =
W -
(WOA +W open )
(p+p) SA
=
e-<I>V-tBSA+WO) -
n
.
(4)
kinetic energy so that he can throw the rest to the observer at infinity,
W W
<I> <I> (p+p)
ex
(00) =
ex
(r)e =
IL B uA+ W o -e
n
oA .
(5)
oM, of
(P+P) OA ap
oM =
e<I> n
=
e(l)
( )
an s
oA (6)
where the second relation follows from the first law of thermodynamics.
e(l)(p+ p)/n =
constant. (7)
dp d<P
-
dr
=
-(p+p)-
dr
(8)
(p + p) dn dp dp d<I>
_
+ + + (p + p ) =
0 .
(9)
n dr dr dr dr
dp (P+P)dn ap
( )
dn
dr
=
dr
=
dr'
(10)
n an s
Solution 16.22. Begin with the Euler equation for a rigidly rotating star:
(p + p)-l ap/axll =
a log uO /ax ll (1)
(p + p)/nuo =
constant. (2)
1
(p + p)-l ap/ax ll = n- an/axil .
(3)
systems.
Solution 16.23. Since TIlv vanishes outside the star, we can take the
volume integral to be over all space at time t. The field equations imply
81T(TIl -1-0 11 T\ =
RIlv
\ 2 v)
v
1= -
f (2TIlv _0IlT)
v
Vd3
Il
=
-(477)-1
f RlLv Vd3IIL
=
(477)-1
f 1L; vd3IIL
f IL;V
2
=
(877)-1 d I
ILV
・
454 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
[The third equality follows from Problem 10.6; the last equality follows
d2 = -1 E
a(x
a
,x(32 dOd<t> =
r
2
sinOdOd<t>
Il V Il va {3
2! a(O, cp )
and thus
2
/l;Vd2 /lV2e;rr =
sinOdOd<t> .
ds
2 =
_(1_ 2)dt2
_
4J
s n20dtd<t> +
(1+ 2)(dr2+r2d02+r2sin20d<t>2).
t
Since the only nonzero component of is = 1
(t)
gt;r gt;r
ct t t
=
S ,
r
+ r
ar
ga =
0 + r
tr
2
-
gtt,r
=
M/r ・
f
2M
(811)-1
2
I =
2
r sin 0 dO dcp =
M
r
S =
f T/lv V(<t?d3 /l
J R/lv V(<t?d3 /l (1671)-1 fR
1
=
(871r -
/l(<t?d3 /l'
Since
d3 <t> 0 =
the second term vanishes and
f /l; (1671)-1
f d2 /lV
1
S (871r vd3 0 /l = -
/l;V
-
= -
f 2e;rr
2
= -
(1671)-1 sinOdOd<t> ・
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS
455
But
g tjr ,r
+r
t
ar
t cpr
a=o+rt
=
gtt r t<l>r + gt<l> r<I><I>r
1 -2J
( )
1
- -
g r/... + - -
gr/...r/...
2 t'f-' , r 3 2 'f-''f-' ' r
r
2 2
= -
3J sin 0/r ,
and thus
J
3
S =
(1617)-1 61 sin 0dOd<l> =
1 ・
16.24. V 3
Soluti n In curvature coordinates,
v(t) 8 =
t
and d
IfL
=
0 gl2
1 dr dO dcp, thus the integral is
I
J (2TfLv -8 fLv
T) v(t)d3IfL
= -
J (2T\-T)e<l>+Ar2sinOdOd<l>dr.
= -
But
T\ =
(p+p)utu t +
po\ =
-p
T = -
(p + p) + 4p =
3p -
p .
I =
[ (p+3p)e<l>+A417r2dr .
(1)
1r
2
mer) =
417r pdr (2)
we have
R R
L pe<l>+A417r 2 dr [me<l>+A]
-1 m(e<l>+AYdr (3)
=
456 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
R R
I 3p e<l>+A4r r [p e<l>+A47Tr3]
1
2
dr = _
r =
0 and (I) = -
A at r =
R. The first term on the right in Equation (4)
is zero since p
=
0 at r =
R. Thus, I =
M provided the sum of the re-
R R
L L
3
m(e<l>+AYdr+ 471r (pe <l>+AYdr
R
L <I>+A[m(<I>'+A')+ 471 3
=
dr e r { p'+ p(<I>'+ A ')1] ・
(5)
Now
2A
e =
(1- 2m/r)-1
so we get
3
A' =
(417r p-m)
r(r 2m) -
2m)
3
,
-
(p+ p) (m+ 417 r p)
p
=
r(r 2m) -
are substituted in the expression in Equation (5), all terms cancel and it
with the fluid of the star. We can then write the metric as
2 i
ds gtt dt2 +
gtR dRdt +
gRR dR2 +
gti dtdx
=
i
+
gRi dR dx + dxidx j (i,j (), cp)
gij
=
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS 457
where i, j =
(), cp. If the metric is spherically symmetric, then for dt =
dR
=
0 we must have
2 j
gijdxidx (R,t)(d()2+ sin 2()dcp2)
2
ds = =
r .
gtr term, without affecting the comoving status of the radial coordinate,
and we have
2 2 2 2 n2
ds
gTTdT +
gRR dR + r ( R, T)d
=
.
n =
(- gTT)-Z e
T
[
T 2 RR
J
du T 2 R 1
V r )
dT+(u)
e e (u
=
g gTT,R.
= -
nn R TT 2 R
It follows then that the fluid acceleration is zero (and hence the pressure
dr/dT =
(- gTT)Z
representing proper time for the fluid. Thus the three nice properties are
all satisfied if and only if the pressure gradient is zero; since the pressure
Solution 16.26.
(a) The first law of thermodynamics (see Problem 5.19) in the comoving
frame is
--L=n
p+p n
A
dR is (411 nr
2
e )dR, so the law of conservation of baryons in this shell
2 A
a(nr e )jat =
0
and thus
-L = _
2i _
A .
p+p r
t 2 -(I)-A ., ・ '
G
",
-
0 -
-
e (r -
r'.i'
m'
-
r A)
r
-
T{3R;{3 =
0 =
p' + (p+ p )<1>'
to arrive at
2r r' rp'
( )
.
-p
=
(p+p) -+ -,
r r
+ --,
r
.
L
2 2
m =
411 (2rir'p+r i'p+r r'p)dR
= -
fR(2rriP+r2i'P+r2iP')dR
411
o
-411I
2
=
(r rp )'dR.
o
2
Since r rp = 0 at R =
0 it follows that
・
2 .
m = -
411 r pr .
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS
459
"-
(b) From G\ = -
817P (see Problem 9.20) we have
2
817pr =
1- r,2 e -2A + i
2 -2<1>
e + 2ri e
-2<1>
A + 2r e -2A(r'A' -
r") .
2
N ow use G =
0 to eliminate A, and note that 8m pr' is an exact
)
'm'
r r 2 rr (r
=
e + r r e + e r ':i'
-
-
+ 2rr' e -2A(r'A' -
r")
]
,
=
(r ) +r r ( ) e .
2
2m =
r(1- e -2A(r')2 + i- e -2(1))
2 2
=
r(1 -
r + U ) .
dr/dr =
U (1)
2
dm/dr = -
417 r p U (2)
1
2:
U = =
: :!:
[r2 (2 1) ] + -
.
(3)
The first two equations show that dr/dr and dm/dr have opposite signs,
so for the shell to pass from 2m/r < 1 to 2m/r > 1 it must be that
i- O, m>O
:-[r2+ e -1)J2: ・
( 2;0 -1)
2
The radius therefore will continue to fall as long as r + > 0,
but as long as the radius is decreasing, the mass must be increasing and
2m
the factor -
.1-
dr/dr :s c 2
1
and the shell will reach r =
0 in a proper time :S 2m/c"2. [This solution
is due to J. M. Bardeen.]
we have then
o =
2r'r + 1_r,2 e -2A + i-
2
2 2
=
2r r + 1 -
1 + U
2
d r M
r = =
dr2 r
2
Solution 16.29. From the dynamical equation for mass (see Problem 16.26)
・
2.
m = -
4 1TP r r =
0
r 'r2
and using the result of Problem 16.28 we see that 1, too, is time
independent.
The dynamical equation for r(R, T) is now a simple first order equa-
m(b)
r =
(1+cOSl1) (1a)
1_r2
CHAPTER 16: SOLUTIONS 461
m (b )
T =
3 (11 + sin 11) + F (b ) (lb)
2
(1-r2)
where F(b) is an arbitrary function.
Case (ii) r2 -
1 =
0:
t
{
1
}
3 2"
r =
2
(m(b)) [g(b) -T] (2)
Case (iii) r 2 -
1 > 0:
m(b)
T =
3
(sinh 11-11) + H(b) (3b)
2
cr _1)2
where H(b) is an arbitrary function.
Note that there are three free functions -
i.e. functions that we can
choose the distribution of mass at some initial time and forever after. The
choice of r (b, t =
0).
2
The choice of r (b) corresponds to the choice of the velocity of a
2
for a radial geodesic, r 1 can be thought of as the conserved
-
"energy at 00" for the fluid shell. Therefore, it should not be surprising
that there are three solution regimes: we can choose to give a fluid shell
less than the escape velocity (a), precisely the escape velocity (b),
or greater than the escape velocity (c). Note that the sign of t can be
reversed in the above solutions so that, for example, solution (c) can
correspond to shells falling inward. Note that in general if the three free
functions are not chosen carefully, mass shells are going to cross!
462 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Solution 16.30.
solution:
2 2 2 2 2
ds = _
dr2 + a
2
(r) [dX + l2(X) (d0 + sin 0 dcP )] (1)
where
sinx ,
k = 1
l= X k =
0
sinh X ,
k = -1 .
coordinate, X
=
(a:)2
k 817p
=
--+- (2)
a
2 3
3
pa
=
constant. (3)
2
kl2CxO)
P
= l..
817
[( R ) +
R
2
] . (4)
Thus, if R =
0 at any finite value of R, k must be +1 so
,r
(a
,r
)2 =
a
m
/a -
1 (5)
am
=
maximum of a, when a
r
= O. Equation (5) can be in-
,
1
a =
am
and r =
0 at 11 =
0, and to make a =
0 and r = 11a /2 at 11= 11.
m
2 2
(3)ds 2 = _
dr +
sin2xo d0
a
2
(r)
2
(9)
2
(11) (- d11 + sin2xo d0 )
2
=
a .
2 2 -1 2 2 n2
ds = -
(1- 2M/r) dt + (1 -
2M / r) dr + r d .
(10)
R =
R (1+
i
cos 17) (11)
464 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
.1
2
R
r =
t dt (1- 2M/R i )2
u =
(13)
_
dr 1 -
2M/R
( 3 )ds 2 2 2 2
+
=
_dr + R (r)d0
(14)
( sZ ) }
R. R.
2 2 2 2
= -
(l+cOS17) d17 + (I+COS17) dO ・
Ri =
am sinxo' 2M =
am sin3xo .
(15)
C ).In
compute t h e
.. -
Th e
. .
N ow ex t rlnSlC curvature K . .
t h e Interior.
lJ
1
o =
a- a/aX (16)
r, e ,
. Then
a
K..=-e..V.o=-e..ra.e
1 J 1 nJ a =_g.la r nJ
.
lJ
1 1
=
-r
inj
= -
2 gij,n (17)
-1
since g In
.
=
a g.1
= O. From the metric we see that
X
)
K =
)K O Kcf? =
K
q} 0=
(IS)
) 2
K
OK
=
sin- 0 = -
=
t r
U u e + u e .
t r
n =
nte t + nre r
satisfies
2
t 2 r
n.n =
1 =
gtt(n) + )
r(n (20)
t r
n'u =
O =
n u
t
+ n u
r
. (21)
Since
u.u =
-1 =
gtt(u t )2 + grr (u )2 r
(22)
and
rr -1 tt -l
g ( ) r (g ) 1 -
2M/ r
gtt
_ _ -
- - - -
- =
t r
n =
u
r
' n=-u.
t
(23)
O. Also,
e,. ecp e()' cp
= =
(+ ) _!. (r 2 ) nr
K 1K
-
2 1 2
(r )
.
=
rf....rf.... sin () = - - =
'P'P 2,n 2 ,r
1
=
rUt
= -
R (1- 2M/R i )2
= -
R i (1+ cos 71)(1 -
2M/R i ) t
where we have used Equations (23), (13), (11) and (15). Thus
KlJ-r) =
K lJ :-)and the proof is complete.
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS
Solution 17.1. One finds the mass and angular momentum of an asymptoti-
goo
= -
2 +(.')(r-2))
_ (1)
1
-kx -3 (2)
7(.')(r )}'
S
\4 Ejkl
-
gOj
=
The constants M and 'Sk which occur in the expansion are then the mass
and intrinsic angular momentum (see Weinberg, Section 9.4 or MTW, Sec-
tion 19.3).
Expanding the Kerr metric in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates in powers of
1
r- gives the leading terms
Sin
+ (1+...)[dr2+r2(d02+sin20d<p2)] .
z == r cosO gives
M=M
S =
aM
e
.
466
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 467
Solution 17.2. Suppose the car has mass m and length L before crush-
ing and length L' and "lumpiness" h afterward, and the hole has mass
M. Suppose the internal stress per mass that steel can support is
( '"oJ
0.1 electron volt per nuclear mass; see Problem 5.6). Comparing
GM (condition
( L,2) h > for lumps no larger
(2)
than h after crushing ends).
5 8
10- sec, so on the order of 10 can be processed per hour.
,
L L
. . . t
. V . V
before affer
Solution 17.3. For the rocket ship to be moving along a timelike world-
1 =
-U'U =
Sin20( / .
468 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
Inside the horizon all of these terms are negative, except the one in
(dr/dr)2, so
-
1 2
(2 -1)- ( ) : > 1 .
the sign of dr/dr must be negative for a "future directed" (i.e. physical)
(2 1) -
dr
and
O
-t
l
2M
r
max
= -
( -
r
-
1
) dr
2M
[ )J
.1 .1
1
(2M-r)2 +Mcos-
( -1
2
=
r = 17M ・
2M
Solution 17.4. We derive the case for a Kerr black hole and then obtain
Boyer-Lindquist coordinates)
r (4Mar Si O)
2
(1_ 2 )dt2
2
ds = _
dtd4> -
+ dr
(1)
(r2 sin )O
2 2
2
d4>2
2 r
+ I d0 + + a + 2Ma sin 0
where
2 2 2 2
A
L.1 == r
2
-
2Mr + a ,
1 == r + a cos () .
d
2
X IL /dr
2
+ r lL
a
uf3 0 (2)
{3u
=
o r
a
u{3 (r rtt dt2 + 2r
rt4>dt d4> + r
r4>4>d4>2) (dr)-2 (3)
ra{3u
= = .
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 469
Since the metric coefficients depend only on rand (), the relevant l's
in the equatorial (() =
TT
12) plane are
1 2
lrtt = -
2 gtt,r
=
MI r
2
21rtcp 2Ma/r (4)
-
gtcp,r
= = -
rr
= - =
M ,r
2r
-r .
So if n ==
dcp/dt, Equations (3) and (4) give
( j
2 Ma 2Ma n M
o =
0 _ _
+ , (5)
2 2 2
r r r
2 3
For a =
0 this becomes 0 =
M/r which (by coincidence in these
2 2 2
dcp2)
1 2 2
ds = _
Adt + A- dr + r (d()2 + sin ()
2
where A == 1- 2M/r + Q2 Ir . We first find the Keplerian frequency
o ==
dcp I dt of circular orbits, in the same manner as in Solution 17.4. Here
1 M Q2
lrtt = -
gtt,r
= --
2 2 3
r r
0
21rtcp
- =
gtcp,r
=
1
1 -
r
gcpcp,r
= - =
rcpcp 2
Q2
( r
_
r
3
) =
0
t
Q2
( )
M
{} = :!: _
34'
r r
stationary observer is
t
d
(
Q2
)
"
v = =
r
dcp =
Mr _
df At dt r
2
-2Mr+Q2
Q
E " -
-"2
.
Lorentz transforming this with the standard relations for E-M fields
1
"2
r2 Q2
( )
t ..2
2
-
-2
-
2Mr +
EAr =
(1- v ) 2
=
2 2 2
r r r -3Mr+2Q
1
"2
Q2
( 2Q2)
,,2
-
t "
Q Q Mr -
B (1 -v )
"
v
_
= - - -
()
.
2 2 2
r r r _
3Mr+
(Here the G's and c's have been put in for clarity.) Equation (1)
follows from the requirement that there exist a horizon, located at
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 471
1
2 22-2
r
H
=
M + (M -
e -
a ) .
Solution 17.7. Since we have three relations for the components of the
Pc/>
= =
,
V (E, L, r) = 0 (1)
V'(E, L, r) = 0 (2)
and
where V' == av lar. By the implicit function theorem, Equations (1)
provided
aV av
dE dL
-1= 0 . (3)
aV' av'
aE aL
be
(This condition is in fact satisfied.) Then dE/dr and dL/dr can
dV av dE av dL + V' (4)
o = = +
dr aE dr aL dr
dr aE dr aL a r
472 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
orbit equation is
(dr/dAi =
0 0
where V(ro) =
and V'(r o ) =
(condition for unperturbed circular
negative if
N
addition to V =
0 and V' =
0, so the only solution to Equations (4) and
are minima.
Solution 17.8.
-1 =
goo(u
o
)2 + 2g ocP u
o cP
u +
cP(ucP)2 (1)
0 2 2
=
(u ) (goo + 20 goCP
+0
CP) ・
and hence
o 2
20 -0
<p)-
2
u =
(- goo -
go<p
3 2 2
2Ma/r )/r
r/> (r
1- 2M/r - - = -
+a r+ 2Ma
gocP
=
goo
・
-
=
, ,
o
The other components are easily found in terms of u :
u<P = Quo
o CP O n
( goo go<p )
u + u u + lt
go<p
=
u
goo
=
U
cP
=
gocP
uo +
cP'ucP uO(gocP +0
=
cP) ・
2
Y + 20 + 0 < 0 (2)
;:
goo gocP cP
・
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 473
2 2 2
2Mr
(
gocp ) googcpcp
+ a (r r+) (r r_)
-
=
r -
= - -
Y has the same sign for any n, Le. the same sign as which is
gcpcp
positive. This violates Equation (2), which assumed only timelike motion
{}
Note that as r
r+, then goes to
gocp/goo a/2Mr+.
- =
E
(%t) -Pt (1)
・
-p
= =
・
ds
2 = _
e
2v
dt
2
+ e
2 r/1 (dcp -wdt)2 + e 21L1dr2 + e 21L2d{P .
(2)
tt
e
-2v tcp =-cue
-2v
g
cpcp =e -2t/J -cu
2
e
-2v
g
_
_
g
_
(3)
rr -2111 ()() -2112
g =e g =e ・
2 -2v 2 -2v
e 2 cu
p'p e
Pt Pt pcp
= = - -
-11
(4)
/
_2 'fJ
2 r
-2 v 2 2 -2111 2 -2112 2
+ (e -
e cu ) + e
Pr + e
P().
pcp
1..
2
-2111 2 -21l2 2
,,2 )]
E + [ e 2v-2t/J
2
+ e
2V
(e Pr + e
p() +r (5 )
pcp
cu P
.
=
cp
474 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Pcp negative
and
1
2"
.,/r
2 v- 2 'fJ 2V -2/1 1 2 -2/1 2 2 2
)]
2
[e (e + e
PO + /1 < (6)
+ e
Pr wPcp
-
P rt..
.
'f'
Pr
=
Po
=
0, and /1 0 (i.e. highly relativistic particle). This gives
e
2v -
2tjJ < w
2
which is equivalent to
gtt> O. That is, the orbit must be
inside the ergosphere. (This result also follows from Problem 10.15.)
Pafter +
Pbullet (7)
Pbefore
・
E =E
after
+E
bullet'
(8)
before
E b e f ore > II. In the ergosphere it can fire a bullet sufficiently fast with
,....
E
b e f ore
and the rocket coasts off to infinity with increased total energy.
bullet's negative
Note that since both the rocket's trajectory and the
are timelike, the bullet can be fired from the rocket with
energy trajectory
e- 2tjJ p
gcPcP pcP gcP Pt
t
pCP
+
2v cp
0= =
=
w _
e
but e
2v
vanishes, hence {} = wand at 6. = 0
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 475
w =
gCP t =
a
.
gCPCP 2Mr
+
Solution 17.11. Start with the rand (J equations for orbital motion in
the Kerr geometry (see e.g. MTW, Equation 33.32):
22 1
(r + a cos (J)dr/dr =
:t V "2 (1)
r
1
22
(r + a cos (J) d(J /dr =
:t V
(J"2 (2)
where
2 2 2
Vr =
[E(r + a )_ La]2 - [r + (L- aE)2 + Q] (3)
2 2 2 2 2
V
(J
=
Q -
A 2 2
Ll == r -
2Mr + a
E ). Equation
(3) then is
V
r
=
E2(r 2 +a 2 )2 _ [r2+a2+I] (5)
where
2 2
I ==
Q -
a (1- E ) > 0 .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 A A
o =
2E r(r + a ) -
(r -
M) E (r + a) /Ll -
r Ll (6)
where V r =
0 and Equation (5) have been used to eliminate the constant
E
2 =
r
2
[(r
2
+ a
2
) (r
3 _
3Mr
2
+ a
2
r+ a
2
M)]-1 .
(7)
476 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
3 2 2 2
r -
3Mr + a r + a M =
0 .
(8)
This is easily solved with the cubic formula to give the minimum radius
of a polar orbit
2
where a == a/Me Note that E 00 in the limiting case, so the limiting
case is a photon orbit. The limiting radius decreases from r =
3M for
1
Solution 17.12. Let e be the timelike Killing vector present because the
-{3;a (1)
a;{3
=
(2)
[a;{3 y]0
=
.
1
U =
/V2 (3)
v =
_ a .
a (4)
.1.
o =
(p .u) 00 /(p .u) emitter -
V
2
emitter
vector is null: We use Equation (1) to write Equation (2) in the form
ga ;{3 (6)
,[a g{3]
v + v = 0 .
is the normal to v =
0, Le. the normal is a null vector.
where r =
2M is both the horizon and infinite red-shift surface for static
observers (in fact, for all observers). A Kerr black hole is an example of
the case where the ergosurface does not coincide with the horizon.
becomes
2 2 2 2 2
dcp
.
2 2 2 2 2 (r+ + a ) sin e
ds =
(r+ + a cos e) de +
2 2 2
(r+ + a cos e)
JJ gtded<p
JJ (r +a2)sineded<p 41T(r +a2). =
A = =
478 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1
Since is the larger solution of Ll 2 2
r+
=
0 we have
r+
=
M + (M +Q2_a )2
from which the result follows.
Solution 17.14. The two initial black holes have the same area, so the
total initial surface (Q 0 in Problem
area =
17.13) is
1
22-
Ai =
161TM 1 [M l + (M 1 -
a ) 2] .
Af =
41T(2M 2 )2 =
161TM .
M2 2: M 1 + M
l (M 1 -
a ) .
If a =
M1 , this means M
2 2: M l . The total initial mass was 2M l , so
ters a
1
and a coalesce to form a black hole of mass M ,
and
2 3
parameter a
3
; then Af 2: Ai implies that
1 1 1
M1 [M 1 +
(Mi ai)2] -
+ M
2
[M 2 + (M a )2] -
M
3
[M 3 + (M a )2] -
・
One gets the most energy out when the equality obtains. Moreover, for
given M
1 , M
2 ,
a
l ,
a
2
the smallest
M3 (hence the largest radiation of
3 3
the largest M
1
+ M
2 (hence the largest radiation of energy) will occur
for I all =
I a21 =
Ml =
M
2
. Since a
3
=
0, conservation of angular momen-
detail above. The conclusion, therefore, is that when two Kerr holes
collide and coalesce, no more than 50% of their original mass can be
radiated away.
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 479
Solution 17.15. The area A and "reduced area" A of a Kerr black hole
are
_ 1
2 4
A == 81TA =
81T[M +(M _J2)2] (1)
or
equivalently,
A2 -
2AM 2 + J2 =
0 .
(2)
(A-M 2 )OA =
2AMoM-JoJ .
(3)
oM =
OJ (4)
so we have
( 2AM -
] ) 8M 0 .
(5)
2Mr+
---<0
m
(6)
a w
where r+ is the coordinate radius of the event horizon, or (if we take into
o S w S
ma
(7)
2Mr+
Solution 17.16.
1 1
0(1) =
(- g)-"2 [(- g)"2 ga (3 (I) a] ,
,
, {3
.1.
2 2 2
and (- g) 2 =
(r + a cos 0) sin 0, we have
sin2e1 a2 <J>2
[ (r2 + a 2 l + a 2 2
( ) acp2
o = _
Mar a <J>
+
1 a
2
a2(1)
J
_
_
A. at A. at acp sin 2 e A.
(1)
1.<1>\
(
+
.a + .1 0 (sin 0 acI?
J
.
ar ar sin ao
\ ao
<I>(t, r, 0, cf? =
e
-iwt
eimcf> R(r) SeO)
1. .!! dR
w2 (r
2 2
22 4Marwm
2 2
( )
+ a a m
+ +
R dr dr
(2)
2
-1 d
)
dS
(
.
L) 2 2 .
2 L} m
=
Slnv + a w sin v + .
S sinO dO dO 2
sin 0
Since the left-hand side of Equation (2) is a function of r alone and the
constant A, thus
( )
2
1 d dS
( )
2 2 .
2 L) m
sinO -A 0
.
- -
n
-
a w sin v + S =
(3)
sinO dO dv 2
sin 0
and
2 2
J
2 2 2 2
[ (r )
dR
( )
w +a -4Marwm+a m
+ -A R=O. (4)
dr dr
2 2 2
d R
[
2r
J
dR 2 a m -
4Marmw - A
+ + w + R 0 (5)
2 2
-
*2 2
-
*
) dr
・
dr (r + a
(r
2
+ a2)2
As r 00, we get
2
d R 2 dR 2
+ + w R 0
r
dr* 2 dr*
-1 +iwr*
R """-'
r e-
d2 R
[
2 2
]
2 2amw a m
0
+ w _
+ R =
R """-'
e:tiCW-mw+)r*
where
w+
==
a/2Mr+ .
(e) Since all physical observers at the horizon are related by Lorentz
sents ingoing or outgoing waves. Thus we can calculate with any con-
solution
(I) =
e
-iwt
eimc/J e:tiCW-mW+)r* See) (6)
482 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
as
=
e -i(w-mw+)t e:l:i(w-mw+)r* eim S(O) .
-
*
e- "()
l
Thus c:u-mc:u+ r
where we have put cp =
cp -c:u+t. corresponds to in-
going waves.
* 1
41TT
afJ
= cI>
'
(I)
(a,fJ )
- -
2 C(lfJ
Q
1(1) ,Y(I)'YI .
Ta{3 a,
where is the
time Killing vector a/at (see Problem 10.11). The energy flux into the
2-surface r =
r+
:
Since
cIJ; =
f T: I gl t dO dcp ・
( )
2 2
r r + a
41TT Re((I) <f>*,r)
= =
Re (I) (1)* *
t,t ,t,r I
2 2Mr+
=
c:u(c:u -
mc:u+) S (0)
T
'
we have
2Mr
f S2(O)sinedOdcp
d
d =
w(w-mw+) 417+
and dE/dt is negative, Le. energy flows out of the horizon if c:u -
mc:u+
< 0,
0(Q2 _M2) =
2QoQ -
2MoE . (1)
;
2
-!(r aE-QOQd -L\V-t
2
r =
rest mass. A
particle which crosses the event horizon into the black hole
Ll
r+. Since
has dr/dr:S 0 at the event horizon 0 at
r r
r+, (2)
= = =
becomes
2 dr 2
r
dr
= _
(r+oE _
)<
QoQr+- 0 (3)
1
2
0(Q2 _M2) <
-
20E(r+ -M) =
20E(M _
Q2)2 .
(4)
2
As Q2 M the right side goes to zero as a square root, so no sequence
Solution 17.18.
1 1 -'
,.:t -t
--
2 2 2 2
1 gtt 1 1 gt t gCPCP 1
(a) W
・
(a) W d t. W dt
cp
= - -
2 tt
-(gtt- W )g
cp
= .
The
[The minus sign is chosen because
gtt
-
2
r'.:J fA -1. The calculation of other inner products
gcjJcjJ anE
・
(j) =
gtt
-
A r'.:Jf3
transposed inverse
and
fj Bf3Yey
=
' then the matrix
Bf3Y must be the
(a) I gtt W
gcpcpl 0
-
"
1 1
cp (gCPCP)
2
dcp
W(gcpcp)2
-
484 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
implies that
1 1
-Ct)2 cPl-2
2
wi gtt
gepep 1-
e....... 2
t gtt -
w e
t
1
o 2
(gepep)-
e.......
ep ecf:!.
1 1
e' =
r ( /I)2
e
r eO
=
I- 2
e() .
0
U[a;,8uy ]
=
(see Problem 7.23). The quickest way to check this condition is to use
""'"
....... .......'....... La ,
1
t -t -t 2
-
d CA)" \
-
= a
(r ,()) and thus
d t
= a
,r
d;"dt + a
,
(} M"dt
so dc':)t" i)t =
0 since dt" dt =
O.
1
2 -2
u = =
\gtt- W \
ep (et+weep)'
The vectors e and are Killing vectors. The vector field e +
t eep t weep
is not a Killing vector because w is not constant. However any particu-
woecp (w o
lar ZAMO is moving along the Killing vector =
e
t
+ a fixed
and we get
cP
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 485
a =
} V log I -Ct)2
t cPl .
r
r+, the Kerr metric gives the metric of the horizon:
=
2 2 -I 2
(r
2 2 2
(2Mr+)2 sin20(r
2
ds =
+ a cos 0) d0 + +a cos 0) dcP .
(1)
2
(We have used the relation r + a =
2Mr+ in
gcPcP') The Gaussian
2a
)2 )2
2a
2 l l 2 2
ds =
e (dx + e (dx (2)
we let
a a
2
-
-1 1 -1 -
2 2
e.) =
e dx , e.) =
e dx (3)
and we have
K =
R =
R e
-2(al +a2) (4)
1212' 1212
.
The quickest way to find the Riemann tensor is with forms as in Problems
-1
a
1
-
-1
a
1 -2 -1
-a
2
-
2 -1
de.) =
e da 1 A dx =
e a
1 2dx A dx = a
1 ,2e
e.) A e.)
-a
-1
-a
-1 -2
CA) e
2
a -e
1
a
,1CA) (5)
,2e.)
=
2 1 2
di} wS
(Recall that =
- i'SA and
waS -wj3a')
=
The only nontrivial
curvature form is
486 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
'" '" '" '"
a>1 -1 -1 -a
d
J\2= 2+WaAW2
a -a
al- a 2-1
-
2 l 2
=
d(a 1 2e dx -a
2 le dx )+ 0
, ,
a -a a -a
1 2 -2 -1 2 1 -1-2
=
(a 1 e ) dx Adx -
(a 2 le ) dx Adx
" 2 2 "
1
-Ca 1 + a 2 ) a
2
-a
1
a
1
-a
2 -1 -
2
=
-e [(e ,1
e
),1 +(e ,2
e
),2]W A W ・
a> -1 -2 h ave
Since J\12 =
R W A we
121 2'
-Ca 1 +a 2 ) a -a a
1
-a
2
2 1
] (6)
K =
R
1212
=
-e [(e ,1
e
),1 +(e ,2 e ),2'
222
3a cos ()
-
r+
K =
2Mr+ .
(7)
(r .+ a
2
cos
2
0)3
2
Note that if r -
3a < 0, then K is negative for a range of () around
J
2
Kd S =
21TX
1
2
d S =
(g) 2 d() dcp =
2TT TT
2
r2+ 2
1 1
-1
-
3a cos ()
X (217) dcp (2Mr+)2 () d()
=
sin
o 0
(r + a
2
Cos
2
())3
1 2 2 2
r
1 (r
2
-
3a x
+
(2Mr+) 2 dx
=
o + a
2
x
2
)3
(2Mr+)2 2 r II
=
x
L(r a2x2) +
0
=
2
not have to consider the emission of more than one extra quantum; dimen-
sionally the answer would not be changed if we were to include this re-
< N>(excess
=
number) x (probability of that number)
=
1 x (N + 1) p .
The amplification is
< : (1 )
>
A == =
+ p p (1)
in the classical limit (N 00). Fermi's Golden Rule says that the rate of
spontaneous emission is
488 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
J
dN
dt p. (2)
phase space
frequency w. Thus
-
I
e,m J A dw ・
(3)
black hole. Since A is a number of order unity for low e and m, re-
dN
w!.
dt M
dE dN it
1rw
dt dt 2
M
dJ mdE
--
1r
dt w dt M
10
r _
J/(dJ/dt)
-
M
2
(1r/M)
-
3
M /tr -
(M/I015 gm )3 10 years.
15 by
Thus for M S 10 gm, J will already have become essentially zero
33 54 in
the fraction lost will be 10-
this process. For M
-
-
10 gm,
10
10 years.
Solution 17.21. For all static spacetimes, the "surface of infinite red-
shift" (goo =
0) coincides with the horizon (Problem 17.12). Therefore,
CHAPTER 17: SOLUTIONS 489
-1 1
fact, the surface p
-
h p / m.
.
p
2
=
'
were
p == We will now show that, in = -
2
.
IS not contained in the same manifold as the one which becomes asymp-
totically flat (p (0) and thus cannot be reached by objects in our universe.
A glance at the
gPP portion of the metric shows that p =
1.5 is an
infinite proper radial distance away from any p > 1.5. To see that p =
1.5
is also infinite proper time away and thus removed from the manifold it is
sufficient to consider radial null geodesics. (The reader can verify that
for nonradial or timelike geodesics, matters get even worse):
gp/pp)2 +
gOO(Poi = 0
or
1.
dp <P + )
d>'
=
( p
-
) Po
<P ; )2
_
-- A
P -2
(p- t)2 dp r
0
L
-1 _
-
dA '
Po
P
(p -
1 )(.0 + t) J>.
-
3 3 .
sur f ace IS
-
-
3. thus
vacuum metric can never reac
h
.
=
2
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS
Solution 18.1. To find the gravitational radiation we use the square of the
2
Power =
G
(i') ""
GM2L 4 .
5 5 6
5c 5c t
3
of fist and forearm 2 x 10 gm, L
f'OW
length of forearm 50 cm, t = f'OW =
2
1 L 1 8
3 10 erg/sec
Power
M"2 x
.
=
t
.
2
t
51
The fractional "efficiency" is thus f'OW
10- .
theorem gives
2 3
T f'OW
R /M .
dyn
GW 2 4
p f'OW
M R
/T yn .
490
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 491
4 2
T RT
T =
K.E. ""J
dyn
""J
dyn
2 2
pGW MR M
C : Y-.
T dyn
-
""J -
T 2
dyn M
1 1 1 1
I 1
=--1 1 Ixx
(i) Izz Ixx (ii)
Iyy
= - = = - = -- =
2 2 yy 2 2 zz
(iii) Ixy
=
Iyx (iv) I
xz
-
I
zx
(v) Iy z
=
Iz y ・
Solution 18.4. Assume the rod to be in the xy plane rotating about the
z axis. If fl is the mass per unit length of the rod the time dependent
parts of the reduced quadrupole tensor are
£/2
1
2 2
..f-
xx
=
Ii- cos (cut). 2 x dx
£3 2 Me
2
=
cos cut =
cos(2cut) + constant
12 24
492 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2
..r
Me
= -
cos 2wt + constant
yy 24
2
Me
-r
.
yX 24
so that
2
6 2
( )
... ...
1
<-I- (2 ) Me 2 2
L
jk..r jk >
5 <2cos 2wt+2sin 2wt>
= =
GW 5 24
2 4
4
6
=
cu M e ・
(Note units with G =
c =
I!)
2
leV(I)\ =
rmw
where (I) is the electrostatic potential and e and m are the charge and
2 2
p ,..., _V (1) ,...,
-(m/e)w .
This charge depletion in the main part of the rod will of course be
2
balanced by electrons squashed against the ends with charge (m/e)w eA
where A =
rod cross section. The rod thus becomes an electric quadru-
2 3
pole with quadrupole moment of order (m/e)w e A. The electric quadru-
6
pole radiation due to this induced moment will be roughly w times the
6 2
0(m/e)2e
1
square of the quadrupole moment, or roughly w A . The ratio
2
L 6 2
0(m/e)2e
[(m/et ]
EM ,...,
w
1
A =
cu2 .
L 2 6
p2A
6
GW w e
21
In G =
c =
1 units (m/e) x 10- and p(10g/cm )
3
10- 27 and
7
cu(lkHz) x 10- so that
18
10-
LEM/L GW
,...,
.
3
dF.
1
= -
(I) .
pd x .
,1
The rate at which the source element loses energy is the rate at which the
J J
dE
.
3
.
l 3 l
(I) (v p
(I),i v p d X
),i d x
= - =
dt
・
Here we have used Gauss' divergence theorem and evaluated the surface
(vp)
-
=
-ap/at so
J J
dE = _
(I)
ap d
3
x = - 1. -I- 5) xjx kp d3x
dt at 5 Jk dt
--
1 (5) d
.f
5 jk dt
( 4k+ 3
1
Ujk
J
2
rpdx.
3
)
Since
4kOjk
=
0, we drop the final term to arrive at
1 (5)'
dE / dt = -
( ) -Ijk5
・
parameters of the source are assumed to be small over the several oscilla-
tions, we have
T. T...
r
i
・ ..
1 1
T --If )4kdt T
Jo
-I'
jk-l' jk dt
0
and
..
dE 1.
= -
<..f .f >.
dt 5 jk jk
To find the rate of loss of angular momentum we use the fact that for
dJ 3
ra d latl0n reaction
. .
=
torque =
r x dF = -
r x V(I)p d x
dt
J
dJ 0 O
k
0
3
- = -
c 1J xJ(I) kP
d x
dt '
J ( -Ifc xm) p d
ijk j 3
= -
E x x
J
2 2
= _
c
ijk
km
(5) xjx mp d3x = _
c
ijk
(5).f-.
km
5
.
5 Jm
i
dJ 2
= _
c
ij k
< ".i-' km ..f Jm > 0
・
dt 5
distances from the center of mass, of the two stars rotating at angular
where R == r
1
+ r
2
and JL
=
reduced mass =
ml m 2 /(m 1 + m
2 ).
The total
1 /lM
m m
E 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 JLM
=
2
r
1
m
1
+
2
r
2
m
2
cu -
R
=
2
cu
R/l -
R
= -
2 1(
.
Here M =
m + m and Kepler's laws have been used.
1 2
f (XjXk-
3
8jk)d
2
4k ==
P r x ,
jkd3X
2
is evaluated. Note that the "reducing term" f pr 8 will be con-
stant in time and can be ignored. Suppose the z axis to be the axis of
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 495
rotation and cp the azimuthal angle from the x-axis to the line
joining the
stars, then (aside from time independent terms) we have
2 2 2 12
1 (r 1 m 1 ) cos cp R Jl. 2cp
_
+ r m =
cos + constant
xx 2 2
2
1 2
I = -
R Jl. cos 2cp + cons tant
yy 2
Ixy
=
IyX
=
R21L sin 2c/> .
Since cp =
cut, it is straightforward to differentiate three times, perform
. . .
・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・
1 1 1 2 2 2 2
5
<.f
jk...f jk >
=
5
(2w)6
( R2IL)
2
<sin 2wt+sin 2wt+2cos 2wt>
3 2
32 6 4 2 32 M Jl.
.\
R P
_
Jl.
_ _
-
UJ
5"
- -
5 S GW'
R
that
3
dE =
1 Jl.M dR =
-P =
32 M Jl.2
R2 dt -5
dt 2 GW S
R
3 dR 64 2
R = _
M Jl.
dt 5
4 2
R = -
(256/5) M Jl.t + constant.
2 6 M 1L
(to
-
t) .
se p aration R
now
,thus
496 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
4
5R
now
to
=
・
2
256 M 11
Solution 18.7. In terms of the total orbital energy E and angular momen-
a = -
m
1
m
1
/2E (1)
2
2
1 +
2EL
(ml +m 2 )
e =
3 3 (2)
ml m 2
so that
m m
da 1 2 dE
dt
=
2 (It (3)
2E
m +m
(L2 )
de 1 2 dE dL
=
+ 2EL .
(4)
dt 3 3 dt dt
m m e.
1 2
2
a(l- e )
r =
1 + e cos () (5)
m
1
r =
r
2 m + m
1 2
x
2 2 ml m 2 2 2
I = + m x r cos ()
ml xl
=
xx 2 2 m + m
1 2
m m
1 2 2 2
I =
r sin ()
yy m + m
1 2
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 497
m m
1 2 2
slnt9 cost9
.
I =
r (6)
xy m
1 +m
2
m m
1 2 2
1==1 +1 =
r.
xx YY m.+m
1 2
2 2
・
[(ml + m 2 ) a(l- e )]
t9 =
(7)
2
r
+
t
J
ml
[ m)
r =
e sin t9 (8)
a(l -
(5), (7) and (8) to simplify the expressions. The results are
2m l m 2 r cos t9 sint9
Ix x
=
1
-
(9)
2 2
[(m 1 + m
2 ) (1
a -
e )]
..
-2m 1 m
2 3
I
xx
=
2
(cos 2t9 + e cos (9) (10)
a(l- e )
2mlm2 2'
t9 sin(9)t9 (11)
I =
(2 sin2t9 + 3e cos
xx
2
a(l- e )
2m 1 m 2
I
YY
=
r (sin t9 cos t9 + e sin (9) (12)
2 2
[(m 1 + m
2) a(l- e )]
2ml m 2 3 2
I
YY
=
(cos 2t9 + e cos t9 + e cos t9 + e ) (13)
2
a(l- e )
・ .. -
2ml m 2 2'
sin(9)t9 (14)
I
YY
=
(2 sin2t9 + e sint9 + 3e cos t9
2
a(l- e )
498 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2 2
m m r (cos 0 -
sin 0 + e cos 0)
I =
1 2
(15)
xy .1
2 2
[(m 1 +
m2) a(l -
e )]
2ml m 2
(sin 20
2
I =
+ e sin e + e sin 0 cos 0) (16)
xy 2
a(l- e )
, . ・ -
2ml m 2 3
・
1=
xy
(2cos20-ecosO+3ecos 0)0 (17)
2
a(l- e )
... ... -
2m 1 m 2 e sinOO
I = I
xx
+ I =
(18)
YY
a(l- e2)
t (.
.. ...
)
... ... ...
dEl 1 2
I
i-jki-jk -5\ IjkIjk-
= - ==
(it 5 3
)
・ ・ . ・ ・ . ・ ・
(
...
1 2 2 2 l' 2
=--1 +21 +1 -
1
5 xx xy yy 3
2 2
_8m 1 m 2 2 2 '2
==
[12(1 + e cos 0)2 + e sin 0] 0
222
15a (1- e )
2" 3
1 !. 2" a
"2
T = dO =
・
1
0
o (m 1 + m
2
) 2"
so that
"
T 27T
I J
dE !. !.
( ) 1.
dE dE
=
dt =
dO
dt T dt T dt 1.
o 0 u
2 2
(m 1 2)
m m +m
( )
-32 1 2 73 2 37 4
= 1 + e + e (19)
5
.
24 96
a
5
(1_e
2
)7/2
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 499
dL
.. ...
-2
.. ...
-2
Czij k kj 5 I
zij Iik kj
_
=
c
-
dt 5
..
.. ..
-2
[I ( I yy- I xx)+ I
Xy( Ixx Iyy)]
=
5
-
XY
2 2
m m
8 1 2 2 2
-
1)
5 2 2 2
a (1_ e ) .
3 3
+ e (3 cos e -
cos e)] e
2TT
l
dL 1. dL
< ) dt
=
T
0
dt
1. de
fJ
221.
-32
m m
(ml +m 2 )2 7 2
( )
1 2
_
- -
1 + e ・
(20)
5 7/2 8
a
(1_e
2
)2
da 2a2 IdE
( )
dt =m 1 m
2 \Cit )
m m
(ml +m 2 ) 73 2 4
)
37
(
-64 1 2
=-
l+-e +-e (21)
5 /2 24 96
a
3
(1_ e
2
)7
[ ]
a(l- e2)
+ m 2
ml ) dL
< t)
dE
( )
de
( ) P
2 -
e
= _
dt m e + m dt 1
d
ml 2 ml 2 a 2
(m 1 + m )
2
2
m m (m 1 + m )e
( )
-
304 1 2 2 121 2
=
1 + -e .
(22)
15 304
a
4
(1_ e
2
)5/2
If we put e =
0 in Equation (21), we recover the results of Problem
18.6. For the integration of Equations (21) and (22) when e 1= 0, see
Solution 18.8. The Ricci tensor for the wave must vanish. By contracting
the result in Problem 13.13, we have then
o
2RJLV haV,aJL haJL,av +
hJL;aa h
= = - -
,JLV
2
d O 1
(h 2 h
2)
0
_ =
-
2
du
0 1
From this we conclude h
2
=h
2
_ [The integration constants are of no con-
sequence; they are not wavelike; they carry no energy, and since they
O 1 =!.
h o
_
h
0
h from Il,V
=
0,0
2
2 3
h
2
+ h
3
=
0 from Il,V
=
1, 0 -
x) leaves the
ha{3' A gauge transformation of the form
'JL(t ha{3 as
-
functions only of t -
x and hence does not invalidate our four constraints
23 32 22
The explicit form of the gauge transformation is
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 501
I II
III
1 --
o(u) =
hoo(u)du gl (u) = -
2
h 11 (u)du
2(U) =
III h
02 (u)du 3(U) =
I\o3(ii)dii ・
lent to projecting out the TT part. But projecting out the transverse
h did transformation.
part leaves h 22 ,
23 ,
h33 invariant, as our gauge
Solution 18.9. Let the z axis be the symmetry axis and let cp be the
asymptotically flat region far outside the sources through which the waves
f
1
11 =-(16nT
/l;Vd2!./lV (1)
r= r
1
where e =
a/acp. (See Problem 16.23. The proof goes through even if
r =
r
2
(r 2 > r
1 ) is
f
2
12 =
-(1677)-1 /l;v
d
!.p.v ・
(2)
r=r
2
1 2 -1 1 =-(1617)-1
f
r=r2
1L;Vd2IILV+(1617)-1
r=r
f 1L;Vd2IILV
1
J TIL
v
d 3v
I
IL
r1SrSr2
vanishes for r
1 S r S r
2
, J2 -
icu t
Re{A + e-icutl h h J
-
h = -h = = =
Re { A e .
xx yy xy yx X
\A+12 +
1Axl2
in analogy with the electromagnetic approach. [See for example Landau
and Lifschitz, p. 122 ff.] Following this analogy further we notice that
1 +
3 -
1i 2
1
Pab
=
2
+
1i 2 1 -
para me ters.]
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 503
get insight into the meaning of the parameters, let us consider a mixture
of (1) unpolarized waves, (2) circularly polarized waves, and (3) linearly
polarized waves with an orientation rotated about the x and y axis by
and with < G
1 (t)G;(t? =
0
(2) A+ =
H(t) Ax
=
:!: iH(t)
(3) A+ =
F(t) cos 2t/J Ax
=
F(t) sin 2t/J ・
<\F\2>cos
2
2t/J + <IGI>2+ <IHI>2
2
<IFI >sin2t/J cos2t/J + i<IH\2>
1
p =-
I
2 2
+<1 H\2>
2
<IF\2>sin2t/J cos2t/J:!: i<\HI > <I F\2> sin 2t/J + <I G1 >
I ==
<\F\2> + 2<\GI
2
> + 2<IHI2>
so that
3
=
<IFI
2
> COS 4t,lr =
2:!: i <\HI > ・
radiation
finally that the polarization properties of the
can be
We see
similar to that of
found from the Stokes parameters in a manner very
electromagnetis m.
1
( ;g'f)2+
i:2 i:2 .c 2 2
(s 1 + S 2 + S 3 )
.
Here R denotes the magnitude of the Riemann tensor for the waves and
the waves are weak and oscillatory, the positions are fair ly constant so
2
x(t) -
Xo
=
xoh(t) + at + (3 + <9(h )
initial position.
Xo
=
zero since the particles were at rest in their initial positions before the
Solution 18.12. The normal modes of the rod (taken to be oriented along
a2
-+
1
-
a
- -
a
2 a2
- =
0 . (1)
2 rat 2
at ax
Here t)
(x, is the displacement of an element of the rod, r is the damp-
ing time and a is the speed of sound. The modes are of the form
C -iwt -t/2r
s=e e ( )
ux (2)
where
2
d 1...
( )
2 u 2
a + w + u =
0 . (3)
2 2
dx 4r
ag 0 (4)
=
ax x = :!:L/2
{
n
un (5)
=
with frequencies
(Un
=
n11a/L if we assume
(Un? liT.
Consider a gravitational wave propagating in the z-direction. The
force field which it induces is
xk z) (6)
Fj RjOkO(t
= - -
.
F(t, x) = -
xR
x Ox oCt) (7)
to the right-hand side of Equation (1). We can express the resulting dis-
I Bn(t)un(x)
n
・
(8)
L/2
r F dx
un
2
..
l' -L/2
B + -
B + UJ
.\
B =
(9)
n n n n
T L/2
2
r un
dx
-L/2
2 2
-
Rxoxo(t) L I (211 n ) .
506 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1Bn l
T 1
oc
2
oc _
3
(10)
W n n
n
The 2
energy flux F in the gravitational wave scales as
IRxoxolwnl2 oc
1/n ,
so 2
IB n 1 1
sensitiv ity oc oc -
(11)
2 4
1/n n
Ofl. Oi 0
TGW,fl. TGW,i F
= =
O
where F is the rate, per unit volume, at which external forces are doing
work on the gravitational waves. Isolate a chunk of the cement of cross
section A and put a Gaussian "pill box" around it. From Gauss' theorem
J J
Oi Oi
TGWd i
=
T,i d Vol.
(T wl -T
au t in ) I.J FOd
A= Vol.
= -
rate at wave energy is absorbed by cement
and hence:
per unit area per unit time) per unit area per unit time) .
c i 2 x 1"
s + rs + W
o
=
-R
OxO
X
0
= -
h X
2 xx 0
or
2 2
_<:L A X e- 1wt
.
2 2
c
S (-w -iwr+w o ) = _<:L h X =
+ 0
・
2 xx 0
2
1 2 iw t 2 2 A
c
[ r\W-W O ) -IW r]/Ll
- .
w A X
oe
=
s
2 +
2
_w )2
2 2
/). ==
(w + w r
and for
1 3 -iwt 2 2 A
S
_
_
-
w A X oe .r
[w r +l\W -w
O )]/Ll.
2 +
From this we can easily evaluate the rate at which the molecule of mass m
absorbs energy:
<xF
x
> =
Ret(g)(Fxtl
=
Re{(g)(- mw2A:Xoeiwt)}
6
=
m r
IA+12X .
1 2 iw t l
Xo Re { A+ e } Re { s
-
= -
mw s .
<F
Z
> =
mw6X r<Re(A+e-iwt)'Re(A+e-iwt?
1 6 2 2
=
8
mw r I A+ \ Xo
508 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
which demonstrates on a microscopic bas is the reason for the res ult in
Problem 18.13.
vhwd. If the two particles collide during this cycle of the wave,
average then, particles collide with energies fractionally larger by (/1 v /v)2
than they would in the absence of the wave. Since the collision randomizes
their direction of motion, this energy is not subtracted out half a cycle
later when the wave is reversed. Another effect also adds of order ( v/v)2
fractional energy per collision: the fact that particles moving toward each
the number density and m the mass of the particles. Thus the internal
dE.In
t h2 3
h
2
i
,....,
1 1 (nOkT)2",...., 1 1
E
in t
・
(1)
dt
n2"m2"f n2"m2"f
o o
E
.1 t
o
E
i nt(t 0) =
(2)
t (t)
,....,
t
to
In -
1
2
to,...., (f/h ) (m/kT) 2". Thus, E in in finite time of
where t
00 a
to;
course this does not happen: our Newtonian treatment breaks down at a
2 2 2
(1). Since its internal energy density is of order w h c /G, it is damped
in a distance
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 509
2 2 3
f cr
w h c /G
d amplng
.
,...., . ,....,
d amplng 3 1 1
2
h
(nokT)"2 /(ngm 2f)
(
)
3 2
c
f
( )
,...., w
・
\Gmno
v
thermal
(The first term in parenthesis approaches unity for a relativistic gas; the
second approaches unity for a wave at the "gravitational plasma frequency"
of the gas.)
(G/c ) I QI
5 2 5 2 4
of a physical process is ,....,
(G/c )M v /T2 where M, v, T
are relevant masses, velocities and times for the process. This can be
conveniently written as
2
2
p2
Q.
( )
P ,....,
Mv ,....,
GW T
5 59
c 3 x 10 ergs/sec.
2
Here p,...., Mv IT represents the characteristic "power" of internal
energy flows.
power flow" is E/r. If we assume that this internal power flow couples
P
GW
,....,
{E/r)2
and
2
E ,....,
P r ,....,
E /r
GW GW
・
2 2
E2/r
( )
E E
N '" = '"
1i
・
h/T 16
10 ergs
510 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
tion are the collisions of electrons with lattice points, photon scattering,
etc. Since the thermal velocities of the electrons greatly exceed their
generated by one electron should be (kT /T)2 where T is the mean time
between collisions of the electron with the lattice. The total energy, in
2
E
GW
"""
N
(k;) T
L /(1059 ergs/sec.)
N =
number of conduction electrons in filament
6
T =
bulb life time '"
4 x 10 seconds.
L
EGW T -
N (kT)2 T L
n '" '" .
1r T1I 59
10 ergs/sec.
For the light bulb kT must be on the order of an electron volt, since the
7
by a time of .1 sec, so that the total power in shattering is 10 ergs/sec.
If 10% of this is relevant to quadrupole oscillations, then
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 511
6
P
(10 ergs/sec)2 47
GW
""-J
59
10- ergs/sec
10 ergs/sec
48
E ""-J
P x .1 sec 10- ergs
GW GW
.
26
The number of -nw ""-J
if/.1 sec ""-J
10- erg gravitons is then on the order
22
of 10- .
H =
(87TG) 2 T
/lvh/lV .
(1)
1
33
We shall use units with c =11"= 1, so G2 =
1.616 x 10- cm. For the
P/lP V
T =
me uf.luv
=
(2)
f.lv m
e
v
we work in the transverse-traceless gauge for hf.l , so
0 h ij 0 (3)
hOf.l
= .
=
,
,j
and thus
1 p.p. h ij
1 j
H =
(87TG)2 (4)
me
d3k ij* t
J
1 -ik'r ij ik'r
h ij (e + e --e
k,A ak,A )
(6)
--ek,A ak,A
_
3 1
(217)2 (2W)2 A
512 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
ij
Here w is the frequency of the wave and e the polarization tensor.
[ak,'\' at",\']
3
0
=
and so
a
k, AIO> =
0
3
<
k,'\ I at,,'\' 10> = 0 (k .!{)o,\,\,
-
・
(7)
1
..*
(8"G)2 1 1 ik'r IJ
T =
3 1
< 1s I e --PiP.j e
k,A I 3d> (8)
me (2") 2 (2w) 2
- -
8 4
Since kr,...., (leV) x 10- cm ,....,
10- , we can make the approximation of
putting ei .!.. =
1 (cf. the "dipole" approximation for electromagnetic
*
dr Gw ij 2
-
n
= -
If we use the explicit form of the wave functions, the matrix element in
this equation can be evaluated. Since we do not observe the spins of the
initial or final states of the atom, we will sum over the final spin states
and average over the initial spin states. This is most easily done by
p.p.
1 J
-
3
0..p2.
IJ
(11)
Since e\ =
0,replace PiPj by
we can
Qij in Equation (10). The
of
spherical components Qij are
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS
513
Q2 '=
(Qxx -
Qyy + 2i Qxy)
Ql ==
Qzx +
iQZy
QO '=
n )t (Qzz- Qxx- Qyy) (12)
Q-l ==
Qzx
-
iQzy
Q-2 '=
(Qxx -
Qyy
-
2i
QXY) ・
ij
Since e
A has x-y components (for A =
:!:1):
+'
[1 ]
_1
1
2- 2
:!:i -1
we find
*
1
. .
1J
Qij e
A
=
22Q_2A. (13)
<j.m.\Q
J J a U 11
m .> . =
<j.IIQI\
J
j.>
1 <2aj.m.U.m.>
11J J
(14)
1
<j.IIQIU.
J 1
> =
2.J.+ 1
<2a J..m. l j.m.
1 1 J J
> <j.m.IQ
J J a \j.m.
1 1
> (15)
J
m.m.a
1 J
Equations (13) and (14) (with the n quantum number added) give
1
(2 j j +
1).. 2
I 1<2 I
1 2
-2A J.m.IJ.m.>1 \<J.-m.J.m .\2-2A>\
..
2'J .+ 1 1 1 1 J 2.J.+ 1 5 J J1 l
1 1
m.m. m.m.
1 J 1 J
2j j + 1
-
1
5 2j. + 1
1
514 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
and thus
dr Gw 22j j +l 1< n.j.IIQlln.j.
2
1 1 >\ (16)
=
.
dO 2 5 2'J + 1 J J
17 m i
e
2j + 1
Gw 16
.
2
r =
m2e
_
5 2.JJi + 1 1<n.j.IIQlln.j.>1
J J 1 1
.
(17)
The reduced matrix element can be evaluated from Equation (14) and any
<
lOOIQoI320>
< 1s 11Q11 3d> =
.
(18)
< 2020100>
Qo
=
n f (PzPz- p2) ・
The p2 term does not contribute to the matrix element in Equation (18)
because it cannot couple j =
0 to j =
2. Thus
<lsIIQII3d> =
( f <lOO\pzpz\320>. (19)
Pz -ia/az
so
1-.
)
2 2 1-. sin (J
( )(
sin (J
p2 z
_
a /az = _
cos (J
ar
_
r
a(J
cos (J
ar
_
r a(J
2 2
_/cos 2 (J
)
a sin (J
=
+
2
\ ar
r ar
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 515
00 IT 2IT .1 .1
2 3
1 L i 2... 2
(3 cos 0-1) 2(30) 2 1.
( 1617)
2 2
<320 p 1 1 100> r dr S 1°nO dO d
()
-
-
'fJ
-
z
2
955 a
a
o 0 0
(
a2 2
)
3a
e- / 0 a 1 1.. e-r/a
r 2 sin
x cos 0 +
2 r ar 1 3
ar
(417)2 a
2
1 00
4r IT
L L
-6 2
(
2
)
-3a 2
dr
5 2 cos 0 sin 0
sinOdO(3cos 0-1)
=
r e
6
_
191 a
a
2 ra
0 0
1 00 4r
( )
5
L
4
62 8
--
3a
= -
dr e .!- + !:.-
191 a
6 15 2 a
0 a
1
_
- -
1 62 x 8 x 243 x 57
a
2 191 x 15 x 2 x 256
=
-
.19
2
a
where a =
(m e a)-l is the Bohr radius and a =
1/137 is the fine struc-
ture constant.
r =
Gw .
16 . 1. .
3 . (. 19 )2
5 5 2
m
2
e
a4
24
=
. 36 G m wa .
45
Now
Gm; =
1.75 x 10- and w =
12eV for 3p Is. Thus the life-
1 38
time is r- =
1.9 x 10 sec.
Solution 18.19. A star, and its thermal graviton flux are spherically sym-
metric only in the time averaged sense. Since a star's interior is com-
posed of subatomic particles it is clear that, at a given time the star may
grain (atomic scale) graininess which makes all symmetry theorems in-
radiation.
metries of the flux. (This should not be confused with the fact that the
generation of the waves is locally quadrupole, nor with the fact that the
18
expansion of graininess of 10- radians requires e values of order
18
10 In this fine-grain sense then, the flux has characteristically a
.
18
10
2 -pole distribution.
center of mass, the effect of the Riemann tensor, according to the equation
2
d xj k
Rj OkO x
= -
2
dt
We have here ignored the velocity dependent "magnetic" type terms which
are smaller by a factor v/c. (See solution to Problem 18.14.) This equa-
tion makes it clear that the Riemann tensor has a longitudinal effect if
and only if one of the spatial indices of R
jOkO
is z, the direction of
to new coordinates x', y' rotated about the z-axis in the positive sense
Rx'Oz'O' =
R
xOzO
cos cp + R
yOzO
sincp
2
Rx'Ox'O'
=
R
xOxo
cos cP + R
yOYO sin2cP + 2 sincP coscP R
XOyO
.
From the form of the transformation for the Riemann components, the
transformation laws for the symbols defined in the problem are easily
calculated:
'I' 2' ;: -
Rz'Oz'o' = -
i R
zOzo
=
'1'2
'II =
e iCP 'II
3' 3
e- iCP
'113 =
'll3
2 i ,t,.
-
'1' ' =
e 'f'qt 'II =
e
-2i,t,.-
'f'qt
4 4 '
4' 4
(I)
2'2'
=
(1)22 .
Since 'II
2
and
(1)22 are unaffected by rotation about z, the waves are
0
scalar (spin 0) waves. For 'II and 'II a rotation of 180 returns
3 3'
the wave to the same state of polarization (e. g. pure real), so these sym-
bols must correspond to spin 1 waves. The symbols 'II and 'II need
4 4
0
only be rotated by 90 to be in the same polarization state so they repre-
Solution 18.21. In the figure are the six polarization modes of a weak,
plane, null gravitational wave permitted in the generic metric theory of
gravity. The figure shows the displacement that each mode induces on a
cut =
0, the broken line, one at cut =
'TT. There is no displacement perpen-
dicular to the plane of the figure. The above modes are obtained by using
y y
o o
,
I
I
x x
\\
( a ) Re'i'4 ( b) 1m 1'4
y y
-- --
o .
". "
" ....
II"
" "
/ ,
,
I \ ,
, \ ,
'
I \
x z
I I
, \
,\
I
I
,
, I
\ I , /
, , .II'
" ".
" ....
"
"- -"
x y
.
z z
( e ) Re'll3 ( f) Im'l'3
CHAPTER 18: SOLUTIONS 519
2 k
d x
.
k
xJR
2 O J'o'
dt
L
・
2 .2 ..
.2
=
x + y -uv + 2 Hu .
aL aL
ds ( ) ax
_
ax
=
0
we get
2
X + H 1i =
0
,x
2
ry
x
and therefore r = H .
Similarly y + H u =
0 implies = H
uu ,x uu
,Y ,Y
implies r a{3
u
and u =
0 =
O. From
2
v-2H u -4H xu-4H yu=O
,u ,x ,Y
we get
rv = -2H r
v
= _
2H r
v
= -
2H .
uu ,u xu ,x yu ,y
All other r's are zero. In the expression (MTW, Equation 8.51b)
1 1
/l r /l ra
Ra{3
r
/la{3,/l (log (- g) 2") ,a{3 + (log (- g) 2"),/l r
=
a{3 a{3
- -
all
,xx ,yy
Any harmonic function in x and y will therefore satisfy the field equa-
V 2<1> =
417 Gp (gravitational potential) (1)
ap/at + V .
(P =
ay Vp
-
+ (v. V)v = - - -
V(I) (equation of motion) .
(3)
at
-
p
-
2
(I) = -
17
Gp (r. r) + C .
r + K
3 ----
where C
-
and K are arbitrary constants of integration and -
r is the posi-
tion vector from the (arbitrary) origin. Equation (2) is identically zero.
the Schwarzschild metrics, and the only one which is regular at the origin
-
where our observer is -
is the M =
0 case, Le. flat Minkowski space.
520
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 521
have then
Flux observed = n
fI bs
dv
obs
= n
f ( bS
)V v
obs
bS
dVobs
3
Iemit
f f
v dv
{} emit emit {} emit
= =
I dv .
3 4 4 v emlt
V
emlt
.
(1 + z ) (1 + z )
{} 1. 4
=
a T
17
(1+z)4
black body spectrum is also a black body spectrum, the flux and spectrum
observed is just that which would come from a nearby stationary object of
solid angle {} and temperature T/(l+z).
In all the above it doesn't matter whether the redshift is due to doppler
motion, gravitational redshift, or cosmological redshift, because Liouville's
theorem holds in general.
k .1 k .1 k m
R.. = r -(log 1 g12) ,1J + r (log I g 1 2) -
r r
k im
..
J.k
.. ..
lJ lJ, k 1J ,
where Iglt =
a3fr2sin and the r's are found from the Lagrangian for
Orp Orp
-
Orrr 00
1 2 2 2
=
_(rf-2) ,r + cosec
2
0_r- f-3(r f) ,r -cot 0 + 2f-
2
=
[r (1- f -2)] ,r (2r)-1.
522 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Since
2 2 -1
Ree Ree (a r)
=
,
and
R;; =
R
=
Ree
by isotropy, we get
R =
tha t is
4
-2)
2
r (1 -
f =
Br + C .
Since f 1 as r 0, we have C =
O. Thus
2 2 -1
f =
(1 -
Br) .
1
If B 1= 0, we can scale r by letting r' =
I BI"2 r. The metric then takes
Solution 19.5.
(a) Let
sinx k =
+1
r =
X k= 0
sinhX k =-1
then
cos
X dX
dr =
dX
cos h X dX
and
2
dX
2
dr 2
2
=
dX
1- kr 2
dX
2
dr 2 2 2 2
2
+ r d0 =
dX + l2(x)d0
1- kr
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 523
where
2
sin x ,
k =
+1
2Cx) X2 =
k= 0
2
sinh x, k =
-1 .
(b) Let dt =
R(17)d17 define a transformation from the variable t to
the variable 11. Then
2 2 2 2
ds =
-dt + R (t) (dX + 2d02)
2 2
=
R (11)(-d11 + dX2 + 2d02)
2 2 2 2 2
dcp2)]
2
da =
a
[dX + sin x (d0 + sin 0 .
By analogy with the metric for 2-spheres, it is easy to guess that this
W =
a cos
X
Z =
a sin X cos 0
X =
a
sinX sinO coscp
Y =
a
sinX sinO sincp
2 2
(which satisfy W + Z2 + X2 + y2 =
A ), the metric becomes
2 2
d =
dW + dZ + dX2 + dy2 .
In Euclidean 4-space one can find two planes (e.g. X- Y and W-Z)
plane changes all X and Y coordinates except the origin and leaves
all W-Z coordinates fixed; and vice versa for W-Z rotations. There-
origin and (for nonzero a) takes all points of the 3-sphere into different
points.
Solution 19.7. In some local proper frame suppose the bullet passes by
with a proper velocity V. When it has moved a proper distance dr farther,
proper frame is
R dR
oV =
H dr =
HV dt = -
V dt =
V -
.
R R
=
Y _(1_y2)y d: + e(Oy)2 .
1
2 2
Thus, dV/dR =
-(1-V )V/R which is integrable, giving yV ==
(1_V )-2"V
=
constant/R =
constant x (1 + z). So V 1 and V
2
are related by
Y2 V 2/Y l V 1
=
(1+ z)-l. For a particle with nonzero rest mass, this result
we obtain the usual redshift factor. (Note that we have not taken into
account the slowing down of the bullet due to the gravitational attraction
of the cosmological matter at rest in the proper frame. The reader can
2 2 2
ds =
R (11) [-d11 + dX2 + 2{x)dn2] (1)
u = 1. (11 + X)
2
(2)
1
v =
2 (11
-
X) ・
2 2 2 2
ds =
R (u+v)[-4dudv + I (u-v)d0 ] .
(3)
a =
g(u) u =
f(a)
(4)
(3 =
g(v) v =
f(f3)
(3) becomes
2 2 2 2
ds =
R (u+ v) [- 4f'(a)f'(,B)da d(3 + I (u -
v)d0 ]
[ ]
2 I (u-v) 2
=
R (u+v)f'(a)f' (f3 ) -4da d,Q
fJ + d0 .
(5)
f'(a) f'(f3)
If the metric is to be conformally flat, the term in brackets must have the
2
flat space form [- 4 da d(3 + (a -
v)]2 =
[g(u) -
g(v)]2 .
(6)
by inspection. For the other cases Equation (6) can be solved by first
so that with p =
g', q =
p' and k =
+1, we must solve
526 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2q dq/dp -
4p =
3q2/p .
q
=
p(Ap-4)2 , A =
constant ,
1
u + B =
tan- (Ap/4 -l)t
g(u) =
C tan(u+B) + D .
We can now verify by substitution that this is in fact the general solution
to Equation (6). Without loss of generality we can take g =
tan u. For
k =
-1, we can similarly find g =
tanh u. With these solutions, Equation
v) =
tanh u -
tanh v
2 l l
2 R [tan- (a) + tan- ({3)] 1- 4 da 2
ds =
2 2
dtJ + (a _
tJ)2 d0 1
(1+a )(1+f3 )
or
2 l I
2 R [tanh- (a) + tanh- ({3)] 2
ds =
1-4dadtJ + (a _fJ)2 d0 1
(32)
2
(1- a ) (1 -
Weyl tensor, so the Riemann tensor is only composed of the Ricci tensor
RatJyo = 2°
[a[yRtJ 1] -
o[Ly0tJ1] R .
(8)
a
R 817
(TIf3 gaf3 T)
=
f3
-
a a
T (p+p)u u{3 +
pga{3
=
f3
give R
a {3.In terms 0f u /l , p, p.
yo g/lV'
subtended, d
A
== Dlo. From the figure, and the Robertson-Walker metric,
we see that D =
R(t) rl 0, so d
A
=
r
1 R(t 1 ). If the object is moving trans-
r. Ro .
/ / now,R=R o
:i-I
'-I
I I I 1I
then, R=R(f.)
528 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRA VITA TION
do /dt, then d == V /(do /dt). Let t' denote time measured at the emis-
M
sion of photons. Since V =
d(R(t 1 )r 1 o)/dt', and since dt'!dt =
R(t 1 )/R o
because of the cosmological redshift, and noting that R(t 1 ) can be con-
a flux f, then dL ==
(L/4 1Tf) 2". In a time dt' it emits an energy Ldt'.
distributed over a sphere of proper area 41T(rl Ro)2 (see figure). Thus,
f =
(Ldt'R/Ro)(41TrlRo)-2/dt and dL =
R rl/R(tl)'Using R o /R(t 1 ) =
R rl/R(tl)
where r
1
is the radial coordinate of the object and R(t 1 ) is the
s ale
factor at the time t1 at which the light was emitted. Since Ho == R/R
and qo == -
R R/R 2 ,
the first terms in the power series expansion of R
are
R(t) =
Ro
C1 +
Ho(t to)
- -
qoH (tt o )2
-
+ ..
-) ・ (1)
d R o /R(t 1 ) 1 + z, but
We eliminate the factor R(t 1 ) from using
=
can L
2
we still need to find expressions for Ro and for r
1
.
Setting ds =
0
metric gives
to get the path of light rays in the Robertson-Walker
to
(1
I
dt _
-
dr (2)
t
1
R(t) Jo (1- kr
2
)!
to the lowest 2 orders in (to
-
t ) and r by
-Integrating Equation (2) 1 1
r
1
=
[(tO-t1)+
0 Ho(to-td! +
...J (3)
o /R(t 1 )
in terms of 1+z R
and inverting Equation (1) t
to
=
to get -
io [z ..-J
gives
ROr1
= -
(1+qO)z2 +
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 529
so that
io [z (1-qo)z2 ..J
d
(l+z)Ror l
=
L
=
+ +
or
equivalently
2
LH
f L --..Q [1
=
2
=
+
(qo
-
1) z + ...] .
411 d
L
411 z2
Solution 19.11.
(a) Let n(t 1 ) be the number of sources per unit volume at time t1 .
1 1
3
I (3)gl2" drl
2"
kri) ri dr 1 sin e 1 del dcpl
-
del dcpl =
R (t )
1 (1- .
1
3
dN =
411R (t 1 )(1-kri)-2"ri n(t 1 )dr 1 .
The quantities r and t1 are related by the equation for null rays propa-
1
We have, therefore
2 2
dN =
411 R (t 1 ) r (t 1 ) n(t )
1 I d t1 1
and
to
N(z) =
f t
z
41TR2(tl)r2(tl)n(tl)dtl
implicitly by
R( t z ) 1
=
(1)
R(t o ) l+z'
530 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
3
net) R (t) =
constant.
to
N(z) 417n(t o )R\t o )
f R-l(tl)r2(tl)dtl'
=
R(t 1 ) =
R(t o ) [1- Ho(t o -
t
1)
+ ...]
to t 1
[ 1+ 2 ]
1
-
r(t 1 ) =
HO(to-t 1 )+
...
(2)
R(t o )
to
N(z) 417 n(t o )
f (to t )2 [1 + 2H o (t o t ) + ...] dt 1
- -
=
1 1
'7 n(to)(t o
-
t
z
)3 [1 +
Ho(t o
-
t
z
) +
...J ・
To evaluate to
-
t
z
to (9(z2) from Equation (1) we need the next term in
R(t z ) =
R(t O
)[1 -
Ho(to-t z
) -
qoH (to-tz)2+..] ・
This gives
HO(t o
-
t
z
) =
z
[1 -
z +
) o..] +
n
(to)
[ ]
417 3 3
1--
N(z) z
z(l+qo)+
...
= - - ・
3 2
H3o
Note that the field equations did not enter to this order in z.
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 531
2
LR (t 1 )
S =
(3)
411 r R4(to)
(cf. Problem 19.9, where S was called f). Thus, as in part (a),
to
N(S) =
J s
41TR2(tl)r2(tl)n(tl)dtl (4)
When S is large, to -
t
s
is small and expanding the integral in Equation
N(S) =
4; n(t o Ht o -ts )3
[1+ HO(to-t s
)+
..] .
Inserting the expansions for r(t s ) and R(t s ) in Equation (5) g ives
1 1
) [
2
]
3 2
t
o
-t
s
=
( l
411 S
1 _
2
H
0 ( )411S
+ ...
and so
3 1
N(S)
4; n(t o )
(4 YS [1 3H
(4 rS ...] +
= -
o
・
2 2
dr /(1- kr ). Then for a radial photon dO =
dcp = 0 and the metric coeffi-
2
pX =
C/R (t)
532 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
2
1 2 1 R
dA =
C- R (t)dX =
C- (t)d\2
.
(1- kr )2
Solution 19.13.
'"
'"
In the comoving orthonormal frame
'"
we have TO''''0 = _
p'
and
T;: =
TCPi> TOe= =
p.
-0
'"
The trace-reversed stress energy tensor
1
'"
_0
1
T
(p
= = -
2 2
this to 1/811 G times the Ricci tensor. The Ricci tensor can be calcu-
lated e.g. from the results of Problem 9.20 (general spherically symmetric
metric). The components are:
o
..
R
0
=
3R/R
1
.. O
2
Rli =
2 (RR
+ 2R + 2k) .
this, from the identity d[(R)2]fdR R, = and from Equation (1) of Prob-
lem 19.13:
PR2 =! (R)2
!..i.. 811G 4
2 dR ( 3 2 dR ) =
R = _
3
11G(p+3p)R
2
dR
(PR ) =
-(P+3p)R
d 3 2
dR
(pR ) =
-3pR 0
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 533
R2 + k =
8
G
PR
2
.
If we now take
this equation, use the identity
d/dR on d[(R)2]/dR= R,
3 2
the other first order equation d(PR )/dR 3p R and = -
the definition
'2
..
q == -
R R/R , we
get Equation (2). If p? p then the left side of Equa-
tion (2) is negligible compared with the right side, and Equation (3) results
Equation (4) is immediate upon substituting Equation (3) into Equation (1).
If p =
1/3 p, then eliminating p from Equations (1) and (2) gives Equa-
2
tion (5), while eliminating the k/R term gives Equation (6).
j
Solution 19.16. Using Tg = -
p, and T
j
(no sum) =
p, and
P,j
=
0
(homogeneity) the 11
=
j component is
o -
-
T
v -
-
T
v
_
T vr
a
+
T
.I. ar vav
j; v j, v a jv j
k
pro.J o (p + p)ro.J o
v
=
p ,j +
.
-
pr .
+ pr .
= =
0
Jk JV
a v
o =
T
cr;v =
T
cr,v -
T:r ov
+ T
<fr av
.1
dp °
= -
dt
+ pr 00
-
(p+p)(log\g 2),0
1
a
has been used (see Problem 7.7). Thus
where r
(log\g\2),{3
=
a {3
d P / dt = -
(p+p) (R )
3
3 dt
R
and
3 2
d(PR ) = -
3p R dR
Problem 19.14).
534 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
is
r =
t sinh X .
T =
t coshX
2 2 2 2 2 2
ds =
_dT + dr + r (d0 +sin 0dcp2)
which is empty Minkowski space.
Solution 19.18.
and
p=PO( R )3 .
(1)
( t 8;G Po ( R Y
k
(dR::Y (2)
= = --
2
R
or
1
2
R-t dR .Q.. Rt 817 G 3
=
2 =
( P0 R0 kR
)
_
dl1 dl1 3
1
.
-1 R2
sin k =
+1
1
( 1TG
POR r
1
l.
R2
R2 k 0 (3 )
dRt
=
J
1
1. G
11
(8; R )2
=
=
2 1 Po
o
(8; POR -kR)2 1
.
sin h
-
1 R2
k =-1
1
G
(8; Po R r
From Problem 19.15 we know
417 GPo
qo
= -
(4)
3 H2
o
and
k
R =
(k=:!:l) .
(5)
(2qo -
1) H
1). Thus in
Equation (3)
817 R
3 2qo (k :!:1)
'3 Po 0
= =
.
Ho I (2q o 1)1
- 2
qo k 1
3
(1 -
c os 11) =
H
o (2q o -1)2
R= 1. H
2
R
3 n
2
k =
0
4 0 0.'
qo -1
(cosh 11- 1) k =
.
Ho(l- 2qOY2
Now integrating dt =
Rdl1 gives
536 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
qo .
3
(11 -
sin
11 ) k =
1
H
o (2q o -
1)2
t
1 2 3 3
Ho Ro 11 k=O
=,
12
qo
3
(sinh 11-11) k = -1 .
Ho(1- 2q o)2
flects the fact that the universe here has an arbitrary scaling and its
geometry looks the same at all times. The value of will not enter
Ro
the computation of any physically measurable quantity.
P
=
Po ( f ・
( t (dR Y G( R)4
k
= =
8 Po
--
R
2
or
dR
1
=
dl1
( 17GPoR -kR2)2
which has solutions:
sin 11 k = 1
1
R
( 8; GPoR Y x k 0 (6)
= =
11
sinh 11 k = -1 .
817 GPo
qo =
3 2
H
o
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 537
2 k
Ro =
(k = :t 1) .
(qo -l)H
qo
k = :t1
817 G (qo -
1)2 H
P 0 R4
0
=
3
2 4
H R k=O
o 0
1..
2
1 qo
Ho qo [ -
1
] (1- cos 11) k=l
122
t k=O
2 Ho Ro 11
=
1..
1 qo2
Ho [ 1 -
qo ] (cosh 11-1) k =
-1 .
dr dr
p p dr dR dr
constant = - -
RR (1)
R df dr dR dt dR
(r P ==
proper separation) by dr P =
R dr (hence the last equality above).
2 .
1
r = A + B/R2 .
the r =
A observer and the bullet is R =
BR2.
r Thus the proper dis-
If k =
-1, then R becomes constant at large times and Equation (1)
2
gives dr/dR ex R- so that
r =
A + B/R .
tance to the r =
A observer RL\r approaches B, a constant.
by dl1 =
dt/R(t), the Friedmann metric for a radial (de =
dcp =
0) photon
becomes
2 2 2 2
o =
ds =
R (11) (- d11 + dX )
2
dX2
2
where =
dr /(1- r ) is the "trigonometric" radial coordinate on the
3-sphere (see Problem 19.5). From Problem 19.18 we see that the universe
lives an interval L\ 11 =
21T (time between two zeros of R), so in this time
3
R(t)/R o =
(2 Ho t ) ・
The energy emitted per source per unit proper time is L. This is red-
shifted by a factor R(t)/R o ' so the total energy per star which is now
present is to 2
i
3 3 3
L R(t) dt 5/3
& =
o Ro
=
5
L
( 2 HO ) to
or =
2L/5Ho since
to
=
2/3 Ho. The energy per volume, u, now is
1
thus H
o
Ln. Since the energy fills the universe isotropically, it
-1
time
to
=
I t
o
2-1
& =
L dt =
Ho L
3
0
and
1
B =
1TH O Ln
.J
Solution 19.22. From the solution of Problem 19.18, if > 0.5 we must
qo
have a k =
+1 cosmology which expands according to
qo
R(t)/R o =
(1- cos 11) ・
(1)
1
2Qo
_
110
at the present epoch. The epoch is arbitrary, however, so it also re-
qo
lates 11 and q at any epoch. Putting q =
0.5002 gives 1 -
cos 11
=
.0008
at z =
1500. Substituting this back into Equation (1) and putting Ro/R(t)
=
1+ z =
1501, we can solve for getting
qo'
qo
=
[2 -
If < 0.5, the k =
-1 analogy of Equation (1) is
qo
R(t)/R O =
1
(cosh 11
-
1) (2)
qo
-
so q
=
.4998 gives cosh 11- 1 =
.0008 at z =
1500 and
qo
=
[2 + (1 + z) (cosh 11- 1)]-1 = 0.312 .
Solution 19.23.
metric
( )
2 dr2 2 2 2
da =
R 2
+ r (d0 + sin 0 dcp2) .
1_r
I t=to (now)
I I I I I I I II
.-r-+
I
r=O Ir=r:0
I
I
t=O (singularity)
1 1 2rr
R30 r2
J I (3)gl t d
1 J I
3 2
V =
x =
2 dr d(cos 0) de/>
2
1.
2
=
217 R .
a -1 a (1 _
r )
3-sphere
1
RO
=
H
O (2Q O -l)-t (1)
so
3
3
V
=2rr2(2qO-1)-2 H
O
.
(2)
(b) Our past light cone sweeps outward a proper radial distance c dt
in a time dt (see figure). From the metric, the proper area of a 2-sphere
2 2
is 417 r R , where rand R are both functions of t along the light cone.
ta
i
2 2
V =
dt 417 r (t) R (t) ・
(3)
0
The differential equation for r(t) follows from its definition as a null cone:
-dt R(t) dr
=
-
1
' (4)
2 "2
(1 _
r )
and r =
0 at t =
R =
A(l -
cos 11) , t =
A(l1- sin 11) (5)
where
qo
A== (6)
3
(2q o -1)2 Ho
C :o)
1
=
o
cos- ・
(7)
1
Equation (4) now becomes d(sin- r) =
dl1 so that
r =
sin
(110 -11) (8)
T/O
I
2 2
v=
A(I-cos )d 417sin2( (l-cos
o- )A ) ・
3 61 5 5. 3 1.
4 'IT A
( 110 + 30 sin 3 110
)
.
V sin 2 2
110 + 4 110 sin cos
=
110
-
8 110
-
80 2
rO
=
sin
(110) =
(2q o -
1)2/qo
where Equation (7) has been used. The volume out to this coordinate
ro R 3 2 d r
f
1
Or
ro(l- ro) ]
2 2
Ro [sin- ro
3 1
V =
4'IT = 2'IT -
1
o 2 2
(1- r ) 1
fcos- qo\
qo)(qo qo-1)21J
(1-
(
1-
=
217 1
_
E.
H (2qo
-1)2 L qo /
542 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Solution 19.24.
R=R
o
r+
r=O
R=R(f.)
Use the TJ,X form of the metric from Problem 19.5. Then r
1
=
I(X1)' The
path of a photon is 0 =
R2(dX2 dTJ2), -
so
X1
=
TJ(t o ) -
B), sinh (A -
B) we have:
r1
=
(l1o)C(111) -
(111)C(l1o) ・
(1)
(Problem 19.18):
1
1
2qo -
1
-
C(l1) = -
1+z
qo
qoz qo + 1
-
C(17) =
qo(l + z)
(This is true for all three values of k.) With this result we have
1 1
2
\2qo 11 (2q o z+ 1)2
-
I(17) =
qo(l + z)
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 543
12qO 11 2 -
[1
1-
r
1
= -
qo + qoz
-
(1 -
qo) (1 + 2q o z) 2] ・
q (l+z)
a =
E/r 1 R(t 1 ) =
E(1+z)/r 1 R o '
finally,
a =
EH O (1+z)2 q
1
[l- q o +
qoz -(1- q o)(1+2q o z)2]
of matter (m p =
average baryon mass) is P ma tt
= m n. The density of
p
4
radiation is Prad
=
KaT , where a is the radiation constant =
5 3 4/3
(817 )/(15h ) and K is 1 (considering photons only) or 1 +
({I) =
x
2
=
(217mekT) exp(-i a2me/kT)
I- x
nh3
(m e
=
electron mass, a =
1/137). If recombination is defined by the left
side of this equation being about unity, Equation (1) gives us
3
15 (217 me T) 2
1 2 mp
exp( 2 a
me /kT ) =
817
5
KT
4
・
get
4
4 mp
3
4 aT
( )
KaT
a= =
3 11 3 TK m n
p
4 mp 320
= =
3K (137)2 (1836)
3 .1 a2m
K
(80 )
e
9
4 x 10 .
Solution 19.26. The Saha equation for the equilibrium fractional ioniza-
tion of hydrogen is (units with k=c= 1)
3
B /T
x
2 (217m e T)2 e-
=
(1)
I-x 3
nh
a2me(a =
1/137), and n is the
3 n
5 3
so if we take x =
1/2 and use a =
817 115h , Equation (1) becomes
]
melT
[
2t 417 7 / 2 1 T
( me) exp
-
- - -
-
.
45 a
2(137)2
(log 6.908 )
me 2 a 3 me
=
2(137) + log
If 2 T
T
2(1:;)2 [log 6.908
+
(10.53 + log log
)J-l
6. 08
0 8
4330 K for a =
10
9
=
140500K for a =
10 .
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 545
Solution 19.27. From Problem 19.18, near the singularity in the radiation-
dominated regime,
1 .1 2
817 4 2 817 4 2
11
R =
( 3 Po Ro ) 11, t =
( 3 Po Ro ) 2' (1)
(This equation holds for any value of k in the limit 11 0.) Thus we have
4
2 3R 3
t = =
(2)
3217 P
3217
Po R
4
where we have used P oc
R- for the radiation-dominated era. The photon
energy-density is 00
3
1
817 q dq
_ _
aT4
Py
- -
3 exp (q/kT) -
1
h
o
5 4 3
where a is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 817 k /15h . For highly rela-
tivistic electrons and positrons (which obey Fermi-Dirac Statistics)
00
817 r q3 d q 7
aT
4
Pe-
= = =
Pe+
・
h3 J.. o
exp(q/kT)+l 8
11
P aT4
Py+Pe++Pe-
= =
and so
1
4 .1
4 3
( )
_
2
T = .
t .
11 3217 a
If neutrinos are included and we ass ume they have zero chemical potential
(cf. Weinberg, Section 15.6), then since they have only one spin state,
1. 4
=
P- P P- aT
Pv e
= = =
v 16
e vf1. vf.l
11 4 7 4 9
P =
aT + aT =
aT4
4 4 2
1
1
-
2 3 4
T =
( 9
.
3217 a ) t- 2 .
546 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
4
aT for photons
f .2 4
peT) =
En(p)dp = aT for each neutrino species
16
7
aT4 for each electron or muon species.
8
5 4 3
Here a is Stefan's constant =
(81T k )/(15h ). For this problem, then,
we have
1- + 4 7 4
(1 + 4
) aT at
Rl
. ・
16 8
4
peT) = -
KaT ,
1- + 2 7 4
(1 + 4 ・
16
.
8 ) aT at R
2
K1 =
25/4 ,
K
2
=
18/4 .
We now use the fact that the expansion of the universe is isentropic. The
entropy per volume of such a relativistic gas is calculated from the first
law of thermodynamics to be
3
=
KaT .
constant =
S IX
Ka(RT)3 ,
3 3 3 3
K R T =
K R T
1 1 1 2 2 2
and
( )(
R1 25 t
T
2
=
T
1 R
2
18 ) .
Physically, this result says that in annihilating, the muons dump their
energy (actually entropy) into the remaining particles, and increase their
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 547
of T with R.
when the weak interactions for n p become slower then the timescale
d+y while most free neutrons have not yet decayed, and (3) using up
3 3 3 3 4
almost all d by d+d He or H + etc., He or H +d He + etc.
(i) There is no change in freezing out ratio, but higher baryon densi-
ties at any given temperature give more "cooking," therefore
4 4
more complete transformation to He : more He , less d.
more d.
1
2"
t =
( 32:GP ) + constant .
Increased G thus means smaller times spent in each density stage. This
gives a higher nip ratio. The small change in G does not substantially
affect the fact that the neutrons are almost all consumed to d, since the
4
decay time is still long, so: more d, more He .
P eff
=
(817)-1 A ,
Peff
= -
(817)-1 A ・
548 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2
R2 =
3
AR
with solution
R
t/To -
1
1. A
=
Ro e T -
o
.
2 2 2t/T 2 2 2
ds = -
dt +
R e 0(dr + r d( ) .
coordinate"
,
tiT 0
r
Ro e r
=
2 2
ds = -
dt + (dr' -
r' dt/T
0)2 + {2 d0 2 .
,2
( )
1 !-
t =
t' + -
2 To log -
1
T2o
and find
(1 )dt'2 (1 rli
2
ds = - -
+ -
dr,2 + r,2 d0 2 .
(2)
R 2
k 8rrp
( )
_
=
+ (la)
R 3
R2
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 549
R R 2
l
2
R
= _
( ) R
_
R2
_
877 P .
(lb)
P =
Po + A/8rr (2a)
p =
-A/Srr .
(2b)
Since all time derivatives of R higher than the second may be expressed
as linear combinations of Rand R by Equations (1), the necessary and
..
R=R=O. (3)
With the conditions of Equations (3) and (2), Equations (1) become
2
k/R =
(8rrP o+A)/3 (4a)
2
k/R = A (4b)
which imply
Po
=
A/4rr (Sa)
R = A-2 .
(5b)
give ..
2R 8rr 8rr 2 A
= _
P 8rr p = _
P + (6)
3 o
_
R 3 3
and let
1
R=A-2+oR (7a)
A
+ a (7b)
Po
=
4rr Po
550 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2A t
817
(0 R) = _
3
aP
0 (8)
Now, since the total amount of dust is conserved, the dust stress-energy
obeys
3
R =
constant
Po
8
Po 8R
= _
3 (9)
Po R
(oR) -
AoR =
0 , (10)
is unstable.
2 2 2 2 2
ds =
R2[dX + sin x(d0 +sin 0d<f>2)] (1)
with
O X 0<0<17,
17, - -
o <f> 217 .
17
L
3 2 3
v = 417 R sin2X dX =
217 R .
(2)
From Problem 19.31, we have the result, for this universe, that
R =
(417Po)-2 (3)
C2
( )
2
V = 211
411
(4)
Gpo
E /417, and R =
E (see
3
Problem 9.31). All dust cosmologies, even with nonzero A, have pR =
1+ 1
3
pR =
(1)
417 A "2
2
R2 AR 1 + 2(1 H)
=
VCR) == _
.
(2)
3
3At R
'
2
2
For small R, R ,....,
l/R, Le. R ,....,
(3". Th expansion reaches a mini-
When R is close to
Rm'
2 1 2
=
{1+ )3-1+[A2R-{1+ )3] .
1 1
2 1
- -
2
R =
sinhA! (t-t )]
R
Rm [1+ m
・
552 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
fsinhA2(t-t)
m
1
A-t
(t-tm ) log e).
Hence if f is made sufficiently small, the time can be made arbitrarily
long. Eventually R continues to expand, and asymptotically
H
2
2
1
=--')-A
R
2 3
R
Rm at z =
2 I.e.
1
R
o
=R
m
(1+z)=3R m =3A-2.
If this is so (with f? 1), then the density of matter now must be:
3 .1-1
Po
=
(417R OA2) =
(10817)-1A
R t (20A2 t
( )
1A ...1. 2
HO ( ) =
+ =
_
=
R 0 3 2 9
3A t
R 3
o R
0
T a k Ing
Ho I.e.
Po x
=
=
cm gives
=
cm, .
58 2 3
10- cm- =
1.6x 10-30gm/cm .
-57 -2
A 10 cm 31 3
Pc
= _ =
817
4x 10- gm/cm .
817
3
Pbody
I"toJ
1 gm/ cm
33 15 3
Psol ar system
I"toJ
10 gm/(10 cm)3 '"
10-12gm/cm .
Pc 19
'"
10- .
Psolar system
..
4
R = - -
17
G(p + 3p) R
3
RR + 2R + 2k =
417 G(p -
p) R
2
.
For a static solution, all time derivatives must vanish, so we get two
2
conditions, P + 3p =
0 and P =
3k/817 GR ,
which have no solution for a
fluid with positive energy density and pressure (i.e. any known fluid).
Solutions 19.36 and 19.37. "Easy" cases: Since the metric is time in-
2 i 2 k i
dx j
gij (x )dx
ds
goo(x )dt +
= -
.
everywhere, so
goo
=
constant; if it is inhomogeneous but pressureless
(Problem 19.36), it is possible to rescale the time coordinate locally to
make goo =
constant. (This was shown in Problem 16.25.) The standard
the standard formula involving the l's; since every term contains a zero
1"
TO"° - -
TI"a =
0
2
and hence p + 3p =
O. But this is impossible for a pressureless fluid, or
dO ao
oc: =
0
dr at
where e =
a/at. Thus the Raychaudhuri equation becomes
2 2
j (Taf3 ffuf3T) f3
a
o =
For p =
0 (Problem 19.36) we have a = 0 from the Euler equation
2 1 2
o = -
2a - -
0 -
41TP
3
1
a = V log Ie. 12 .
2 1 2
o = -
2a -
0 -
41T(P + 3p)
3
,
Solution 19.38.
i
(a) A galaxy moves with xi =
constant implying that dx =
0 and
2 2
hence that ds = -
dr .
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 555
2 i j
(b) For dr =
0, ds =
g.. dx dx
1J
.
(c) If gOi and gij are independent of xi, then on constant r hyper-
surfaces, nothing depends upon xi; the space is homogeneous. On the
other hand, a bad choice of coordinates and hence a seemingly distorted
spacelike hypersurface may cause the metric functions of a homogeneous
space to depend upon position.
U =
-uyr =
-r = _! (g. 0 + g O 1 . ' .
-
g.. 0 )
2
..
2 2
1 1 3 3
f -2 (f
a
() == u
a
.
=
\g\-Z (\g\z u ) , a =
,0 )
,a
.
(2)
=
3 f
.
2 f
Now, from Equations (1), (2), and the formula (see Problem 5.18)
we arrive at
・ .
1 1 1 1
fg f 0 (4)
2(uiij+Ujii)- 3 Ogij
=
a gi j
-
= = .
ij 2 ij 2
aa
a
uf3 ra 00
(f) u
ua;o
= = =
;f3
r
(!!.aD, 0 + !!.aD, 0 goo,a) goa,O
=
aa
・
= = -
aDO
556 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
If
aa
=
0, then gOa,o =
0 and galaxies fall on geodesics if and only if
=
O.
gOi,O
(g) From Problem 7.23 we showed that the necessary condition for a
on geodesics.
Solution 19.39. From Solution 14.9 we know that the spatial connecting
vector, between
, two nearby world lines obeys
Vu V +
u(e.a)u (1)
=
.
a
where R == dR/dt =
uaR
, a.
If we now dot n into Equation (2) and use
;{3 (see
the decomposition equation for u Problem 5.18)
a
1
()
u (U + a +
(ga{3 + u
u(3) aa u{3
=
a{3
-
a ;{3 a{3 3 a
we obtain
R n{3
[ ]
a
e
Rn w + u +
( {3 u(3) + u
aa u{3
= -
a {3 a {3 a
+ RuanYna a .
(3)
Y
a
N ow the antisymmetry of (U and the fact that n is a spatial
a{3
unit vector (naua =
0) used in Equation (3) give us
R =
a n
a
n{3 + 1. ()
R a{3 3'
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 557
Averaging u
a
n{3 over directions produces proportional to the
a {3n a term
<:> =
e .
r Ya
U
a
;{3
=
u
a ,{3
-
{3uy
=
0 + r
°a{3
so that
1 1
O=u .ag
a
(3 =r
0
ag
a
(3 =_(_g)-z[g
-Oa-
(_g)z] ,a (1)
a ,p afJ
1 .1 ・
o =
(- g)-Z (- g),Zo =
3R/R .
The rotation is
CU
P(3YU[a;y] 0
= =
a (3
since r
°a{3 is symmetric. For the shear we have
a a
= P YU 1. 0P
{3 (3
-
afJ caiY ) 3 a
a =
0
Oa
1
a..
lJ
=
U '
C 1,J )
.
-
3
Ogoo
1J
1 R
(g o 1,J + g g.. 0 ) g..
= - .
- -
. ' .
2 O J,l lJ, R lJ
・
1
goo R/R g.. =
0
lJ 0
= -
2 , 1J
1 .1
o =
(_g)-Z (-g)Zo =
a + b + c
,
CU =
0
a (3
a =
0
Oa
1 1 1
a.. goo 0 g.. A
gij
= =
lJ 0
-
lJ 2 , 3 1.1 3
558 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
where
28. -
b -
6 for i=j=x
A =
2b -
a -
6 for i=j=y
26 -
a -
b for i=j=z.
Solution 19.41. The quickest way to compute the Ricci tensor for this
1 ・
K. .
= -
gij (1)
lJ 2
.
t
0 =
R
t
=
K.. Kij -K (2)
lJ
t i
0 =
R
.J
.
=
K .
J,1
.
-
K .
,J
(3)
0
i i i
0 =
R
J
.
=
K
J
. K _
K .
.J
(4)
where a dot denotes d/dt. We have set (3)R ij to zero in Equation (4)
because the 3-geometry is flat, and we have replaced covariant deriva-
K = -
lit (5)
R i .J .
= _
Ki./t
J
and hence
i
K
J
.
=
Ai./t
J
(6)
i
K .
=
_oi. P./t (7)
J J.J
CHAPTER 19: SOLUTIONS 559
where
Pj constant. For this equation to be consistent with Equation (5)
=
we must have
I Pi i
=
1 ・
(8)
Ii P = 1 (9)
m
goo
1J
=
-2g.1m K
J
.
=
2g..
lJ
P./t
J
2P 1 2P 2P
2 2 2 2 3 2
ds = _
dt + t dx + t dy2 + t dz (10)
1
1 "2
2lp.
[(3)goo]"2
lJ
=
(t 1) =
t
3
which can be contrasted with the t 2" behavior of the radiation-dominated
Friedmann model.
two of the P's lie between 0 and 1 and one P lies between 0 and
-1/3. Thus space must contract along one axis while expanding along
Solution 20.1. Note that there are no "real" (Le. tidal) gravitational
forces; the light goes in a straight line in any inertial frame, but in the
the light reaches the end. Since the length of the tube is seen in both
it take f/c for the light to cross the tube. At this time their relative
2
velocity is {3 =
gf/c .
(An observer in the second frame sees the first
frame moving upward with velocity (3.) The direction angles of the
photons path are related by (see Problem 1.8 and figure on p. 561):
() ()
cos tfr' + {3
tfr
.
cos =
sin = =
{3 .
1+ {3 cos tfr'
Theref ore
2 2 -16 -1
() =
gf/c , g /c
=
10 m,
15
so, if the tube is 10 meters long () =
10- radians, and the total dis-
2 14
placement (g/c )f2 10- meters. This is very small compared to
other) techniques capable of detecting this. When lasers are used for
alignment (as in the Stanford linear accelerator) they are meant to correct
viously, since a light ray at the earth's surface is not bent so strongly as
560
CHAPTER 20: SOLUTIONS 561
1 gl
/J =
;::!
c
Solution 20.2.
YI
.
r::
.,,=B+dB+;
Sun local inertial frame Sft local inertial frame 5ft+1
local inertial frame of length de. Let the nth freely falling observer Sn
be momentarily at rest relative to the sun when the photon hits the left
side of his frame and let him see the photon move at an angle 0 relative
to its inertial direction (see figure). When the photon leaves his frame
and enters
Sn+1' which is now momentarily at rest, he is falling with
speed {3 =
gd f =
G
R
in the cf> direction. This photon enters frame
cos i/i {3
e(f32)
-
2
cos t/J = =
cos I/J -
(3 s in 1/J +
1-{3 cos t/J
so that
2-
-
cos t/J -
cos t/J = -
{3 sin t/J
562 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
and
dO =
(3 sintP (3 sincp
R
(1)
(R G:e2) (R
o
=
de ・
1
2 2"
+ e )
oo
J J
de 2GM
a =
dO =
GMRo 3
=
(2)
Ro
-00
(R +e2)2
which is one half the observed value!
(n+ l)th ruler locally parallel to the nth ruler. It was the deflection
with respect to these rulers that we calculated. But we did not correct
for the fact that spacetime around the sun is curved (tidal forces !); in
fact, a locally parallel sequence of rulers forms a curved line with re-
spect to the y = 0 line and it is with respect to this curved line that we
of the photon with respect to a set of locally parallel rulers, and the bend-
generality. In the gravitational field of the sun, the metric may then be
approximated by
2
ds
_(1_ 2)dt2+(1+ 2)(dr2+r2d 2). (1)
b 2M
r
sincp +
r
(1- cos cp) (2)
CHAPTER 20: SOLUTIONS 563
+=0
"'-+E + 8.
=
.
The angle a between the sun and the star (see figure), as measured
oa
tan a =
tan(1T-4>E+ oa ) -tan4>E +
2
cos
c/>E
(l+ )r d4>/dA
"
uc/> dc/>
-
---
U
"
r
-
(1 )dr/dA
+
=
[ J
r
dr
E
(3)
"
"
tan'PE
A... -
Oa =
sin4>E
・
2: (l-cos4>E)
2 2M.
CPE
cos A... A...
+
cos'PE b sln'PE
b
cos2CPE
and hence
1
2M 2M 1+ 2
( )
c osa
oa (l+cosa) (5)
b
.
R 1 -
cos a
E
earth. [See also MTW, Section 40.3, and references given therein.]
Solution 20.4. Since we wish to compute only the lowest order deflection
element. The total first order deflection will then be the sum of the usual
term linear in M and a term linear in J. Since the metric (for our pur-
2 2 4J 2 2 2 2
ds = _
dt -
o
J (_12 -
J
sin2ei +r2+r2(P+r2sin2e 2) dA =
0 (2)
4J
(2t
2
E-
dA
+
r
sin e
')
\0
=
(3a)
(2 r2sin2e-
4; ei)
2
sin =
0 , (3b)
2J
・
・
2
Po 0 cp
.
t +
== sin
(3c)
-
P
2 .
2 2J .
2
0 0 P (3d)
_
'P r sin sin
cp
= -
r 0
'2 4J
・ ・
r= rO
+rsin20cp2+-sin20cpPo r
2
(3e)
d 2 2 2 3
(r 0 ) OJ r 0
.
(3f)
Pcp
=
cos sin
dA
.
From Equation (3f), one may deduce a third constant of the motion (in
addition to and
Po Pcp):
2
P
2
+
Pcp L
2 2
'
0 ). (4)
o 2.
- =
constant
(PO == r
sin 0
We will now decompose the bending into three contributions, each de-
fined by the relationship (see figure) of the ray trajectory (a straight line
to lowest order) to
-
J. (Since we are working only to linear order, the
total bending must be the sum oJ such contributions.)
In both cases (a) and (b), the angular momentum of the light beam
about the sun's center has zero projection onto J, in case (c) it has unit
projection.
J J
(0) ( b) (c)
566 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
(since
Pcp is a constant of the motion). We wish to calculate reO). From
3
=
(9(J) (Sa)
r
2
0 L (Sb)
Po r constant.
= = =
.
..
2
r =
r O , (Sc)
but this result and Equation (Sb) guarantee straight-line motion! Thus in
o =
0 (Equation (3f) guarantees that 0 will always then be 0) and solve
Pcp 0\ d
(
d dcp d 2J P
+
_ _
- -
ax -;2 ) dcf>
'
dA dcf> 3
r
2
u" + u = -
6u J e -
2J e u,2 -
4J e uu" (6)
where u' ==
du/dcp. We will solve Equation (6) by perturbation techniques;
we define
u = U
o
+
ul (7)
with ul =
(90). To lowest order, the equation is U
o + U
o
=
0 which
implies
1
U
o
=
cos cp (8)
b
where b is the impact parameter and where we have chosen our coordinate
system such that the ray moves parallel to the y-axis. For the second
order solution, u
1
must satisfy the equation
CHAPTER 20: SOLUTIONS 567
" 2J e 2 2 2J e
(sin cjJ cjJ)
.
u + u = - -
+ cos = - -
(9a)
1 1
2 2
b b
or
2J e
u
1
= - ----
2
(9b)
b
1 2J e
u
b
cos cjJ -
2
・
(10)
b
2J e
a (11)
-T'
2
(12)
b
1
have used the fact that e b- ).
(where we
Po/Pcp
=
From this result, and the results from cases (a) and (b), we may write
4J. n
ocjJ (13)
-
=
2
b
expanding is
(_)
x 12
_
_ -
2 10 2
b
sun (7x 10 cm)
568 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
1
2
)"2
2
Solution 20.5. The index of refraction of a plasma is n =
(1- v p Iv
2 2
where v P frequency p
is the lasma V == n e 117m The well-known
pee
.
d(nm)/de
-
=
Vn
- (1)
where is a unit vector tangent to the ray and e is the distance along
the ray. Since the deflection angle we are computing is small, we can
2
v -6 -2
5
1
.
( ) Q ( 10 )
n 1 -
R: 1- .0101
2 2
v HZ
or
-7.5 -2
0657
(R ) (1O HZ
"-
n
) (2)
.
R: r.
RQ
1
2
Thus, using n = 1 at :!: 00 and r =
(x + y2)"2 ,
oo
-2 -7'S
.0657
[X ( ) ( ) ] dx.(3)
y
( ) J
v
( )
L x
ml + 00 -m\
-- -- -
00
R 9 R r
+ Y r
Q 10 Hz Q
-00
written as 2
I_oo. Since !E is a unit vector, for small angles
(}El oo
-
!EI-o) y .
is the scattering angle we seek. Defining
11 == b/R Q , z ==
rib
and using
y =
b, x
2
= b 2 (z2_1), dx =
bz(z2_1)-t dz ,
CHAPTER 20: SOLUTIONS 569
we get
f OOZ-7.S
-2
-6.S -t dz
( Z2_1 ) (4)
v
( )
() .131 TJ .
coronal 9
10 Hz 1
On putting t =
1/ z2, we recognize the integr il in Equation (4) as a beta
function, B( 3. 7 5, .
5) =
.158. Thus our final expression for the coronal
deflection is
-
2
-6 5
( )
v
() .021 (5)
.
coronal TJ .
9
10 Hz
6
8.5x 10-
()GR (6)
TJ
8.5 x 10- 6 -2
TJ-6.S
( )
v
.021
TJ 9
10 Hz
or
-.36
b
( )
v
TJ == 4 1 ・
RQ 10 9 Hz
Solution 20.6.
8"
-,-'
b "
in units of 4mm.
n =
cp /() .
(1)
a ==
cp -
() =
1. 75"/b .
(2)
5
() =
1. 75"/b(n -1) =
1.6 x 10- /b .
(3)
5
dh =
1.6 x 10-
db b
5
h 1.6 10-
=
ho x log (b)
-
.
CHAPTER 20: SOLUTIONS 571
2
where u == l/r, u" == d u/d<;b2, and L ==
angular momentum per unit mass
U
o
=
a + A cos <;b (2)
2
bu
2 2
ui + u
1
=
b(a + 2aA cos <;b + A cos <;b)
2 2 2
=
ba + bA + 2abA cos cp + bA cos 2cp .
(3)
and
U = U
o
+ u
1
・
(5)
f <;b sin cP =
cos (cp -
f
cp) -
c os <;b + <9( 2)
f .
(6)
2 2
Ul
b(a2+ A
)+ A cos(cp-abcp)-A coscp-(bA j6) cos2cp (7)
572 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
2
ocp =
217 ab =
617 M /L 2 .
(8)
2 2
L =
Ma(l -
e ) .
(9)
617M
ocp =
, (10)
2
a(l -
e )
which in the limit of small e agrees with the solution of Problem 15.7.
Solution 20.8.
2
dm dp'p dp 0
dr
=
-(iT
= _
2p .
dr
=
.
Since p
=
mu and m is constant, a factor of m can be taken out of
v
d u/l / dr = -
(l1/l (I)
,v
+ ua(l)
,a
u/l)
(b) Yes. Near the earth the earth is flat. Take z to be in the verti-
(I) =
az + b .
j
and setting its initial acceleration to g. With uO =
1, u = 0 in the force
equation, we have
CHAPTER 20: SOLUTIONS 573
mg =
dpz /dr = -
m(l)
,z
=
-ma
and hence a =
g.
o
dpO = _
pU(I) ,U dx = _
pZ(I) ,z dt
in time dt =
dz. Since pZ =
pO for a photon, the energy loss is then
o °
dp = -
p g dz .
pO
/po =
v/v = _
g z
(c) No. For a photon PfJ dxfJ = 0 so the path of a photon is governed
by
d plL = -
pU(I) ,
U
dxlL = -
dxu(I)
,
U plL .
a =
217
M /J2
where a =
shift per orbit, J =
angular momentum of planet per unit mass.
a =
27TME)/r
at infinity (which meas ures time t). Then the ratio of the ticking rate of
574 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
dr 1
(1)
_
-
dt
uO(r,O)
・
dr/dt =
constant
and all clocks on the surface of the earth have the same ticking rate!
(The doppler shift effect exactly cancels the redshift effect.)
CHAPTER 21: SOLUTIONS
Solution 21.1.
(i) One way of finding the formula for the derivative of a detenninant
det A =
e
Tr { 10 g A I
o(det A) =
e
Tr {log A J o(Tr {log AI)
1
=
(detA)Tr(A- 0A)
.1 1 _.1
0(_g)2 =
-_(_g)
2
20g
=
(- g) t gaf3 8f!u.f3 .
ga{3 oa
g{3y
-
Y'
we have
575
576 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
8g
a
8 ga8 = _
gy8 ga{38g{3y .
(- g) taL ((I)
( )
A A aL ocI>A aL
,
(I)
,11
, g v)
Il
=
+ O(l)A (_ g) t .
(1)
a<f)A a(l)A ,11
,11
a ((I) A /I) =
(o(l)A)
, t'" , 11
the integral aS, and hence is zero since o(l)A is taken to vanish on the
surface. Thus
(?L(-g)t
)
0 =
8L =
JL _
L 1
.
\ acI>
A
8e1> acI>A axil ( g) t
_
Il
1
4
Solution 21.3. Since L (- g)2 d x is a scalar, it is unchanged under the
infinitesimal coordinate transformation
xll =
xll + 11
.
4
By renaming the dummy variable of integration, d x can be changed back
1
4
to d x. The net change in L(- g)2 is therefore the Lie derivative (see
Problem 8.17), so that
CHAPTER 21: SOLUTIONS 577
f .£1; (L(-g)!)d
4
0= oS =
x
(1)
o(L(-g)!) .£
J[ ]
OL
=
(.£t; elJA)(_g)! 0
+
t; g/lV
d4x .
oeIJA g/lV
The first term in the integrand vanishes by the equation of motion (Problem
21.2), thus
Since
f gl1 v
=
fl;v V;11
+
we get
f T/lV /l;V(_g)! d
4
o = x
(2)
f (TI1Vfl )(_g)t d
f (_g)t d 4
4
= x -
Tfl x .
;v ,v 11
J )(_g)t d
J ((-g)t TflVl1,v)d 4
4
(TflV x = x
l1;v
;v
Solution 21.4.
+ a
gflV gl1v gl1 V
r
a
r
a
+ ora
flv I1 V I1v
we have
1 1 .L.L
(1)
O?_g)2 R) =
(_g)2 g/lVORp.v + Ro(-g)2 + (_g)2 R/lVogllV .
578 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
Since
R/l r v,a
-r a,vrC:Za r
+
v
-r ar a (2)
=
'
V
1 1
(_g)2 g/lVoR =
((_g)"2 g/lVofYl ) _
((_g)"2 g/lVora )
/lV /lV ,a p.a ,v
1 1
_
1
a
+(_g)2" g/lV(oraaa r +:ra ora _ora ra _r a ora)
/lv aa
/lV va
/la va p.a.
The first two terms on the right-hand side of Equation (3) are divergences,
which therefore do not contribute to aS. (The integral of a divergence
can be converted to a surface integral and or = 0 on the surface of the
1 1
a
(_g)"2 g/lVoRI1 V =
(_g)2" (Al1v
a
+ oVBI1)or
a /lv
(4)
where
1 1
V
A/lV ==
a
gf.1J/fYlaa -
gavr/laa _
gal1rVaa (5)
BIL ==
(- g)-t [(_g)t glLt\p +
gaPrlLaP .
(6)
.1
1 "V
U [ (_g)2 ] = - -
(_g)2 g U
g
r
(7)
2 I1 V
so
J (_g)t
4
0= aS =
(1617)-1 d x(A/la
v
+ oVBI1)or
a
a
/lv
(1617)-1
J (_g)! d 4 x(R 1..
)OgI1
V
+ g VR
V I1V
-
2 I1
o(Lmatter(-g)2")
J
I1v d 4 x
+ ug .
(8)
V
a gl1
CHAPTER 21: SOLUTIONS 579
-.
a
2 a
2 a
A +
a2BIL + BIL =
0 .
(10)
But contracting Equation (5) and comparing with Equation (6) shows
A =
a _
BIl .
(11)
A =
V0 .
(12)
wr i tten
av V
gfV C a =
gllV,a + g III + gall i (13)
aa aa
where
_L .1
C ==
(- g ) 2
(- g ) ,a
2 -
Ia .
(14)
a aa
V a
4C
a
=
glL g + 2i
aa
,a flV
= -
2(- g)-t (_ g)t ,a
+ 2i
a
aa
=
-2C
a
(where Problem 21.1 has been used in the second line) and therefore that
Ca =
O. If we define
i =
g ill (15)
Aaa Il aa
-
o r
+
rAya + (16)
-
ryA,a
=
yAa
and thus
1
(ryA,a+ rya,A -gaA,y) =
r (17)
2 yAa
1 1
o
(Lmatter(-g)2) 0 o(Lmatte/- g )2) 0 1L1/ !. ( ! TI1vo
g g)
=
gl1v
_
_
gl1 v
-
2
og/lv og/lV
(18)
1 .1 s:- "V
2
=
(-g) T V u gr
-
2 I1
We conclude that
(1617)-1 (RW -
glL1/ R) -
T
1L1/
=
0
or
G
I1V
=
811 T
I1 V
・
(19)
oR = ora _ora =
ora _ora. (20)
/lV /lv,a /la,v I1 v ;a p.a;v
1 1
V v
(_g)2 gl1 (_g)2 [(gl1
oR
ora/lv);a (orapag/lv);v]
= -
l1v
1 1
=
((_g) 2" gl1V ora )
_
(where we have used Problem 7.7 (g) in the second line). Since this is a
(&r )-1
f (lI>;a 11>2)(-g) t d
2 4
s = -
lI>;a + m x
gives us
oL
[2m (1) _2(_g)-t[(_g)t(l),a] ,a] (_g)t
2
o = =
0(1)
or
2
0(1) -
m (1) =
0 .
(1)
o [(-g)2L]
T
MV
==
-2(-g)-t
ogMV
...L (_g)- t rII> II> (_g) t 1.(11) II> ,a + m 11>2)(-g) t g
]
2
= _
411' ,M L
,v 2,a MV
(I) ,M =
(I) ;11 (4)
;v ,v'
(I),M 2
T MV = -
(o(l)-m (I)) (5)
;v 411'
a aA 477
All aA
11
= -
-1.2.2.
477
axil
(A[/l,V][_g]t)=_l-L(FV/l[_g]t) 277
axil
[ g] 2"
-
F VI1 ' (1)
277 ;11
oL 1
o(F I1v F arg/lagvr)
2 1 v
TafJ +
L fJ F
/lvF/l
== -
=
fJ
-
8gafJ
811
8g fJ
a 1611
(2)
1 v 1
F F Fllv
Fa
_
{3v {3'
- -
-1.. 1-
L
( F F I1V F flll A
)( g) t (3)
-
-
- -
_
I1 V
・
1677 477 ;v
F/l V ,
= 0 .
(4)
v
Variation of L with respect to F/l yields
F/l V =
2A [v ;11] .
(5)
(I),a(_g)t
and thus
(_g)t (R
,
+
(l)2,a
(I) <I> ,a
) =
-2w
ax
a
( (I) )
-1 2 a
2w (I) (I)
-
0 (I) -
w <I>
,
a
<I>' + R = 0 .
(1)
CHAPTER 21: SOLUTIONS 583
((I) ,a(_g) { ) ,a
)
1
o <I> == (I) ;a = .
,a 1-
(_g) 2
(i)
o
(3
= _
(I) rct>,a(l),{3(_g)2 _!(I),1lq>
2,/1
(2a)
and
1 1 Q 1 Q
(see Problem 21.4). Also, we have from the expression for the r's as
or V-lpogpuru/lV
= + gAp [(0 gP/) ,v + (ogpv),/l (og/lv),p] -
(2d)
lp[(ogp/l);v
=
+
(ogpv);/l (og/lv);p]
-
・
vanish when integrated over). Combining Equations (2b) and (2e) we have
1 1 Q
0((I)R(-g)2) =
1677
0(Lmatter<-g)2) 877 (_g)t -rz{3 (2g)
(iii) = _
.
0 {3
584 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
From Equations (2a) and (2f), and (2g), we get the field equations ob-
tained by varying ga(3 :
G
a
{3
+ 11>-1
( 0 II>
{3 -1I>,a ;(3)
-
(iJ 11>-2
(lI>,a1I>,{3 -
(3I1>'/lIl>'/l) (3)
81711>-1 0
Ta{3
- =
.
2 i
dx dx j xi(i=
dn +
(3)gij The coordinates .
1,2,3) span the surface layer
which is taken to be at n =
O. From the initial value equations we have
G
i
,
=
(3)G iJ ,
+
i
(K J _oi.J,n
,
TrK) -
(TrK)K J
i
, + 1. oi.(TrK)2
J 2 J
1 i
+
2
ai, Tr(K 2 ) =
877 T
J
,
.
Since the intrinsic geometry of the 3-surface is well defined, the only
term that survives this limiting integration is the term involving the
we find
i
[K
J
.] -
ai,
J
Tr [K] =
877 si.J
or
i'
477 (3) g S J
i
Tr [K] = -
477 S,1 = -
lJ
..
and
)
i
(
i 1 i k
[K j] =
877 S
j
-
a
j
S k ・
-{K,m-o,mTr(K)J I
n
G _{K,m -(TrK).J = =
877 Tn,1 .
l
, =
11m ,1 11m
] _o.m Tr [K]l
m
{[K.11m = -
877 [Tn.]
l
.
By combining this with our result from Problem 21.8, we have then
S.m = _
[Tn.]
l
.
1 m 1
Solution 21.10. The surface stress energy of the thin shell of dust is
sa{3 =
au
a
u{3. From the solution to Problem 21.8, we have
{ }
l'
. .
l
[Kj] =
877 au u
j
-
2 oj (- a)
or
{ }
1
[KOo]
lJ
=
877a u. u. +
1 J 2
(3)g..IJ .
(1)
m m m m
O = S1 =a u u.+au u .+au' u
Im Im l
.
,m 1 11m
da
= U +
auiu 1m
m
+
aUilmu
m
(2)
dT i
da m
0
dT
+ au
1m
=
.
(3)
a = V
u
u =
uiV.(uje.)= ui(uj , .e.+ujK..n)= uiujK..n.
1 J 1 J lJ lJ
(4)
(We have used Equation (2) of Solution 9.32 to get the second-last
equality.) The third relation now follows from Equations (1) and (4):
a+ -
a- =
uiu j [Koo]
IJ
n =
477an .
586 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
+ -
i j
(K ..+ K ..
)u u =
0 .
13 lJ
2
0= [Tr(K )-(TrK)2]
=
K K+
1
+ K3
-
K-
1
-
-(K1 +)2 (K _)2
+
1
J
=
(KJ ++K3 {K1
-) -
+K3 -
-(3)gi j (K a a+
-
Ka-)J
a
=
(K33
++K {[KJ ]o1 Tr [K] J
-) 1
-
[K\] =
81TU(U jU +
i (3)81) .
it follows that
i
[K 1.] =
417U
and that
[Kj.]
1
-
oj.1 [K i1.] =
817U (uju.) 1
the dust, then the motion of the shell is specified by r(T), where r is
the radial coordinate of the shell in either the interior or exterior metric.
2 2
ds 2 = -
dT + R
2
(TXd0
2
+ sin 0 dcp2) .
2
Here 417R =
the surface area of the shell at T, and thus R(T) =
r(T).
CHAPTER 21: SOLUTIONS 587
0=
da
dr
+ aui
l
'
1
=
(aui) I 1
'
=
(a((3)g)t u
i
) , 1./((3)g)t .
4 2
(3)g
r
But u = 1 and =
R (r) so that (aR ) =
O. This implies that
r
,
2
477 R a =
/1, which we identify with the rest mass of the shell, is a
constant.
Problem 21.10
[ (}(}] =
81TU(U(}U(} +
(3)g(}(}) =
41TU(3) (} /l =
.
a 1 r r
KOO na r 00 r n
-
n
nO;O
= -
gOO,r
= = - =
and
r+ r
[KOO] = -
r(n -
n -) =
/l
where nr+ and nr- are the radial components of the normal evaluated
1 =
(1- 2) (u )2
t
_
(u
r
)2/ (1- 2)
ntut
r
o
nru
=
+
l
1 = -
(1_ 2 t
(ni +
(1_ 2) (n )2 r
t
and by eliminating u
,nt we find
1-
1+(ur)2/ (1 2)
2
_
n+ =
(1_ 2 )
r
588 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITATION
r
On the shell r =
R(T) and u =
dR/dT == R so the contravariant component
1
2:
(1- R
r+
n = + .
The calculation for nr- is identical, and we get the same answer as
1 1
{[ }
"2
・
"2
・
2M
]
r+ r- 2 2
/l
= -
R(n -
n ) = -
R 1 -
+ R -
[1+ R ]
R
. 1
-
2 2 2
M =
1L(1 + R ) -
IL /2R .
If R = 0 at R = 00
(i.e. infall from rest at 00), then M =
IL and
R = -
{R (1 4:Y + .
3 1
: T = _
(1 +
)2:R (1 + +
YR
-
determine the metric off S; these we do not need to worry about. The
2 2 1
2 m
Kiml Kmml
=
0 (lb)
-
m i ,
CHAPTER 21: SOLUTIONS 589
i
where (3)R is the curvature scalar on S, K
m
is the extrinsic curvature,
geometry (3)gij on S, and where we have used the vacuum initial value
equations.
ij ij
-
K and hence the extrinsic curvature of S must vanish. For K =
0
ij ij
on S, Equation (lb) is trivially satisfied and Equation (la) takes the form
(3)R = 0 .
(2)
(3) R ij m m m e f m
_
g (r ..
-
r . . + r o. r .
-
r 0 r . .
) .
(4)
1m,) 1) , m Ll) m mL 1)
With the ansatz of Equation (3) we have, for the Christoffel symbols
r
m
o .
Ll
=
2 -1
((I) . am. +(1) oom.
1 1
-
,m1Jo.)
Ll
, (Sa)
, 1 , L
gij r
m
. . = _
6(1)-6(V(I))2 + 6 V 2(1)
-5 (5b)
1m,)
gij r
m
..
lJ,m
=
2(1)-6 (V(I))2 _
2(1)-5 V 2(1) (Sc)
r e.
ij
g rm
el
.
)m
= _
4(1)-6 (V(I) )2 (5d)
g
ij
r
e
me
r
m
lJ
..
= _
12(1)-6 (V ) 2 (5e)
ij
(V (I) )2 == (I) (I)
,1
.
,J l1
.
(Sf)
2 ij
V (I) (1)..11 (5g)
_
= .
,1,J
(3)R = 0 =
8(1)-5 V 2(1) , (6)
tion is
M.
(I) =
1+1-2. (7)
i 2r,
1
leading to a metric 4
Mi
g.,
IJ
=
( 1 + 1
i 2 r.1
) 1/..
1J
(8)
The lowest order term in M/r for the metric in Equation (8) is
2M.1
glJ
' ' 1 + l
i
-
r
i
) 11..
1J
metric in Equation (8) is, in fact, the instantaneous spatial metric for
Minkowski metric will then be a set of matrices which serve to raise and
AA
lower indices in constructing the determinant of U ':
AB FC EG
oC
D
det (U )
-
-
U U c
FE
c
DG
where
)
CFE=C ) (
C
aD =
.
formation by
F'C' F'C' Fe
U =
L U
FC
.
AB CD E'F' EF G'H' GH
U V L U L V
cACc BD cE'G,cF'H"
=
EF GH
E'F' G'A'
L L
cE'G,cF'H"
=
CEG cFH EF GH
GM FK
aMOK L
E'F'
L
G' A"
C
EE'G'CF'H' C
=
E H EF GH
E'F'
det (L 1
EF )
=
.
determinant).
Solution 21.14.
(a) The result follows from the fact that the indices B, C and D
range over only two values and hence cannot all be different.
(b) Writing out the result of part (a) and using the antisymmetry of
cAB gives C c 0
CAB cCD +
cAe +
cAD
=
.
DB BC
CD
Contracting now with gives (watch out for the signs!)
-CAB + - BAO.
AB =
Hence we have
AB
=
g
592 PROBLEM BOOK IN RELATIVITY AND GRAVITA TION
cd. C D C' D' C D C' D'
(0 A 0B 0B' 0 A'
.
0B 0 A 0 A' 0B')
.
(see e. g.
ab
E T
cd'
the result follows immediately.
1
T
Cab )
=
2 (TABA'B' +
TBAB'A')
(TABA'B,-TBAA'B'+ TBAB'A,-TABB'A')
1 1
+
2
T
Cab )
+
4 (TBAA'B' +
TABB'A' ) .
1
T
Cab )
=
2T[AB][A'B'] +
2 (TBAA'B' +
TABB'A')
1 c c' 1
=
2 cABcA'B,T c c'
+
2
(TBAA'B'+ T ABB'A' ) ・
1 c C'
TBAA'B'
=
T
Cab )
-
2 cABcA'B,T c c'
+ *T
ab
T(ab)
-
gab T + i *T
ab
・
INDEX
References are to problem numbers, except that integers (1.0, 2.0, etc.) refer to
chapter introductions (Chapter 1, Chapter 2, etc.).
3.24
5.9; from Hamiltonian, 14.19;
antisymmetry, 3.14 3.18
-
593
594 INDEX
field, 7.23 f., 10.8; null, 7.24 Lie transport, 8.18 8.20
-
21.16; identified
with 4-vector, 21.13; representa-
rope, breaking strength, 5.6
tion of Lorentz group, 1.25, 1.26,
rotating stars, 10..5, 16.0 1.28
rotation group, 1.25, 10.1, 10.4
star, binary, 18.2, 18.6, 18.7; collap-
rotation, cosmological, 19.38, 19.40 sing, 16.25-16.30; of Fermi gas,
rotation of fluid flow, 5.18 16.13; rotating, 16.17 -16.19;
1-6.22, 16.23; of uniform density,
16.12
scalar field, 21.5; curvature coup-
static metric, 10.8
ling of, 14.14; equation of
motion, 14.13; in Kerr geometry, stationary limit of black hole, 17.0,
17.16; in Schwarzschild geometry, 17.12
15.19 stellar structure, relativistic, 16.0 ff.
3.32; of
momentum space, 3.33
trace-reverse, 13.14
transverse-traceless (TT) gauge,
18.0 weight; of bottle when heated, 12.7;
twin paradox, 1.11, 15.12 pressure contribution, 14.6
Weyl tensor, 9.0, 9.18
units, geometrized, 12.17 white-dwarf mass limit, see
Chandrasekhar limit
universe, matter or radiation domi-
nated, 19.0 wind tunnel, relativistic, 5.25
wor ldline of an observer, 1.0