Fageria y Nascente 2014

CHAPTER SIX
Management of Soil Acidity

of South American Soils for
Sustainable Crop Production
Nanda K. Fageria†, Adriano S. Nascente1
National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA, Santo Antônio de Goiás, Goiás, Brazil
1Corresponding author: E-mail: adriano.nascente@embrapa.br
Contents
1. Introduction222
2. Soil Types in South America 225
3. Causes of Soil Acidification 226
3.1 Leaching of Bases 226
3.2 Acid Deposition from the Atmosphere 227
3.3 Use of Ammoniacal Fertilizers 227
3.4 Proton Generation in the Soils 229
3.5 Plant-Induced Processes 229
3.6 Nitrogen Fixation 229
3.7 Mineralization of Organic Matter 230
3.8 Reduction and Oxidation of Sulfate 230
4. Management Strategies 231
4.1 Liming 231
4.2 Indices Used to Correct Soil Acidity by Liming 234
4.3 Calculating Lime Requirements by Empirical Equations 235
4.4 Factors Affecting Lime Requirements 236
4.5 Use of Gypsum 236
4.6 Use of Tolerant Species and/or Cultivars 239
4.7 Improving Soil Fertility 240
4.7.1 Nitrogen 240
4.7.2 Phosphorus 243
4.7.3 Potassium 245
4.7.4 Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur 247
4.7.5 Micronutrients 248
4.8 Use of Organic Manures 264
5. Conclusions265
References266
† Deceased.
Advances in Agronomy, Volume 128

ISSN 0065-2113 Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802139-2.00006-8 All rights reserved. 221
222 Nanda K. Fageria and Adriano S. Nascente
Abstract
A burgeoning global population is creating unprecedented demands on agriculture to
produce ever-increasing amounts of food, fiber, and fuel. In this context, South America
has the largest land area in the world that can be used to meet food and fiber demand.
In addition, South America also has the largest amount of fresh or potable water glob-
ally and favorable climatic conditions throughout the year, which further enhances the
role of this continent in providing world food supply. The Brazilian Cerrado, or savanna,
a total area of about 205 million ha of acid soils is a good case in point. Similarly,
Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Peru, and Ecuador also have large land areas, which can
be utilized for crop production. However, the major soils of this continent are acidic
and infertile. Hence, liming and fertilizer application are essential. Soil acidity is mainly
caused by leaching of bases from soil profile, soils may be acidified with acid deposi-
tion from the atmosphere, use of ammoniacal fertilizers, by proton generation in the
soil, mineralization of organic matter, intensive crop cultivation, and from N2 fixation
by legumes. Important indices that are used in correcting soil acidity for maximizing
crop yields are pH, base saturation, aluminum saturation, acidity saturation, calcium
saturation, magnesium saturation, and potassium saturation. Sometimes, calcium/
magnesium ratio, calcium/potassium ratio, and magnesium/potassium ratio are also
used as soil acidity indices in crop production. Optimal values of these soil acidity
indices varied with type of soil, crop species, and cultivar or genotypes within species.
Management practices that can be adopted in improving crop yields on acid soils are
liming, gypsum application, and the use of an adequate rate of fertilizers and organic
manures. The use of acidity tolerant crop species or cultivars within species is another
important strategy in improving crop yields on acid soils.
1. INTRODUCTION
Soil acidity is one of the major constraints in crop production through-
out the world. Pagani and Mallarino (2012a) reported that soil acidity influ-
ences many chemical and biological reactions that control plant nutrient
availability and the toxicity of some elements, and is a serious limitations
for crop production in many regions of the world. Acid soils are found over
extensive areas in both the tropics and the temperate zones. Globally, soil
acidity affects land area of about 3.95 billion ha (Sumner and Noble, 2003).
This is about 30% of the world’s ice-free land area. About 16.7% of Africa,
6.1% of Australia and New Zealand, 9.9% of Europe, 26.4% of Asia, and
40.9% of America have acid soils (Von Uexkull and Mutert, 1995). They
cover a significant part of at least 48 developing countries located mainly
in the tropical areas, being more frequent in Oxisols and Ultisols in South
America and in Oxisols in Africa (Narro et al., 2001).
South America is a big continent comprising 13 countries (Fageria and
Stone, 2008). Soil acidity is a main constraint in crop production in South
Management of Soil Acidity 223
&HUUDGRUHJLRQ
Figure 6.1 Geographical map of Brazil showing the Cerrado region with a yellow
boundary. Adapted from Silva et al. (2008).
America. In tropical South America, 85% of the soils are acidic, and approx-
imately 850 million ha of this area are underutilized (Fageria and Baligar,
2001). Acid and low fertility Oxisols and Ultisols cover about 43% of the
tropics (Sanchez and Logan, 1992). In Brazil, there is an about 205 mil-
lion ha area in the central part of the country, locally known as “Cerrado”
(Figure 6.1), which covers about 205 million ha or 23% of the country. A
large part of this land is still unexplored for agricultural purposes. Most of
the soils in this region are Oxisols (46%), Ultisols (15%), and Entisols (15%),
with low natural soil fertility, high aluminum saturation, and high P fixation
capacity (Fageria and Baligar, 2008). Although low fertility is characteristic
of acid soils, these vast areas have a large proportion of favorable topogra-
phy for agriculture, adequate temperatures for plant growth throughout the
year, sufficient moisture availability year round in 70% of the region, and for
6–9 months in the remaining 30% (Narro et al., 2001). When the chemical
constraints are eliminated by liming and using adequate amounts of fertil-
izers, the productivity of Oxisols and Ultisols is among the highest in the
world (Sanchez and Salinas, 1981).
Cochrane (1991) summarized the chemical properties of the tropical
South American acid soils. He reported that only 0.1% of the soils have
a pH of 7.3% and 75% have a pH of 5.3 in the subsoil; about 51% have
an effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC—sum of exchangeable Al3+,

Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and Na+) <4 cmol (+) kg−1 in the subsoil; 44% have Al
saturation values >70%; 70% have low Ca and Mg levels in the subsoil, and
available P is low over 46% of that in topsoil and 85% of that in subsoil.
Approximately 58% of the region has soil with a low K availability: Eswaran
et al. (1997) and Wenzl et al. (2003) reported that nutrient deficiencies asso-
ciated with soil acidity may be particularly severe in South American savan-
nas, because the soils of these areas tend to be highly weathered and more
acidic than in comparable regions in other continents.
Further, in Brazil, there are about 35 million ha of lowland that is dis-
tributed throughout the country. Less than three million ha of this land
is under cultivation, especially lowland rice. These areas represent one of
the largest lowlands of the world that can be brought under agricultural
production. In addition, South America has maximum water availability
in the world. Climatic conditions are favorable for crop production in
most of the South America countries. For example, Brazil has 12% of the
potable or fresh world water. Most of the Brazilian water is in the Amazon
region (80%), and population is very low in this region (7%) (Paz et al.,
2000). Although South America has vast water potential, irrigated area in
South America is <4% of the total world irrigated area (Howell, 2001).
Hence, it is possible to produce three crops annually on these lands if
proper technology is applied. If this can be achieved, the quantity of food
produced on these lands may have international implication (Fageria and
Baligar, 1996).
In many regions of the world, agricultural production is constrained to
some degree by soil acidity, which is related to Al3+ toxicity and low base
saturation (Clark et al., 1997; Nora and Amado, 2013) that can confine the
root growth of annual crops to a shallow soil layer (Caires et al., 2006).
According to Oliveira et al. (2009), the low calcium saturation associated
with high Al3+ concentrations in the subsoil is the main impediment to root
growth in dystrophic Oxisols. Poor root growth increases the vulnerability
of annual crops to water stress and nutrient deficiency (Nora and Amado,
2013). The occurrence of acidic and infertile subsoils has been identified
as one of the major factors limiting crop yields in tropical soils (Shainberg
et al., 1989; Farina et al., 2000a,b). Oxisol is the most extensive soil order
used in Brazilian agriculture production and constitutes approximately 30%
of cropland (Nora and Amado, 2013).
Theoretically, soil acidity is quantified on the basis of hydrogen (H+) and
aluminum (Al3+) ions in the soil solution. Practically, however, soil acidity
is a complex of various factors. These factors include deficiency of several

macronutrients and micronutrients and low biological activity of beneficial
microorganisms (Fageria and Baligar, 2003, 2008). Root growth of crop
plants is also reduced in acid soils (Fageria and Baligar, 2008). In addition,
acid soils have a low water-holding capacity and are subject to compac-
tion and water erosion (Fageria and Baligar, 2003). The situation is fur-
ther complicated by various interactions among these factors (Foy, 1992).
The magnitude of soil acidity problem in many areas of the world, includ-
ing South America, and the potential that these areas offer in increasing
the production of food and fiber, provide a focus for the objectives of this
review, that is, to review the nature, causes, and management of soil acidity
of South American soils in order that crop productivity on acid soils might
be improved for the benefit of humankind.
2. SOIL TYPES IN SOUTH AMERICA

The major soil groups in South America according to the US soil tax-
onomy classification system are Oxisols, Ultisols, Alfisols, Mollisols, Entisols,
Inceptisols, Vertisols, Aridisols, Andisols, Histosols, Gelisols, and Spodosols
(Sanchez and Logan, 1992). However, Oxisols and Ultisols dominate in most
of the South American countries (Cochrane, 1978). Key profile character-
istics of Oxisols are highly weathered, uniform texture, high amounts of Fe
and Al oxides with kaolinite clay (low activity clay), low cation exchange
capacity (CEC), and small amounts of exchangeable bases. Oxisols are the
most highly weathered but not necessarily the most acidic soils, because in
the final stages of weathering, the soil pH increases due to the high point of
zero charge (>pH 7) of Fe and Al oxides (Sumner and Noble, 2003). They
have a very low basic cation status and ECEC, but exhibit appreciable vari-
able charge indicated by the difference (cation exchange capacity—ECEC)
(Sumner and Noble, 2003). Similarly, Ultisols are characterized by an argilic
horizon with a base saturation of <35% when measured at pH 8.2 and the
presence of Fe and Al oxides (Brady and Weil, 2002). Ultisols are less weath-
ered but are often more acid than Oxisols, and usually contain appreciable
amounts of silicate clay minerals (mainly kaolinite). Clay content increases
with depth often abruptly, giving rise to a Bt horizon. In general, the effec-
tive ECEC values are higher than for Oxisols, but they also exhibit consid-
erable variable charge (Sumner and Noble, 2003). A detailed discussion of
Oxisols is given by Buol and Eswaran (2000) and for Ultisols by West et al.
(1998).
3. CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDIFICATION

Soils can be acidified in several ways including leaching of bases from
the profile due to higher precipitation compared to evapotranspiration.This
is also known as the natural acidification process. Soils may be acidified with
acid deposition from the atmosphere, use of ammoniacal fertilizers, from
intensive crop cultivation, and from pasture systems in which legumes are
included. Organic matter decomposition or mineralization can also create
soil acidity.
3.1 Leaching of Bases

Soils may be acidic due to leaching of bases such as calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium from the soil profile, which are typical examples of
Cerrado soils of Brazil and other highly weathered soils in South America and
other countries. This may happen when precipitation is higher than evapo-
transpiration in a determined region. Bolan and Hedley (2003) reported that
under areas where rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration, soil acidification is an
ongoing process that can be either accelerated by the activity of plants, ani-
mals, and humans or slowed down by careful management practices.Table 6.1
shows the data of the principal chemical properties of “Cerrado” and
Table 6.1 Selected chemical properties of Cerrado (oxidized) and Varzea (reduced)
soils of Brazil (0- to 20-cm depth)
Soil property Cerrado (oxisols)* Varzea (inceptisols)§
pH in H2O 5.2 5.3
Ca (cmolc kg−1) 0.64 4.9
Mg (cmolc kg−1) 0.58 3.1
Al (cmolc kg−1) 0.64 1.3
P (mg kg−1) 1.2 16
K (mg kg−1) 47.2 92.0
Cu (mg kg−1) 1.3 2.2
Zn (mg kg−1) 1.0 2.4
Fe (mg kg−1) 116 303
Mn (mg kg−1) 14 59
OM (g kg−1) 15 31
Base saturation (%) 17 50
*The data are the average values of 200 soil samples collected from six states covering the Cerrado
region.
§The data are the average values of 55 soil samples collected from eight states covering the Varzea soils.
Fageria and Stone (1999).

“Varzeas” soils of Brazil. Soils of both the ecosystems (Cerrado-upland and

Varzea-lowland) are acidic in reaction and have very low (Oxisols) Ca and
Mg contents (Table 6.1).
3.2 Acid Deposition from the Atmosphere

Combustion of fossil fuels during 1800–1999 has acidified rainfall with sul-
furic (H2SO4) and nitric acids (HNO3) in many areas of the world (Sumner
and Noble, 2003). Alewell (2003) reported that the term acid rain or acid
deposition, which covers the wide range of physical, chemical, and biologi-
cal processes involved in the issues of acidification, is defined as the acid
input to ecosystems and soils from the atmosphere originating in human
activity (i.e., in fossil fuel burning). This acid deposition mostly occurs in
industrialized areas. However, once emitted, many air pollutants remain in
the atmosphere for some time before they can finally deposited on the
ground. During this time, they are transported with the air mass over long
distances, often crossing national boundaries (Alewell, 2003). Long-term
acid deposition can have negative impacts on soils under forests, where
opportunities for ameliorating are minimal. A large area of forest in Europe
and North America is affected by acid deposition (Alewell, 2003; Sumner
and Noble, 2003).
3.3 Use of Ammoniacal Fertilizers

The use of ammonia or ammoniacal fertilizers continuously in crop pro-
duction can increase soil acidity. Ammoniacal fertilizers produce hydrogen
(H+) ions during the process of nitrification.The nitrification occurs in two
steps: First, the ammonia is concerted to nitrite (NO2−) and then to nitrate
(NO3−). The nitrification is brought about by two types of bacteria known
as nitrosomonas and nitrobacter. Collectively, these two types of bacteria are
referred to as nitrobacteria. The reaction takes place according to the follow-
ing equations:
2NH4+ + 3O2 → 2NO2− + H2O + 4H+
2NO2− + O2 → 2NO3
Plants try to adjust the electroneutrality in the rhizosphere. When more
cations are absorbed, H+ ions are released in the rhizosphere, and when
more anion are absorbed, OH+ ions are released. Hence, some of the acid-
ity is neutralized by NO3− uptake and the subsequent release of OH− ions.
Management practices that optimize nitrogen use efficiency and ultimately
reduce the amount of NO3− lost by leaching could slow down the rate of
acidification (Robson, 1989; Carver and Ownby, 1995).
The author studied the effect of ammonium sulfate on soil chemical
properties of a Brazilian Inceptisol cultivated with lowland rice for three
consecutive years (Fageria and Baligar, 2001). Soil pH was significantly
decreased at higher N rates. A regression equation calculated in relation to N
rates (X) and soil pH (Y) was quadratic and highly significant (Y = 5.50 +
0.000039X − 0.000066X2, R2 = 0.9347**).
Calcium level was another soil chemical property that was significantly
affected by N rates as evaluated by regression analysis (Y = 2.2416 +
0.00063X − 0.000021X2, R2 = 0.8073*). The level of this nutrient in
the soil decreased at higher N rates. At 210 kg N ha−1, the decrease in
the Ca level was 64% as compared to that in control treatment. This
may be related to crop removal of this nutrient. Potassium level was not
affected by N rates but was reduced substantially when compared with
the original soil level. The K level was also lower than the accepted criti-
cal level, which is about 60 mg kg−1 in Brazilian Inceptisols for lowland
rice (Fageria and Baligar, 1996). The reduction in K level may be related
to the removal of large amounts of this nutrient in plant straw. Aluminum
concentration was another soil chemical property that changed signifi-
cantly under different N treatments. It was significantly increased with
increasing N rates (Y = 0.825 + 0.00285X, R2 = 0.5761*) after three
rice crops. The Al level was also substantially increased as compared to the
original soil level.
The decrease in soil pH with ammonium fertilizers has been reported
by many workers. Hetrick and Schwab (1992) reported that annual fer-
tilizer with 225 kg N ha−1 as NH4NO3 for <40 years in silt loam soil
decreased the soil pH from 6.9 to 4.1. Darusman et al. (1991) reported
that there were no significant differences for the soil properties evaluated
among the NH3, NH4NO3, urea, and NH4NO3 treatments. However, the
20 years of N fertilization reduced soil pH significantly, compared with
no-N check in the surface 6- to14-cm soil layer (pH 5.2 vs 6.2). Stumpe
and Vlek (1991) reported that acidification of selected tropical soils (Alfisol,
Ultisol, and Oxisol) with three N sources was in the order ammonium
sulfate > urea > ammonium nitrate. Malhi et al. (1991) reported that the
average annual rate of depression in soil pH in the 0- to 5-cm layer ranged
from 0.09 to 0.16 with 112 kg N ha−1 rate. The amount and depth of
depression in the soil pH were the greatest with ammonium sulfate, fol-
lowed by ammonium nitrate, with a small effect by urea and no reduction
from calcium nitrate.Volatilization of ammonia from surface applied nitro-

gen fertilizers can also produce soil acidity. During NH3 volatilization, the
pH of the soil surface decreases because of the H+ ions released as NH4+
is converted to NH3 (Avnimelech and Haher, 1977). The reaction can be
expressed as follows:
NH4+ → NH3 + H+ (pK 9.5)
3.4 Proton Generation in the Soils

The most significant proton- (H+) and hydroxyl ion- (OH−)generating pro-
cesses occur during the cycling of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S).
In the case of the C cycle, dissolution of CO2 to form carbonic acid and
synthesis and dissociation of carboxylic acids are the two main sources of
H+ ions (Bolan et al., 1991). The concentration of CO2 in the soil air is
normally between 0.15% and 0.65% (Russell, 1988) and the pKa for the
reaction is around 6.1.
CO2 + 2H2O → H3O + HCO3−
The continuous production of CO2 through soil and root respiration
drives this reaction to the right. In the case of the S cycle, mineralization
and oxidation of organic S result in the production of H+ ions. In the case
of N, acidification of soil can also take place due to plant-induced processes
such as uptake and assimilation of ammonium, and N2 fixation.
3.5 Plant-Induced Processes

Plants take up N in three main forms: as an anion (NO3−), as n cation
(NH4+), or as a neutral N2 molecule (N2 fixation). Depending upon the
form of N taken up and the mechanism of assimilation in the plant, excess
of cation or anion uptake may occur (Haynes, 1983). To maintain charge
balance during the uptake process, H+ and OH− ions must pass out of the
root into the surrounding soil. The H+ ions may be derived from the dis-
sociation of organic acids within the cell, and OH− ions from the decar-
boxylation of organic acid anions. It has been shown that while the uptake
of NH4+ and N2 fixation results in a net release of H+ ions, the uptake of
NO3− can result in a net release of OH− ions.
3.6 Nitrogen Fixation

In the case of N2 fixation, the neutral N2 can be assimilated into pro-
tein, and no charge imbalance is generated across the soil/root boundary.
Many legumes, however, commonly export H+ ions into their rhizo-

sphere when actively fixing N2 (Nyatsanga and Pierre, 1973). Part of the
H+ ions generated within the legume root comes from the dissociation
of the carboxyl groups of amino acids. The acidity generated by legume
fixation of N2 has been found to be equivalent to the excess uptake of
cations over anions by the plant and to vary from 0.2 to 0.7 mol H+
per mole of fixed N (Jarvis and Robson, 1983). The amount of H+ ions
released during N2 fixation depends mainly on the form and amount of
amino acids and organic acids synthesized within the plant (Israel and
Jackson, 1978).
3.7 Mineralization of Organic Matter

Soil acidity may also be produced by the decomposition of plant residues or
organic waste into organic acids. Humic materials in soils occur as a result
of microbial decomposition of organic matter. The products of decomposi-
tion are several types of functional groups that are capable of attracting and
dissociating hydrogen ions. The strength of the acid produced depends on
the nature of the predominant functional group. There are several humic
acids that result from the heterogeneous material. Therefore, soil acidity
arising from organic acid deprotonation is dependent upon the vegetation
(Hudnall, 1991). Organic matter has no direct role in soil acidification, but
acts merely as a cation exchanger (Van Breemen et al., 1984). This type of
acidity is most prominent in Histosols.
3.8 Reduction and Oxidation of Sulfate

Finally, acidity develops from the reduction and oxidation of sulfate. Sulfate
in seawater is reduced to H2S and pyrite (FeS2). The oxidation of pyrite
results in the formation of H2SO4. Soil pH values associated with the oxi-
dation of pyrite may become extremely low (pH < 3.0) (Hudnall, 1991).
Generally, acid sulfate soils that are acidic or turn to be acidic (pH < 3.5)
by sulfuric acid refer to soils formed in recent series (Holocene) in swamps,
coastal marshes, or polder lands. Soil taxonomy (USDA, 1975) provides the
following two criteria for acid sulfate soils: (1) >0.75% of sulfur in sulfide
compounds and pH with H2O (soil water ratio 1:1) ≤3.5 after oxidation,
(2) the pH with H2O (soil:water ratio 1:1) ≤3.5.With this classification sys-
tem, the first group includes potential acid sulfate soils, and group two has
actual acid sulfate soils. About 12.5 million ha of acid sulfate soils are found
in low-lying coastal lands of Southeast and East Asia, West Africa, and Latin
America (Tran, 1991).
4. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

One of the challenges faced by agricultural scientists is to develop
production practices that not only increase production but also do so using
soil and crop management systems that are sustainable (Hobbs, 2007; Riedell
et al., 2013). Extensive use of sustainable soil and crop management systems
would result in profitable farms producing greater yields while maintain-
ing or enhancing natural resources (Higgs et al., 1990). Management of acid
soils entails development of viable and sustainable management techniques
to improve food and other agricultural production. Management strategies
for efficient crop production on these soils may include adoption of soil to fit
plants and/or adapting plants to fit soils.These strategies may include the use of
amendments (lime and gypsum) and also planting tolerant species or cultivars.
4.1 Liming
The value of liming to correct soil acidity and enhance agricultural produc-
tivity has been well documented (Pagani and Mallarino, 2012b). Liming is
the most common and effective practice for reducing soil acidity-related
problems. Application of a liming material to a soil has a number of direct
and indirect effects. Direct effects include (1) increased Ca content and, if
dolomitic limestone is used, Mg content in the soil. (2) Increased soil pH
results in a number of changes that might be considered as indirect effects.
(3) As soil pH increases, P and Mo become more available (Fageria and Bali-
gar, 2008). (4) It has also been suggested that liming enhances the availability
of native phosphorus as a result of increased mineralization of organic mat-
ter (Lathwell, 1979). (5) Liming improves symbiotic N2 fixation by legumes.
Rhizobium bacteria form nodules on the roots of legume crops and convert
atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can use. (6) In addition, lim-
ing improves N-uptake efficiency in acid soils (Fageria and Baligar, 2005a;
Fageria, 2009), and liming improves root growth of annual crops (Figures
6.2 and 6.3), which may be important in absorption of water and nutrients.
For correcting soil acidity, dolomitic lime [CaMg(CO3)2], which has
both Ca and Mg should be used. Dolomitic lime may supply both Ca and
Mg and can maintain balances between these two elements. The equation
below illustrates the kind of reactions that follow with the addition of dolo-
mitic lime to an acidic soil:
CaMg(CO3)2 + 2H+ → 2HCO3− + Ca2+ + Mg2+
Figure 6.2 Root growth of upland rice genotypes at two lime levels grown on a Brazil-
ian Oxisol.
Figure 6.3 Root growth of upland rice genotypes at two lime levels grown on a Brazil-
ian Oxisol.
2HCO3 + 2H+ → 2CO2 + 2H2O
CaMg(CO3)2 + 4H+ → Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 2CO2 + 2H2O
The above equations show that acidity neutralizing reactions of lime
occurs in two steps. In the first step, Ca and Mg react with H to replace
these ions with Ca2+ and Mg2+ on the exchange sites (negatively charged
particles of clay or organic matter), forming HCO3-. In the second step,
HCO3− reacts with H+ to form CO2 and H2O to increase pH. As lime
dissolves in the soil solution, calcium replaces aluminum on exchange sites,
and the anion reacts with hydrogen ions, increasing the pH. The equation
below illustrates the kinds of reactions that occur due to the addition of
lime in acid soil:
2Al-X + 3CaCO3 + 6H2O → 3Ca-X + 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2O + 3CO2
Here X denotes attachment to an exchange site. The reaction detoxifies
the aluminum by binding it to hydroxyls, causing it to become insoluble in
water.
The liming reaction rate is mainly determined by soil moisture and the
temperature and quantity and quality of liming material. To get maximum
benefits from liming or for improving crop yields, liming materials should
be applied in advance of crop sowing and thoroughly mixed into the soil.
Selected soil chemical property changes with lime applied to a Brazilian Oxi-
sol are available in Fageria (2006). All the soil chemical properties analyzed
were significantly influenced by liming. Soil pH, base saturation, and Ca were
significantly increased with increasing lime rates. However, H + Al, acidity
saturation, and CEC were decreased with increasing liming rates. Soil Mg
content significantly increased up to 12 Mg ha−1 lime rate. Soil pH, base
saturation, and Ca and Mg values were higher in the top (0–10 cm) soil layer
compared with that in the subsoil (10–20 cm) layer. Higher pH and higher
base saturation in the topsoil layer (0–10 cm) are due to higher Ca and Mg
contents in the topsoil layer compared with that in the subsoil layer. Hussain
et al. (1999) reported a higher pH in the top 0- to 5-cm soil layer compared to
that in the 5- to 15-cm layer in the no-tillage system. Higher H + Al, acidity
saturation, and CEC in the subsoil layer were associated with a higher con-
centration of H + Al and a lower concentration of Ca and Mg in the subsoil
layer. In the subsoil, there was no through mixing of lime due to the no-tillage
system in the subsequent bean cultivation. Further, the fertilizer applied in the
second and third bean crops was concentrated in the top 0- to 10-cm soil layer.
4.2 Indices Used to Correct Soil Acidity by Liming

There are several indices used to correct soil acidity for maximizing crop
yields.These indices include pH, base saturation, acidity saturation, aluminum
saturation, calcium saturation, magnesium saturation, potassium saturation,
Ca/Mg ratio, Ca/K ratio, and Mg/K ratio. These indices can be calculated
with the help of the following formulas (Fageria et al., 2007; Fageria, 2008):
CEC (cmolc kg−1) = ∑(Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, H, Al3+), where Ca, Mg, K, H,
and Al are in centimoles of positive charge per kilogram.
∑
(Ca , Mg , K , Na)
Base saturation ( % ) = × 100
CEC
(Al)
Aluminum saturation ( % ) = ∑ × 100
(Ca , Mg , K , Al)
(H + Al)
Acidity saturation ( % ) = × 100
CEC
Saturation of Ca, Mg, and K ( % ) =
(Ca) (Mg) ( K)
× 100 , × 100 , or × 100
CEC CEC CEC
Ca Ca Mg
Ratios of Ca : Mg , Ca : K and Mg : K = , , or
Mg K K
Optimal values of these indices should be taken into account for maxi-
mizing crop yields, which varied from crop species to species and some-
times even genotypes within species. Optimal acidity values should be
determined under different agroecological regions under field conditions
to have meaningful results. Fageria (2006) determined these acidity indi-
ces for dry bean grown on Oxisols of the Cerrado region of Brazil. Grain
yield of dry bean was significantly increased with improving soil pH; base
saturation; calcium, magnesium, and potassium (K) saturation; and reducing
aluminum saturation (Fageria, 2006). These soil acidity indices were higher
in the 0–10 cm of the soil layer compared with that in 10–20 cm of the soil
layer for maximum grain yield. Regression models were developed relating
common bean grain yield and selected soil chemical properties (Fageria,
2006. Most of the soil chemical properties had a significant positive and
quadratic relationship with bean grain yield. Based on regression models,
values for maximum yield for two soil depths (0–10 and 10–20 cm) and
across two soil depths were calculated (Fageria, 2006). Optimal values of
soil indices for maximum bean yield can be used as a reference for liming
and improving the yield of bean crop on Oxisols in the no-tillage cropping
system.
4.3 Calculating Lime Requirements by Empirical Equations

If field data are not available, lime requirements can be determined with
the empirical equations proposed in the literature. Various methods exist
for estimating the lime requirements of soil of tropical regions. Cochrane
et al. (1980) published the following equation for liming acid mineral soils
to compensate crop aluminum tolerance and take the levels of exchangeable
Ca and Mg in the soil into account:
LR (CaCO3 equiv. Mg ha−1) = 1.8[Al-RAS (Al + Ca + Mg)/100]

where Al = cmol kg−1 soil, 1 N KCl extract, Ca = cmol kg−1 soil, 1 N KCl
extract, Mg = cmol kg−1 soil, 1 N KCl extract, RAS = required % Al satura-
tion of the ECEC. ECEC = ∑(Al, Ca, Mg, K, Na) in cmolc kg−1.
In Brazil, lime requirement is determined on the basis of Al, Ca, and Mg
contents of the soil and the following equation is generally used for this
purpose:
Lime rate (Mg ha−1) = (2 × Al) + [2−(Ca + Mg)],

where Al, Ca, and Mg are in cmolc kg−1 soil. In the State of São Paulo
sometimes soil texture and plant species are also taken into account for lime
requirement, and the above equation is written as
Lime rate (Mg ha−1) = (Y × Al) + [X−(Ca + Mg)],

where Y is the soil texture and value 1 is used for sandy textured soils (clay
content <15%), value 2 for medium textured soils (clay content 15–35%),
and value 3 for heavy textured soils (clay content >35%). The value of X
is determined on the basis of the crop. For example, 2.0 is for most crops,
1.0 for eucalyptus, and 3.0 for coffee. In Brazil, base saturation is also used
sometimes to calculate lime requirements using the following equation:
( ) CEC (B2 − B1 )
Lime rate Mg ha − 1 = × df
TRNP
where CEC = total exchangeable cations (Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + H+ + Al3+) in
cmol kg−1, B2 = desired optimum base saturation, B1 = existing base satu-
ration, TRNP = total relative neutralizing power of liming material, and
df = lime incorporating depth, 1 for a 20-cm depth and 1.5 for a 30-cm
depth.
For Brazilian Oxisols, the desired optimum base saturation for most of
the cereals is considered to be in the range of 50–60%, and for legumes, it
is considered to be in the range of 60–70% (Fageria et al., 1990). To use the
above equation properly to determine the lime requirement of a soil, a soil
test for Al, Ca, Mg, K, and H is essential. In addition to this, the following
factors should also be considered in determining the lime requirement of
acid soils.
4.4 Factors Affecting Lime Requirements

The application of lime has been used successfully in many parts of
the world to ameliorate soil acidity and increase yields of many crops
(Arshad et al., 2012). In northwestern Canada, one time application of
lime increased the yields of barley, canola, and field peas by 19–37%
(Arshad et al., 2012). Similarly, increases in crop yields by lime applica-
tion have been reported in the United States (Adams, 1984), New Zea-
land (Wheeler et al., 1997), Australia (Slattery and Coventry, 1993), and
Brazil (Fageria and Baligar, 2008). There are several factors that affect
lime requirements of a crop. These factors include soil texture, quality
of liming materials, soil fertility, soil organic matter content, crop rota-
tion, tillage system, economic consideration, crop species, and genotypes
within species. A detailed discussion of these factors is given by Fageria
and Baligar (2008).
4.5 Use of Gypsum

In addition to lime, gypsum, and especially the phosphogypsum (PG) pro-
duced as a by-product of phosphoric acid production, is finding an increas-
ingly widespread use as a physical conditioner of both dryland and irrigated
soils and as a chemical amendment for alleviating, by leaching the effects
of subsoil acidity on root development in crops (Alva and Sumner, 1989;
Frenkel et al., 1989; Sumner et al., 1990). Although gypsum is moderately
water soluble, there is evidence to indicate that particle size and crystalline
nature influence the short-term effectiveness of gypsum applied to soils
(Shainberg et al., 1989).
Subsoil acidity is a serious problem on vast areas in various parts of the
world. Acid, low base-status soils (Oxisols and Ultisols) constitute >40%
of potentially arable tropical soils, an area that has been estimated as being
in excess of 800 million ha (Shainberg et al., 1989). In addition, there are
reports in the literature of severe subsoil acidity occurring in subtropical
and temperate latitudes (Adams and Moore, 1983; Doss et al., 1979; Farina
and Channon, 1988; Sumner et al., 1986; Shainberg et al., 1989). The appli-
cation of gypsum increases subsoil Ca2+ and decreases Al toxicity. The latter
effect has been attributed to the role of SO42− in either the precipitation of
Al, which is in line with reported precipitation of jurbanite, basaluminite, or
alunite in acid media containing Al3+ and SO42− (Nordstrom, 1982) or an
increase in the formation of SO42− complexes Al in solution, which is less
phytotoxic (Pavan and Bingham, 1982; Pavan et al., 1982). Further, Reeve
and Sumner (1972) proposed. “Self-liming” effect of gypsum, whereby leg-
end exchange of OH− by SO42− on sesquioxidic mineral surfaces results in
an increase in the pH, leading to polymerization or precipitation of Al. In
addition to SO42−, PG contains F− and P, which are important legends for
forming complexes or polymers with Al3+; hence, these legends would play
important roles in the alleviation of Al toxicity (Alva and Sumner, 1989).
Frenkel et al. (1989) reported that the analysis of the PG from South Africa
indicates 21% Ca, 16% S, 0.3% F, 0.1% Si, and between 0.3% and 0.5% P,
by mass.
A column study showed that gypsum decreased exchangeable Al and
increased exchangeable Ca and that an appreciable portion of the decrease
in exchangeable Al could be accounted for by the leached Al (Kenneth and
Caldwell, 1985). The leached Al occurs in more than one form. It has been
shown that the filtrate of a soil suspended in a CaSO4.2H2O solution has
60% of the Al present as monovalent AlSO4+ (Singh, 1982). In a column
study, it was shown that much of the soluble Al was AlSO4+ accounted
for 90% of the leached Al (Pavan et al., 1982). Thus, a substantial amount
of exchangeable Al can be removed from the soil if large amounts of S of
gypsum are used and if adequate leaching occurs (Kenneth and Caldwell,
1985). Shamshuddin et al (1991) reported that some Ca moved into the 15-
to 30-cm zone in the Ultisol treated with 2 Mg gypsum ha−1 at 3 months
after application. Sumner et al. (1986) and Farina and Channon (1988) also
showed that Ca moved into the subsoil by surface application of gypsum.
The movement of Ca into the subsoil alleviated Ca deficiency in that hori-
zon. Additionally, the presence of Ca, to a limited extent, reduces Al toxicity
(Alva et al., 1986). Pavan et al. (1984) reported that based on the effective-
ness of CaSO4·2H2O in reducing exchangeable Al and Mg while increasing
exchangeable Ca, the combination of dolomitic lime and gypsum appears
to be an appropriate amendment treatment for Oxisols with toxic concen-
trations of available Al.
Field calibration data are the best parameters for recommending lime or
gypsum for field crops. However, Malavolta (1991) proposed the following
equations to apply gypsum in the Cerrado soils of Brazil (mostly Oxisols

and Ultisols) for field crops:
Rate of gypsum (Mg ha−1) = (0.4X ECEC−Ca)X 2.5 or
Rate of gypsum (Mg ha−1) = (Al−0.2X ECEC)X 2.5

where values of ECEC (=Al3+ + Ca2+ + Mg2+ + K+ + Na+) and Al
should be expressed in centimoles per kilogram of soil, and Souza (1988)
suggested that for highly weathered Oxisol, such as cerrado soils, gypsum
rate should be recommended on the basis of clay content. He proposed 0.5,
1.0, l.5, and 2.0 Mg ha−1 of gypsum for soils of sandy textured, medium
textured, clayey, and very clayey, respectively.
Improving the chemical quality of the root zone has become a challenge
for tropical farmers (Farina et al., 2000a), especially in the environment sub-
ject to water scarcity. This situation may be aggravated under conservation
tillage that creates an abrupt gradient of soil quality between the topsoil and
subsoil (Farina et al., 2000b; Amado et al., 2007, 2009), particularly when
practices such as crop rotation and the use of cover crops are not adopted
(Nora and Amado, 2013). The use of gypsum, which reduces the subsoil
Al3+ concentration and increases Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations (Shainberg
et al., 1989), can be an alternative way of improving the soil quality under
conservation tillage (Farina et al., 2000b; Caires et al., 2003). Application
of gypsum in adequate amounts increases Ca2+ ions in soil solutions, caus-
ing displacement of Al3+, Mg2+, and K+ from the soil exchange complex
(Farina et al., 2000a; Favaretto et al., 2008). This process is intensified under
continuous no-tillage, where a chemically enriched topsoil layer with high
nutrient concentrations supplied basic cations to the soil solution (Amado
et al., 2007). Once in solution, these cations are subject to a downward
movement with drainage water throughout the soil profile. In this process,
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are more effective due to their pair formation with
SO42− ions (Sumner et al., 1986). In addition, gypsum favors the formation
of SO4−Al compounds, which are less toxic to plants (Zambrosi et al., 2007).
Improvement in the yield of several crops grown on acid soils with the
application of gypsum has been reported. These crops are corn, soybeans,
coffee, wheat, rice, dry bean, cotton, and alfalfa (Shainberg et al., 1989).
The beneficial effects of gypsum on subsoil root penetration have been
reported (Shainberg et al., 1989). Sumner and Carter (1988) studied the
effect of gypsum on alfalfa root distribution in the profile of a Georgia
Ultisol. Gypsum treatment resulted in substantial penetration of roots to
deeper than 1 m, whereas in the control plots, few roots penetrated beyond
0.6 m. On both, a mass and length basis, the quantity of roots in the subsoil
of the gypsum treatment exceeded that of the control threefold to fivefold,
which is reflected in the alfalfa response reported by Shainberg et al. (1989).
Shainberg et al. (1989) reviewed the literature on crop responses to gypsum
and reported that positive responses were found for corn, rice, and beans. In
all cases, gypsum treatment increased the Ca level in the subsoil, decreased
the Al level, and promoted root growth and yield (Shainberg et al., 1989).
4.6 Use of Tolerant Species and/or Cultivars

The use of tolerant species of crop plants in acid soils is an important and
economic crop production strategy on such marginal lands. Crop species
and genotypes within species differ significantly in relation to their toler-
ance to soil acidity (Sanchez and Salinas, 1981;Yang et al., 2000; Fageria and
Baligar, 2008; Fageria, 2009). Hence, lime requirements also vary from spe-
cies to species and among cultivars within species. Many of the plant species
tolerant to acidity have their center of origin in acid soil regions, suggesting
that adaptation to soil constraints is part of the evolution processes (Foy,
1984; Sanchez and Salinas, 1981). A typical example of this evolution is the
acid soil tolerance of Brazilian upland rice cultivars. In Brazilian Oxisols,
upland rice grows very well without liming, when other essential nutrients
are supplied in adequate amounts and water is not a limiting factor (Fageria,
2000a, 2001c).
Experimental results obtained on Brazilian Oxisols with upland rice are
good examples of crop acidity tolerance evaluation (Fageria et al., 2004).
Fageria et al. (2004) reported that grain yield and yield components of
20 upland rice genotypes were significantly decreased at low soil acidity
(limed to pH 6.4) as compared with high soil acidity (without lime, pH
4.5), demonstrating the tolerance of upland rice genotypes to soil acidity.
These authors also reported that grain yield gave significant negative cor-
relations with soil pH, Ca saturation, and base saturation. Further, grain
yield had significant positive correlations with soil Al and H + Al, con-
firming that upland rice genotypes were tolerant to soil acidity. Fageria
(1989) reported stimulation of growth of Brazilian rice cultivars at 10 mg
Al3+ L−1 in nutrient solution compared with a control (no Al) treatment.
Okada and Fischer (2001) suggested that the mechanism for the genotype
difference of upland rice for tolerance to soil acidity is due to the relation-
ship between regulation of cell elongation and legend-bound Ca at the
root apoplast.
A substantial number of plant species of economic importance are gen-

erally regarded as tolerant to acid soil conditions of the tropics (Sanchez
and Salinas, 1981). In addition, there are cultivars within crop species that
are tolerant to soil acidity (Fageria et al., 2004; Garvin and Carver, 2003;
Yang et al., 2004).Yang et al. (2005) reported significant differences among
genotypes of rye, triticale, wheat, and buckwheat to Al toxicity. These crop
species or cultivars within these species can be planted on tropical acid soils
in combination with reduced rates of lime input.
Combinations of legume–grass pasture and agroforestry system of man-
agement are the other important soil acidity management components
useful in tropical ecosystems. For example, Pueraria phaseoloides is used as
an understory for rubber, Gmelina arborea, or Dalbergia nigra plantations in
Brazil presumably supplying nitrogen to the tree crops (Sanchez and Salinas,
1981). A detailed discussion of the combination of legume–grass pasture
and agroforestry in tropical America is given by Sanchez and Salinas (1981).
These authors reported that when an acid-tolerant legume or legume–grass
pasture are grown under young tree crops, the soil is better protected, soil
erosion is significantly reduced, and nutrient cycling is enhanced. Some
important annual food crops, cover or green manure crops pasture species,
and plantation crops tolerant to tropical acid soils are presented by Sanchez
and Salinas (1981), Caudle (1991), Brady and Weil (2002), and Fageria et al.
(2011). Acid soil tolerant crops are useful, to establish low input manage-
ment systems. Similarly, data in Fageria et al. (2009) show the tolerance of
14 tropical legume crop species to acidity. Figures 6.4–6.6 also show that the
growth of tropical legume cover crops was reduced with increasing soil pH
from 5.5 to 7.0 to reflect their tolerance to soil acidity.
4.7 Improving Soil Fertility

Soil fertility is defined as the quality of a soil that enables it to provide
nutrients in adequate amounts and in proper balance for the growth of crop
plants (Soil Science Society of America, 2008). Improving or maintaining
soil fertility at an adequate level is fundamental to produce maximum eco-
nomic yield of crops on acid soils. A summarized discussion of nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, and micronutrients is
given in this section.
4.7.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is usually the most yield-limiting nutrient in lowland rice produc-
tion. Intensive agricultural production systems have increased the use of N
Figure 6.4 Growth of lablab (Dolichos lablab L.) cover crop growth at three pH levels in
a Brazilian Oxisol.
Figure 6.5 Growth of crotalaria (Crotalaria breviflora) at three pH levels in a Brazilian

Oxisol.
Figure 6.6 Growth of pigenonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh) at three pH levels in a

Brazilian Oxisol.
fertilizer in an effort to produce and sustain high crop yields. Consequently,

N losses into the environment have also increased (Schmied et al., 2000).
Environmental N losses can occur from NO3 leaching, NH3 volatilization,
surface runoff, nitrification, and denitrification. Release of N2O from soils
occurs during biological and chemical denitrification (chemodenitrifica-
tion) and contributes to global warming from the emission of greenhouse
gasses (Nelson, 1982; Hutchinson and Davidson, 1993). Over the last 20
years, the concentration of N2O in the atmosphere has increased by approx-
imately 0.25% per year (Galloway et al., 1995). Anthropogenic inputs of all
forms of N into the global N cycle are an estimated 145 Tg year−1 (Gal-
loway et al., 1995). Of this total, N losses from N fertilizers are estimated at
approximately 80 Tg year−1. Thus, fertilizer usage is considered as a major
contributing factor of this increase, compared with other sources of N2O
such as biomass burning, fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, increasing
amounts of wet and dry NOx deposition, and NH4 in rainwater.
Raun and Johnson (1999) estimated the worldwide fertilizer N recovery
efficiency by cereal grains {rice, wheat, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), millet
(Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), barley, corn, oat, and rye} is only approxi-
mately 33%. The 67% of unaccounted for N represented a US$15.9 billion
annual loss of N fertilizer. Thus, when N fertilizers applied to all crops,
including rice, are not used efficiently, crop production costs increase as
more N fertilizer must be used to compensate for losses, but more impor-
tantly, this lost N contributes to air and water pollution. The development,
demonstration, and eventual grower acceptance of efficient N fertilization
practices can reduce N use, maintain or increase current rice yields, and
minimize the potential for N losses into the environment (Kundu et al.,
1996).
Improving the N use efficiency of crops is an important goal in sustain-
able production systems. Modern production agriculture requires the imple-
mentation of efficient, sustainable, and environmentally sound management
practices. In this context, fertilization is an important factor required to
achieve optimum yields of all crops, including rice (Fageria et al., 2011).
Fertilizer is, however, one of the most expensive crop production inputs
and, if used improperly, can pollute the environment or decrease produc-
tion efficiency. Increasing the rice yield per unit area by the use of appro-
priate nutrient management practices has become an essential component
of modern rice production technology. Management practices to improve
the nutrient use efficiency of crops include management of soil pH, use
of the proper inorganic and organic nutrient sources, correct method and
rate of fertilizer application, appropriate application timing of fertilizers,
water management, pest management, and the use of high-yielding cultivars
adapted to a given environment (Fageria et al., 2003). A detailed discussion
of these practices is given by Mengel et al. (2001), Brady and Weil (2002),
Fageria et al. (2003), Fageria and Baligar (2005a), and Fageria (2009).
4.7.2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus deficiency is the most important nutritional disorder of crop
plants, especially in the highly weathered acidic soils of the tropics that con-
tain large quantities of Al and Fe oxides (Fageria and Baligar, 1996; Sene-
weera and Conroy, 1997). The highly weathered tropical soils are primarily
Oxisols and Ultisols that have a low total and available P content, and also
have a high P fixation capacity (Fageria et al., 1991). Plants rarely absorb
>20% of the total fertilizer P applied due to fixation (Friesen et al., 1997).
The uptake of P by plants is governed by the ability of a soil to supply P to
plant roots and by the desorption characteristics of the soil (Roy and De
Datta, 1985). The supply of P to plant roots depends on the concentration
of inorganic P in the soil solution and on the capacity of the soil to maintain
this concentration.
Application of P is often essential for profitable agricultural production.
However, accumulation of soil P in excess of crop needs has the potential
to enrich surface runoff with P, which can cause eutrophication. Eutro-

phication has been identified as the main cause of impaired surface water
quality (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996). Eutrophication
restricts water use for fisheries, recreation, industry, and drinking due to
the increased growth of undesirable algae and aquatic weeds and to oxygen
shortages caused by their death and decomposition (Abrams and Jarrell,
1995; Sharpley et al., 1999). Hence, appropriate management of P is an
important aspect not only for higher rice yields but also for environmental
protection.
Indiscriminate use of P fertilizer increases the cost of production, may
reduce crop yields on some soils, and can contribute to water quality prob-
lems. The principal phosphate fertilizers commonly used to fertilize rice
are the highly water-soluble fertilizers such as single and triple super phos-
phates, diammonium phosphate, and sometimes monoammonium phos-
phate (Fageria et al., 2003).
Soils used for crop production in South America commonly have low
soil test P values, and respond to P fertilization (Fageria et al., 1982, 2011;
Fageria, 2013). Soil test for P and calibrated soil test data is the best criterion
for making P fertilizer recommendations for most crops in the soils of South
America (Fageria et al., 2011). One of the most important factors affecting
P fertilizer recommendations from calibration studies is the method used to
extract soil P. A number of different extractants including Bray-1, Bray-2,
Mehlich 1, Mehlich 3, and NaHCO3 (Olsens) have been used in different
parts of the world to assess the status of plant-available soil P (Kamprath
and Watson, 1980; Sharply et al., 1994). Many of these extractants tend to
underestimate or overestimate the P availability to upland plants (Kamprath
and Watson, 1980), and their ability to accurately predict the P fertilizer
requirement of flood-irrigated rice are further compromised by the anaero-
bic soil conditions used for its production. In the United States, each of the
primary rice-producing states use a different extractant to estimate P fertil-
izer requirements of rice (Norman et al., 2003).Various extractants are used
because no single extractant has shown a significant advantage for making
P recommendations on flood-irrigated rice, but the extractants have been
calibrated for the soils and upland crops grown in each of the states. Sanyal
and De Datta (1991) suggested that NaHCO3 (Olsen P) is perhaps the best
routine method for predicting rice response to P as it is better correlated
with the extraction of Fe-P.
Fageria et al. (1997) evaluated the Mehlich 1 soil P test to predict
lowland rice response to P fertilization on a Brazilian acidic Inceptisol.
Based on relative grain yield, ranges of Mehlich 1 soil test P were catego-
rized as very low (0–2.6 mg P kg−1), low (2.6–8.8 mg P kg−1), medium
(8.8–13.0 mg P kg−1), or high (>13.0 mg P kg−1).The amounts of broadcast
P needed to increase soil P concentration at very low, low, medium, and
high soil classification categories were 444, 292, 220, and 80 P ha−1, respec-
tively. A medium soil test P was required for the production of >95% rela-
tive yield.The rate of banded fertilizer P required to produce the maximum
yield was 66 kg P ha−1 for the very low and low soil categories, 44 kg P ha−1
for the medium category, and 22 kg P ha−1 for the high category.
Fageria et al. (1991) characterized the chemical properties of lowland
rice soils of Brazil and reported a 65-fold range in Mehlich 1 extractable P
concentrations in the 0- to 20-cm soil depth among 23 different municipal-
ities. Similarly, Cochrane (1978) reported great variation in Bray 2 extract-
able P of lowland soils of tropical America. Annual crop yield responses to
P fertilization were expected on 40% of the soil samples that contained low
(<3 mg P kg−1) to medium (3–7 mg P kg−1) concentrations of extractable
P. Fageria (1980) also reported that P fertilization significantly increased the
yield of lowland rice grown in the Goias State of Brazil. Maximum grain
yields were obtained when P was broadcast applied at 175 kg P ha−1 as
triple superphosphate.
The time and placement of fertilizer P are critical for optimum uptake,
especially on P-deficient soils. Patrick et al. (1974) showed that P placed
with the rice seed during drilling was superior to broadcast application
two weeks after seeding. Rice yield declined as the time of P application
was delayed. They also generalized that broadcast preplant-incorporated P
application would be equally effective as P drilled with the seed. However,
broadcast application of P at the five-leaf stage increased tissue P concen-
tration, P uptake, and grain yield more than P broadcast applied to the
soil surface at seeding on an alkaline soil in Arkansas (McGee et al., 2002),
suggesting that fixation potentially reduces P availability on some soils in a
very short time. The prevention of early-season P deficiency is critical for
the production of high yields. When P is deficient, crop yield response to P
fertilizer declines as the time of P fertilization is delayed (Patrick et al., 1974;
Slaton et al., 1998).
4.7.3 Potassium
Annual crops do not generally respond to K fertilization to the degree
noted for either N or P (Fageria et al., 2011). Many soils used for the
production of continuous rice or rice–wheat rotations can be cropped for
extended periods without needing supplemental K to maintain crop pro-

duction (Dobermann et al., 1996). Rice grown in rotation with legumes,
like soybean, may require annual K inputs due to the greater K requirement
of the legume crop. Although annual K fertilization may not be required,
the aboveground K content of rice is equal to or greater than the plant N
content and greater than all other essential nutrients. Direct K fertilization
of rice has produced grain yield increases ranging from 0% to 47% with
yield responses of 0–10% being the norm (Dobermann et al., 1996). Cere-
als are highly efficient in scavenging plant-available soil K because of their
fibrous root system. However, on some soils, K deficiency of annual crops
occurs if a main crop and rotation crops are grown without regular applica-
tions of K fertilizer to replace the K removed by the harvested crops.
Many of the soils used for crop production in South America have low
cation exchange capacities or are highly weathered, which makes them
poor reservoirs of plant-available K. In highly weathered soils, the total
soil K content may be quite low because of K-deficient parent materials
and the climate. The high rainfall and warm temperatures common to the
tropical South America have hastened the release and leaching of soil K
over time (Tisdale et al., 1985).The chemistry of soil and fertilizer reactions
involving K is less complicated than the chemical and biological reactions
that occur when N and P fertilizers are added to the soil. Potassium is not
complexed into soil organic matter, susceptible to gaseous losses, or subject
to precipitate into forms that are not plant available. Essentially, all the soil K
is associated with the soil mineral fraction (Foth and Ellis, 1988). The avail-
ability of soil K is influenced by soil K concentration, soil texture, soil pH,
CEC, temperature, soil moisture, soil aeration, yield level, and root growth
patterns. Unlike, N, P, and Zn, relatively few studies have been published
regarding efficient K fertilization practices, diagnosis of K deficiency, and
correction of K deficiency.
Fertilizer recommendations for immobile nutrients, like K, are made
based on soil test calibration studies, which need to be conducted on a
routine basis. Dobermann et al. (1996) summarized critical soil concentra-
tions of 1 N NH4OAc extractable K from around the world and found
the range varied from 0.08 to 0.41 cmol K kg−1 soil. In South America, K
fertilizer is usually recommended for annual crops when exchangeable soil
K is <50 mg K kg−1, regardless of the soil texture or extractant. Fageria et al.
(1990) found that annual K fertilizer applications significantly increased rice
yields during the first and subsequent rice crops seeded on the same plots
on an Inceptisol in central Brazil. Rice did not respond to K fertilization
when soil test concentrations were >50 mg K dm−3 (Mehlich 1 extractable

K; Fageria, 1992).
The timing of K fertilizer application should consider two criteria: 1)
the cost of application and 2) maximizing fertilizer-use efficiency by the
crop. Sometimes, K is applied in a band at the time of sowing to increase
its availability to seedling rice. In the United States and in many other rice
producing regions of the world, K fertilizer is broadcast applied immedi-
ately before seeding, after seeding, or split into multiple applications. In the
humid tropical soils with a low CEC and clay content, the possibility of
K loss via leaching exists and K fertilizer is commonly broadcast applied
as a topdressing, along with N. Fageria (1991) reported that lowland rice
yields were higher when the total K fertilizer requirement was applied in
split topdressed applications. Su (1976), Santos et al. (1999), and Noguchi
and Sugawara (1976) also reported the benefits of split applications of K.
Potassium application rates applied as a topdressing depend on the initial
soil K concentration with higher K rates required as the initial soil K con-
centration decreases. A smaller portion of the total K fertilizer requirement
should be topdressed, along with N, to reduce the cost of application, on
soils where leaching losses of K are of concern.
Potassium chloride is the most common source of K for most annual
crops, including rice. Potassium chloride is highly effective and has the low-
est cost per unit of K. Potassium sulfate is equally effective as a K source and
furnishes S, but is also more expensive than KCl.
4.7.4 Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur

Calcium, Mg, and S are often referred to as the secondary elements. These
macronutrients are required in relatively large amounts for normal crop
growth. Calcium is usually the predominant soil cation and is present in
relatively large amounts especially on alkaline soils. Further, Ca is a nontoxic
mineral nutrient, even in high concentrations, and is very effective in detox-
ifying high concentrations of other mineral elements in plants (Marschner,
1995). Calcium and Mg are much more stable in the soil than S. Highly
weathered Oxisols and Ultisols may be low in Ca, Mg, and plant available
S due to excessive leaching. Sandy soils may also contain low levels of Ca,
Mg, and S, increasing the likelihood of crop deficiencies of these nutrients.
Sulfur deficiency in crop plants in soils of South America has increased for
numerous reasons including (1) increased crop removal of S via increased
crop yields, (2) use of fertilizers lacking S, (3) the reduced industrial emis-
sions of S lowering the input of atmospheric S, (4) reduction in soil organic
matter, (5) leaching and weathering processes, (6) erosion, and (7) crop
management practices (Fageria et al., 2011).
Calcium and Mg deficiencies can be corrected with the application of
dolomitic lime.The appropriate application rate should be based on lime rec-
ommendations, which are discussed in the liming section. If only the soil Ca
level is low, gypsum (CaSO4) or CaCO3 can be applied to correct Ca defi-
ciency. Zia et al. (1997) reported that irrigated rice yield and N use efficiency
were improved when urea N was applied in combination with gypsum.
Sulfur, like N, is subject to many chemical and biological reactions that
influence its availability when added to the soil. Sulfur fertilizer applications
should be timed based on the initial soil S status and the soil properties that
influence S availability during the course of the growing season. Routine
soil testing for S is seldom used as a guideline. Soil properties (i.e., drainage,
texture, and oxidation status) and field histories are used by growers as a
means of estimating the need for S fertilization. When the availability of S
is initially low, SO4-containing fertilizers should be applied at seeding or by
the five-leaf stage when rapid plant growth and tillering begin.The applica-
tion of SO4-containing fertilizers may also be necessary during the repro-
ductive growth phase (i.e., panicle initiation or early boot stage) to Prevent
late-season S deficiency on highly permeable or reduced soils.
4.7.5 Micronutrients
Micronutrients are also called minor or trace elements. Their concentra-
tions in plant tissues are present in small amounts relative to that of macro-
nutrients. The essential micronutrients are Zn, Cu, B, Fe, Mn, Mo, Cl, and
Ni.Table 6.2 shows the functions of micronutrients in plants. Accumulation
of these micronutrients by plants generally follows the order of Cl > Mn >
Fe > Zn > B > Cu > Mo. This order may change among plant species and
growth conditions. Micronutrient deficiencies in crop plants are increasing
because of (1) increased micronutrient demands from intensive cropping
practices and adoption of high-yielding cultivars, which may have a higher
micronutrient demand; (2) enhanced production of crops on marginal
soils that contain low levels of available nutrients; (3) increased use of high
analysis fertilizers with low amounts of micronutrient contamination; (4)
decreased use of animal manures, composts, and crop residues; (5) cropping
soils that are naturally low in micronutrient reserves; and (6) involvement of
natural and anthropogenic factors that limit adequate plant availability and
create element imbalances (Fageria et al., 2002).
Table 6.2 Functions of micronutrients in plants

Micronutrient Function
Boron Activates certain dehydrogenase enzymes, involved in carbo-
hydrate metabolism, synthesis of cell wall components, and
essential for cell division and development.
Copper Constituent of a number of important oxidase enzymes,
including cytochrome oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, and
lactase, and important in photosynthesis, and protein and
carbohydrate metabolism.
Iron An essential component of many heme and nonheme Fe
enzymes and carriers, including the cytochromes (respira-
tory electron carriers) and the ferredoxins. The latter are
involved in key metabolic functions such as N fixation,
photosynthesis, and electron transfer.
Manganese Involved in the O2-evolving system of photosynthesis and is a
component of the enzymes arginase and phosphotransferase.
Zinc Essential component of several dehydrogenases, proteinases,
and peptidases, including carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehy-
drogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, and malic dehydroge-
nase, among others.
Molybdenum An essential component of nitrate reductase and N2 fixation
enzymes and required for normal assimilation of N.
Chlorine Essential for photosynthesis and as an activator of enzymes,
involved in splitting water, and functions in osmoregulation
of plants growing on saline soils.
Nickel Component of urease enzyme. Participates in redox reactions.
Improves hydrogenase activity, urea hydrolysis. Stimulates
germination and growth.
Marschner (1995), Fageria et al. (2002), Fageria and Baligar (2005b).
Deficiencies of Zn, B, Cu, Fe, and Mn have been reported in annual

crops such as rice, corn, wheat, soybean, and dry bean in South American
soils (Fageria and Baligar, 1997, 1999; Fageria et al., 2006; Fageria and Stone,
2008; Fageria et al., 2011; Fageria, 2013). Deficiencies of these micronu-
trients are generally observed early in the growth cycle of annual crops
(35–50 days after sowing (Fageria et al., 2002; Fageria and Stone, 2008).This
may be associated with the rapid growth of crop plants during early growth
stages and an insufficient supply of micronutrients from the soil to keep
pace with crop growth (Fageria and Stone, 2008).The availability of micro-
nutrients is mainly associated with the total contents of these elements in
the soil and available forms in soil solution and soil pH.
Table 6.3 Micronutrient deficiency symptoms in field crops

Micronutrient Deficiency symptoms
Zinc Rusting in strips of older leaves with chlorosis in fully
matured leaves; leaf size is reduced.
Iron Interveinal chlorosis of younger leaves; under severe defi-
ciency whole leaf becomes first yellow and finally white.
Manganese Similar to iron deficiency, at advanced stage, necrosis devel-
ops instead of white color.
Copper Chlorosis of young leaves, rolling, and dieback.
Molybdenum Mottled pale appearance in young leaves, bleaching and
withering of leaves.
Boron Pale green tips of blades, bronze tints; death of growing
points.
Chlorine Essential for photosynthesis and as an activator of enzymes
involved in splitting water. It also functions in osmoregula-
tion of plants growing on saline soils.
Nickel Chlorosis of newest leaves. Ultimately leads to the necrosis of
meristems. Reduced germination and seedling vigor (low
seed viability).
Fageria et al. (2002), Fageria and Baligar (2005b).
The micronutrient deficiency symptoms in field crops are presented in

Table 6.3 and the effect of pH on the availability of micronutrients is given
in Table 6.4. In this section, we will summarize functions and deficiency
symptoms, critical level in the soils and plants, and correcting deficiency
symptoms related to these nutrients are discussed in this section. A more
detailed discussion of micronutrient chemistry, crop requirements, and
management strategies is available in reviews by Hodgson (1963), Hodgson
et al. (1966), Romheld and Marschner (1991), Mortvedt (1994), and Fageria
et al. (2002).
4.7.5.1 Functions and Deficiency Symptoms

Micronutrients are equally important as macronutrients for the growth
of crop plants. However, they are required in small amounts compared to
macronutrients. The major functions of micronutrients are as stimulants of
enzymes in plants for various biochemical processes. The major functions of
micronutrients are listed in Table 6.2. When the supply of particular nutri-
ents is at an inadequate level in the soil or when plant roots are not able to
absorb required amounts, due to unfavorable conditions in the rhizosphere,
plants show certain growth disorders. These disorders may be expressed as
reduced height, reduced tillering in cereals, leaf discoloration, reduced root
Table 6.4 Influence of soil pH on micronutrient concentrations in soil and plant uptake
Micronutrient Influence on concentration/uptake
Boron Increasing soil pH favors adsorption of boron, and this element
generally becomes less available to plants. There is often a dra-
matic drop in boron availability and uptake at pH levels >6.0.
Copper Solubility of Cu2+ is very pH dependent and decreases 100-fold
for each unit increase and plant uptake also decreases.
Iron Fe3+ and Fe2+ activities in soil solution decrease 1000-fold and
100-fold, respectively, for each unit increase in pH. In most
oxidized soils, uptake of iron by crop plants is decreased with
increasing soil pH.
Manganese The principal ionic species in soil solution is Mn2+, and con-
centration decreases 100-fold for each unit increase in pH. In
extremely acid soils, Mn2+ solubility can be sufficiently great
to cause toxicity problems in sensitive crop species.
Molybdenum Above pH 4.2, the MoO42− species is dominant. Concentration
of this species increases with increasing soil pH, and hence,
uptake to plants also increases. Water-soluble Mo increases
6-fold as pH increases from 4.7 to 7.5. Replacement of
adsorbed Mo by OH− ions is responsible for the increase in
water-soluble Mo as pH increases.
Zinc Zinc solubility is highly pH dependent and decreases 100-
fold for each unit increase in pH and uptake by plants also
decreases as a consequence.
Chlorine The Cl− anion is bound very slightly by most soils in the mildly
acid to neutral pH range and becomes negligible at pH 7.0.
Appreciable amounts can be adsorbed; however, with increas-
ing acidity, particularly by Oxisols and Ultisols, which are
dominated by kaolinitic clay. In general, increasing soil pH
increases Cl uptake by plants.
Fageria et al. (2002).
growth, and reduced growth of newly emerging parts of the plant.Table 6.3
summarizes the symptoms of micronutrient deficiency in crop plants.Visual
symptoms are the cheapest nutritional disorder diagnostic technique com-
pared to the other three methods. However, it needs a lot of experience on
the part of the observer, because deficiency symptoms are confused with
drought, insects and disease infestation, herbicide damage, soil salinity, and
inadequate drainage problems. Sometimes, a plant may be on the borderline
with respect to deficiency and adequacy of a given nutrient. In this situation,
there are no visual symptoms, but the plant does not produce at its capacity.
This condition is frequently called hidden hunger (Fageria and Baligar, 2005b).
Deficiency symptoms normally occur over an area and not on an indi-

vidual plant. If a symptom is found on a single plant, it may be due to
disease or insect injury or a genetic variation. Also, the earlier symptoms
are often more useful than late mature symptoms. Some nutrients are
relatively immobile in the plant, while others are more mobile. In gen-
eral, deficiency symptoms caused by immobile nutrients first appear on
younger or upper leaves. The older leaves do not show any symptoms
because immobile nutrients do not move or translocate from older to
newer leaves. Immobile nutrients are calcium, zinc, boron, copper, iron,
manganese, and molybdenum (Fageria and Baligar, 2005b). In contrast,
when there is a deficiency of a mobile nutrient, the symptoms first appear
on the older leaves of the plant. This is because the mobile nutrients move
out of the older leaves to the younger part of the plant. The mobile nutri-
ents are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. Sulfur may
behave as a mobile or immobile nutrient. However, in rice plants, sulfur
deficiency first appears in younger leaves (Fageria and Baligar, 2005b).
Deficiency symptoms of principlal micronutrients in rice are shown in
Figure 6.7.
In conclusion, the use of visible symptoms has the advantage of direct
field application without the need for costly equipment or laboratory sup-
port services, as is the case with soil and plant analysis. A disadvantage is that
sometimes it is too late to correct deficiency of a given nutrient because the
disorder is identified when it is too severe to produce visible symptoms. For
some disorders, considerable yield loss may have already occurred by the
time visible symptoms appear. Further, several publications are available in
Figure 6.7 Micronutrient deficiency symptoms in rice leaves. Fageria (1984), Fageria and
Barbosa Filho (1994).
which nutritional disorders have been described and illustrated with color
photographs for important field crops. Readers may refer to these publica-
tions to get acquainted with nutrient deficiencies/toxicities symptoms in
important field crops (Fageria and Barbosa Filho, 1994; Fageria et al., 2011;
Fageria, 2014).
4.7.5.2 Influence of pH on Micronutrient Availability

Soil pH influences solubility, concentration in soil solution, ionic form, and
mobility of micronutrients in soil, and consequently acquisition of these
elements by plants (Fageria et al., 2011; Fageria, 2014). As a rule, the avail-
ability of B, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn usually increases and Mo decreases as soil
pH decreases. These nutrients are usually adsorbed onto sesquioxide soil
surfaces. Table 6.4 summarizes important changes in micronutrient con-
centrations as influenced by soil pH and consequent acquisition by plants.
Similarly, data in Table 6.5 show that the uptake of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn by
upland rice grown on a Brazilian Oxisol decreased with increasing soil pH.
Boron is the only micronutrient to exist in solution as a nonionized
molecule over soil pH ranges suitable for growth of most plants. Increasing
soil pH decreases B availability by increasing B adsorption onto clay and Al
and Fe hydroxyl surfaces, especially at a high soil pH (Keren and Bingham,
1985). The highest availability of B was at pH 5.5–7.5, and decreased
below or above this pH range. In other studies, B adsorption increased
from pH 3 to 8 on kaolinite, montmorillonite, and two zone soils with
peak adsorption at pH 8–10, and decreases from pH 10 to 12 (Goldberg
et al., 1996). Reduced B availability occurs from liming (called “B fixation,”
Fleming, 1980) as Ca carbonate acts as an adsorption surface. As such, B
deficiency may occur in plants grown in limed acid soils. Considerable soil
Table 6.5 Influence of soil pH on the uptake of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn by upland rice
grown on an Oxisol of Brazil
Soil pH Cu (μg plant−1) Fe (μg plant−1) Mn (μg plant−1) Zn (μg plant−1)
4.6 75 4540 11,160 1090
5.7 105 1860 5010 300
6.2 78 1980 4310 242
6.4 64 1630 3610 262
6.6 61 1660 2760 163
6.8 51 1570 2360 142
R2 0.89* 0.97* 0.99* 0.98*
*Significant at the 1% probability level.
Adapted from Fageria (2000a).
Cu is specifically adsorbed as the pH increases. For example, increasing the

pH from 4 to 7 increased Cu adsorption (Cavallaro and McBride, 1984),
and Cu was adsorbed on inorganic soil components and occluded by soil
hydroxide and oxides (Martens and Westermann, 1991). Increases in soil
pH >6.0 induces the hydrolysis of hydrated Cu, which can lead to stronger
Cu adsorption to clay minerals and Organic Matter (OM). Readily soluble
sources of Cu (exchangeable or sorbed) was highly toxic to citrus and Cu
concentrations decreased considerably with soil pH increases >6.5 (Fageria,
2014). Overliming acid soils may also lead to Cu deficiency. Soil OM is a
primary constituent for Cu adsorption and readily complexes Cu. As pH
increases, sizes of organic colloids of high molecular weight diminish to
increase surfaces where Cu can be adsorbed (Geering and Hodgson, 1969).
Solubility of Fe decreases by approximately 1000-fold for each unit
increase of soil pH in the range of 4–9 compared to approximately 100-fold
decreases in activity of Mn, Cu, and Zn (Lindsay, 1979). Iron exists in Fe0
(metallic), Fe2+ (ferrous), and Fe3+ (ferric) states. Under acidic conditions,
Fe0 readily oxidizes to Fe2+, and as pH increases to >5, Fe2+ oxidizes to Fe3+.
Iron is reduced to Fe2+ and is readily available to plants in acidic soils, but
precipitates in alkaline soils (Fageria et al., 2002). Iron oxides are dominant in
governing Fe solubility in soils. Minimum Fe solubility occurs between pH
7.5 and 8.5, which is the pH range of most calcareous soils (Lindsay, 1991).
Increases in soil pH or Eh (oxidizing conditions) shift Fe from exchange-
able and organic forms to water-soluble and Fe oxide forms. Solubility of
Fe in well-aerated soils is controlled by dissolution and precipitation of Fe3+
(Moraghan and Mascagni, 1991). Decreasing rhizosphere pH with added N
(NH4-N) and/or K (KCl and K2SO4) was effective for increasing Fe uptake
by plants (Barak and Chen, 1984). Applying FeSO4 with acid-forming fertil-
izers also increased Fe availability to plants (Moraghan and Mascagni, 1991).
Soil pH affects solubility, adsorption, desorption, and oxidation of Mn, and
reduction of Mn oxides in soil. As pH decreases, Mn is mobilized from vari-
ous fractions and increases Mn soil solution concentrations and availability.
Exchangeable Mn (plant available form) was high at low soil pH (<5.2),
while organic and Fe oxide fractions of Mn (low availability form) were
high at high pH (Fageria et al., 2002). In sandy soil, increasing the pH also
increased organic fractions of Mn (Shuman, 1991). Increasing soil pH with
Mg applications on peanut decreased Mn toxicity and leaf and stem Mn
concentrations (Davis, 1996). Reduction of Mn4+ to Mn2+ is the greatest at
low soil pH, and acid soil conditions (<5) leads to Mn toxicities for many
sensitive plant species (Mortvedt, 2000). In addition, high molecular weight
organic colloids diminish as soil pH increases to increase surfaces where Mn

as well as Cu and Fe can be adsorbed (Geering and Hodgson, 1969). Soil
solution Mn increased 1.6-fold for each unit decrease in pH in a well-drained
Mollisol acidified with high N fertilizer, indicating that soil acidity and aera-
tion are important for Mn availability (Fageria and Gheyi, 1999). Manganese
as well as Cu and Fe are also generally more available under conditions of
restricted drainage or in flooded soils (Fageria et al., 2011). Molybdenum is
the only micronutrient whose availability normally increases with increases
in soil pH. The active form of Mo is normally MoO42−, which tends to
polymerize when in solution. This condition is enhanced by acidification,
which could partially explain the low availability of Mo in acid soils (Kabata-
Pendias and Pendias, 1984). Solubility of CaMoO4 and H2MoO4 (molyb-
dic acid) increases with increases in soil pH. Molybdenum sorption on Fe
oxides increases with decreases in soil pH in the range of 4.5–7.8 (Hodgson,
1963). Adsorption of Mo on Al and Fe oxides was maximum at pH < 5, and
decreased as pH increased >5 with little or no adsorption at pH 8 (Goldberg
et al., 1996). Soil pH had pronounced effects on Mo adsorption between 3
and 10.5 with virtually no adsorption at pH 8 (Goldberg and Forster, 1998).
Adsorption of Mo on hydrous Fe and Al oxides decreases as soil pH increases,
and addition of lime to soil normally increases Mo solubility and acquisition
by plants (Williams and Thornton, 1972). In addition, maximum Mo adsorp-
tion on Al and Fe oxides was at pH 4–5, but adsorption was maximum at pH
3.5 with humic acid and decreased as soil pH increased (Bibak and Borg-
gaard, 1994). Different mechanisms were apparent for Mo adsorption with
humic acid compared to Al/Fe oxides, which involved complex formation
between carboxyl and phenolic groups. Harmful effects occasionally arise for
legumes grown in acid soils, as Mo deficiency may be more dominant than
Al toxicity (Bohn et al., 1979). In some cases, both lime and Mo applications
may be needed to provide adequate Mo to plants (Lindsay, 1991).
Soil pH is more important than any other single property for controlling
Zn mobility in soils (Anderson and Christensen, 1988). Increasing soil pH
generally decreases Zn availability to plants (Saeed and Fox, 1977), and such
decreases are usually due to a higher adsorption of Zn. As soil pH increases
above pH 5.5, Zn is adsorbed on hydrous oxides of Al, Fe, and Mn (Moraghan
and Mascagni, 1991). However, the extent to which Zn is retained on Fe and
Al hydrous oxides is influenced by nature of clay minerals, surface conditions,
and pH (Harter, 1991). In some cases, soil pH >7 may increase soil solution Zn
due to solubilization of OM and increased complexation of Zn (Barber, 1995).
Gradual decreases in Zn activity as soil pH increases have been attributed to
increased CEC (Stahl and James, 1991). A 30-fold decreases in Zn concentra-

tion in acid soil have been reported for each unit increase in soil pH between
5 and 7 (McBride and Blasiak, 1979). Zinc was preferentially adsorbed
over Ca on exchange sites indicating that chemisorption of hydrolyzed Zn
occurred. Zinc adsorption is a major factor contributing to low concen-
trations of solution Zn in Zn-deficient soils. Soil pH affected Zn adsorp-
tion either by changing the number of sites available for adsorption or by
changing concentration of Zn species that is preferentially absorbed by plants
(Barrow, 1986). Overliming of soil may induce Zn deficiency and decrease Zn
availability, especially at a high soil pH. Zinc absorption by wheat decreased
as H+ concentrations increased, presumably because of direct effects of H+
toxicity and indirect effects of competition between Zn2+ and H+ for uptake
sites on root surfaces (Chairidchai and Ritchie, 1993). The effect of pH may
also be modified by organic ligands, and these ligands may decrease Zn uptake
by plants as soil pH increases. Zinc deficiency may be expected in slightly
acidic and particularly in alkaline soils where inorganic Zn in equilibrium
with soil Zn decreases between 10−8 and 10−10 M (Lindsay, 1991).
4.7.5.3 Critical Levels in the Soil and Plants

Soil and plant tissue testing is an important micronutrient deficiency/toxic-
ity diagnostic technique. In South American countries, soil testing is more
commonly used to identify micronutrient disorder in crop plants than plant
analysis. The reasons for this are that soil tests are cheaper and farmers need
for fertilizer recommendations. Soil testing is the term applied to chemical
or physical measurement that is made on a soil (Fageria and Stone, 2008).
The main objective of soil chemical testing is to measure the soil nutrient
status and lime requirements to make fertilizer and lime application rec-
ommendations for profitable farming. The use of soil analysis as a fertilizer
recommendation method is based on the existence of a functional relation-
ship between the amount of nutrient extracted from the soil by chemical
methods and crop yield. When a soil analysis test shows a low level of a
particular nutrient in a given soil, application of that nutrient would be
expected to increase crop yield. In Brazil, most of the soil testing labora-
tory uses Mehlich 1 extracting solution for micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Fe, and
Mn) analysis. This is because this extracting solution is used to determine
P and K in the soils and micronutrients are determined from the same
soil solution. However, the DTPA (diethylene triamine pentacetic acid) test
developed by Lindsay and Norvell (1978), which involves 1:2 soil/solution
extraction with 0.005 DTPA, 0.01 M CaCl2 and 0.1 M triethanolamine,
adjusted to pH 7.3 also used for the determination of Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn
(Fageria and Stone, 2008). Adequate and toxic soil levels of Zn, B, Cu, and
Mn for upland rice, dry bean, corn, soybean, and wheat grown on Brazil-
ian Oxisols are shown in Table 6.6 and in the Fageria et al. (2001b). This
Table 6.6 Adequate and toxic micronutrient levels in soil and plant tissue of major
field crops grown on a Brazilian Oxisol
DTPA extractable soil level Plant tissue level
(mg kg−1)§ (mg kg−1)
Micronutrient Adequate* Toxic* Adequate* Toxic*

Upland rice
Zinc¶ 4.0 35.0 67 673
Boron¶ 0.4 2.3 10 20
Copper¶ 1.0 28.0 15 26
Manganese¶ 4.0 80.0 520 4560
Dry bean
Zinc 0.3 25.0 18 133
Boron 0.9 2.8 24 135
Copper 0.5 18.0 6 10
Manganese 6.0 88.0 400 1640
Corn
Zinc 1.0 60.0 27 427
Boron 1.3 5.7 20 68
Copper 1.5 32.0 7 11
Manganese 4.0 336.0 60 2480
Soybean
Zinc 0.3 33.0 20 187
Boron 2.6 5.2 75 155
Copper 0.5 6.0 7 10
Manganese 4.0 56.0 67 720
Wheat
Zinc 0.3 34.0 19 100
Boron 0.4 4.3 13 144
Copper 8.5 28.0 14 17
Manganese 3.0 40.0 173 720
*Adequate level in soil and plant tissue was determined on the basis of 90% of relative yield of dry
matter, and the toxic level was determined on the basis of a 10% reduction in relative yield.
§Boron was extracted by hot water.
¶Plants were harvested at 6, 4, and 4 weeks after sowing and at physiological maturity, respectively.
Fageria (2000b,c).
happened due to an increase in dry matter, and it is known as dilution effect

in mineral nutrition. Adequate concentrations of Fe in plant tissue reported
for some important crops are presented in Table 6.7.
Plant analysis is based on the concept that the concentration of an essen-
tial element in a plant or part of the plant indicates the soil’s ability to sup-
ply that nutrient. For annual crops, the primary objective of plant analysis
is to identify nutritional problems or to determine or monitor the nutrient
status during the growing season. If a deficiency of element(s) is identified
early in the growth stage of a crop, it is possible to correct such a deficiency
during the current season. Otherwise, steps should be taken to correct such
a deficiency on or before the next cropping season. Nutrient concentra-
tions in plant tissues generally decreased with the advancement of plant age
(Table 6.8).
Table 6.7 Iron sufficiency level for different crops

Sufficiency range
Crop Plant part analyzed Growth stage (mg Fe kg−1)
Rice Whole top Tillering 70–300
Wheat Whole tops Heading 50–150
Barley Whole tops Heading 50–150
Corn Ear leaf At silk 50–200
Sorghum Third leaf below head At bloom 65–100
Common bean Full developed trifoliate Flowering 100–450
Peanut Upper stem and leaves Flowering 50–300
Soybean Full developed trifoliate Prior to pod set 51–350
Sugarcane Blade Not given 60–140
Cotton Mature leaves Early bloom 30–300
Sugarbeet Blade Not given 60–140
Compiled from various sources by Fageria et al. (2002).
Table 6.8 Concentration of Fe in the shoot of lowland rice at different growth stages.
Values in parentheses represent plant age in days after sowing
Plant growth stage Fe concentration (mg kg−1)
Initiation of tillering (22) 418
Active tillering (35) 373
Panicle initiation (71) 175
Booting (97) 155
Flowering (112) 179
Physiological maturity (140) 261
Compiled from Fageria et al. (2003).
4.7.5.4 Uptake in the Straw and Grain

Although micronutrients are required in small amounts, each micronu-
trient has certain specific roles to play in the plant. Their availability in
adequate amounts is important for good plant growth and for completing
its life cycle. The nutrient requirements of a crop depend on its productiv-
ity. Micronutrient requirements for annual crops are small compared with
those of macronutrients (Table 6.9). However, their role in crop produc-
tion is as important as those of macronutrients. Overall, Fe and Mn were
having minimum utilization efficiency (grain yield per unit of nutrient
accumulation in straw and grain), whereas Cu and B were having maxi-
mum utilization efficiency for annual crop production (Table 6.9). Zinc
ranks intermediate among micronutrients in grain production efficiency
for annual crops.
Table 6.9 Uptake of macronutrients and micronutrients by upland rice, common

bean, corn, and soybean grown on Brazilian Oxisols
Required to
produce 1 t
Nutrient Straw Grain Total of grain
Upland rice
Nitrogen (kg ha−1) 56 70 126 28
Phosphorus (kg ha−1) 3 9 12 3
Potassium (kg ha−1) 150 56 206 45
Calcium (kg ha−1) 23 4 27 6
Magnesium (kg ha−1) 14 5 19 4
Zinc (g ha−1) 161 138 299 65
Copper (g ha−1) 35 57 92 20
Iron (g ha−1) 654 117 771 169
Manganese (g ha−1) 1319 284 1603 351
Boron (g ha−1) 53 30 83 18
Common bean
Nitrogen (kg ha−1) 19 68 87 45
Potassium (kg ha−1) 25 36 61 32
Calcium (kg ha−1) 16 6 22 11
Zinc (g ha−1) 29 74 103 54
Copper (g ha−1) 8 22 30 16
Iron (g ha−1) 268 144 412 215
Manganese (g ha−1) 73 27 100 52
Boron (g ha−1) 20 14 34 18
(Continued)
Table 6.9 Uptake of macronutrients and micronutrients by upland rice, common

bean, corn, and soybean grown on Brazilian Oxisols—Cont’d
Required to
produce 1 t
Nutrient Straw Grain Total of grain
Corn
Nitrogen (kg ha−1) 72 127 199 24
Potassium (kg ha−1) 153 34 187 23
Calcium (kg ha−1) 33 8 41 5
Zinc (g ha−1) 184 192 376 46
Copper (g ha−1) 53 14 67 8
Iron (g ha−1) 2048 206 2254 274
Manganese (g ha−1) 452 82 534 65
Boron (g ha−1) 103 43 146 18
Soybean
Nitrogen (kg ha−1) 33 91 124 86
Potassium (kg ha−1) 30 28 58 40
Calcium (kg ha−1) 33 6 39 27
Zinc (g ha−1) 43 78 121 84
Copper (g ha−1) 53 31 84 58
Iron (g ha−1) 778 190 968 671
Manganese (g ha−1) 193 32 225 156
Boron (g ha−1) 22 21 43 30
Adapted from Fageria (2001a).
4.7.5.5 Correcting Deficiency

Measures for correcting and improving micronutrient use are summarized
in Table 6.10. This information includes concentrations of nutrients for soil
and foliar spray applications to maintain adequate supplies to plants. Con-
centrations listed are approximate and may vary depending on original soil
level, crop species/cultivar, crop yield desired, and climatic conditions. Fer-
tilizers may react with soil to decrease nutrient availability, and chemical
reactions may differ with each micronutrient and soil (Mortvedt, 1994).
Crop recovery of micronutrients is relatively low (5–10%) compared to that
of macronutrients (10–50%). The reasons for the low recovery of micronu-
trients are poor distribution from low rates applied, fertilizer reactions with
soil to form unavailable products, and low mobility in soil (Mortvedt, 1994).
Table 6.10 Methods of correcting micronutrient deficiency

Micronutrient Corrective measures
Soil application* (kg ha−1) Foliar application§
Zinc 1–10 Foliar spray of 0.1–0.5% solu-
tion of zinc sulfate
Iron 30–100 Foliar spray of 2% iron sulfate
or 0.02–0.05% solution of
iron chelate
Copper 1–5 Foliar spray of 0.1–0.2% solu-
tion of copper sulfate.
Boron 1–3 Foliar application of 0.1–0.25%
solution of borax.
Manganese 5–30 Foliar application of 0.1 solu-
tion of manganese sulfate
Molybdenum 0.20–0.50 Foliar spray 0.0.7–0.1% solution
of ammonium molybdate.
*Lower values in the soil application column are applicable for band application and higher values for
broadcast application.
§Four hundred liters of solution is sufficient to spray on 1 ha of field crop.
Fageria (1984, 1989), Fageria and Barbosa Filho (1994).
Boron is usually applied at 0.25–3 kg ha−1, and higher rates are required

for broadcast than for band application or foliar sprays (Mortvedt and
Woodruff, 1993). Borax or other soluble borates are usually applied to soil
before planting. Boron availability commonly decreases during drought and
when acid soils are limed (Martens and Westermann, 1991). Boron fertilizer
should not be placed in contact with seeds or at levels that may be toxic to
crops. Foliar B applications to annual crops are superior to broadcast appli-
cations. Legumes and certain root crops require 2–4 kg B ha−1, while lower
rates are usually necessary for maximum yields of other crops (Martens and
Westermann, 1991). Higher rates are required for broadcast than for banded
soil applications or foliar sprays.
Copper deficiency can be corrected by applying Cu to soil by broad-
cast on soil or as foliar sprays. Foliar sprays are emergency measures, as Cu
deficiency is most frequently corrected by soil applications (Murphy and
Walsh, 1972) and is more effective than foliar sprays (Fageria et al., 2002). In
semiarid regions, drying of topsoil reduces Cu availability and foliar sprays
commonly improve yields. CuSO4 is more effective for soil applications
than is CuO, and Cu might need frequent application when problems per-
sist (Karamanos et al., 1986). Copper deficiencies can generally be cor-
rected by applying 3.3–14.5 kg Cu ha−1 as broadcast CuSO4 (Martens and
Westermann, 1991). Differences in broadcast rates of Cu required to correct

Cu deficiency vary with soil properties, crop requirement, and concentrations
of extractable soil Cu. Lower rates of Cu application are required to correct
Cu deficiency with banded compared to broadcast CuSO4. Rates of banded
CuSO4 required to correct Cu deficiency have been as low as 1.1 kg ha−1
for vegetables and as high as 6.6 kg Cu ha−1 for alfalfa, oat, and wheat
(Martens and Westermann, 1991).
Iron deficiency is corrected mainly by foliar sprays because soil applica-
tions are generally ineffective unless very high rates are applied. Rates of
200 kg ha−1 of FeSO4 have been required to obtain maximum yields of
annual crops (Mortvedt, 1991). Inorganic Fe sources applied to soils are
rapidly converted to unavailable forms, and Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+ in well-
aerated soils, especially as soil pH increases. More than one foliar spray, and
often three to four, is needed during vegetative growth periods to obtain
optimum production of some crops, especially sorghum and rice. In Oxisols
of central Brazil, Fe deficiency on upland rice is frequently reported where
soil has been limed to pH of approximately 6 for production of common
bean and soybean in rotations (Fageria et al., 1994). Synthetic Fe chelates
are generally the most effective Fe sources for soil and foliar applications,
but their cost may be prohibitive. Fe sulfate is a common form applied to
annual crops, but Fe chelates may be cost effective if crops are of a high
value (fruits and berries). Fritted materials are mainly used in acid soils to
maintain Fe for plants (Martens and Westermann, 1991).
MnSO4 is a common source of Mn applied to soils, and band applications
are more effective than broadcast. Application of Mn with acid-forming
macronutrient fertilizers generally increases the effectiveness of Mn. Man-
ganese deficiencies on plants grown in acid soils may be avoided by not
overliming. Foliar applications of MnSO4 are effective for small grain cere-
als grown in calcareous and alkaline soils, which tend to dry during the
growing season (Fageria et al., 2002). Multiple applications of foliar MnSO4
are usually superior to single applications on soybean (Cox, 1968). Manga-
nese deficiency often appears on rice grown in drained Histosols at a pH
of approximately 7 (Snyder et al., 1990). Results of field studies indicated
that application of approximately 15 kg MnSO4 with seed prevented Mn
deficiency and provided near maximum grain yields. Manganese deficiency
commonly appears on soybeans grown in slightly acid to alkaline soils in
the Atlantic Coastal Plains of the United States, and may be corrected by
soil and/or foliar applications of Mn (Mascagni and Cox, 1985). Optimum
soybean yields were obtained with MnSO4 broadcast (14 kg ha−1) and
band (3 kg ha−1) applied, and Mn deficiency was corrected by broadcast-

ing MnSO4 (11 kg ha−1) or banding at half that rate or by timely foliar
applications (1–2 kg ha−1) (Hatfield and Hickey, 1981). In other studies,
10–40 kg MnSO4 ha−1 was required to achieve maximum soybean yields
(Anderson and Mortvedt, 1982). Soybean plants receiving 1.12 kg MnSO4
during early growth stages (V6) and again during late growth stages (R1)
had higher yields than did plants receiving single early sprays (Gettier et al.,
1985). Manganese deficiency on soybeans grown in a Brazilian Cerrado
Oxisol at pH 6.7 was corrected with applications of 15 mg MnSO4 kg−1 of
soil (Novais et al., 1989). Both MnSO4 and MnO were effective as sources
of Mn at rates of 20 kg Mn kg−1 for correcting Mn deficiency on soy-
beans grown in an Oxisol at pH 6.9 (Abreu et al., 1996). Chelated Mn
(MnEDTA), MnSO4, and mangasol were equally effective for alleviating
Mn deficiency on lupin (Fageria et al., 2002). Banded MnSO4 with seed
was equally effective as sprayed Mn.
Molybdenum deficiency can be corrected by soil and foliar applications
and by seed treatments. Application of 0.01–0.5 kg Mo ha−1 will generally
correct Mo deficiency. Since availability of Mo increases as soil pH increases,
liming acid soils will frequently prevent or correct Mo deficiencies (Mar-
tens and Westermann, 1991). Sodium and/or ammonium molybdates are
also suitable for soil applications. Foliar applications of Mo have usually
been more effective than soil applications for crops grown under dry con-
ditions (Martens and Westermann, 1991). Foliar applications of 40 g ha−1
Mo increased bean growth and shoot N concentrations (Vieira et al., 1998).
High rates of seed treated Mo could be toxic to Rhizobia or might cause
seedling injury (Sedberry et al., 1973). Even though excess Mo applications
could lead to Cu deficiencies in animals (“molybdenosis”), this hazard is
low since most Mo becomes relatively insoluble in well-drained soils (Mar-
tens and Westermann, 1991).
Zinc deficiency is a worldwide nutritional constraint for crop produc-
tion. About 50% of soils used for cereal production in the world contain low
levels of plant available Zn, which reduces not only the grain yield but also
the nutritional quality of grains (Graham and Welch, 1996). Zinc deficiency
can be corrected either by foliar or soil applications of ZnSO4 or ZnEDTA
(Martens and Westermann, 1991). Foliar Zn is usually applied in emergen-
cies to salvage crops when Zn deficiencies appear, and one foliar application
is usually not adequate for correcting moderate to severe Zn deficiency.
Applications of Zn either by broadcast or band usually are more effective
than foliar applications (Murphy and Walsh, 1972). Zinc requirement was
the highest (7.5 mg kg−1 soil) for cowpea and the lowest (0.5 mg kg−1 soil)
for wheat when various plants were grown in Hawaiian Zn-deficient soils
(Rashid and Fox, 1992). Maximum grain yields were obtained with foliar
applications of approximately 1 mg Zn kg−1 during the third and fourth
weeks after plant emergence for maize grown in an Oxisol in central Brazil
(Galrão, 1994, 1996), and with 6 mg Zn kg−1 of soil for upland rice grown
in a greenhouse (Fageria et al., 2002). Irrigated lands usually receive appli-
cations of farmyard manure when subsoils have been exposed after land
leveling. This practice provides needed Zn and other micronutrients and
improves soil structure (Martens and Westermann, 1991).
4.8 Use of Organic Manures

Organic materials that can be used to ameliorate soil acidity are organic
manures, undecomposed plant residues, and peats. Addition of undecom-
posed plant materials such as prunings to acid soils often result in increased
soil pH, decreased Al saturation, and improved conditions for plant growth
(Asghar and Kanehiro, 1980; Ahmad and Tan, 1986; Bessho and Bell, 1992).
Similarly, addition of plant residues composts, urban waste compost, ani-
mal manures, and coal derived organic products to acid soils have been
shown to increase soil pH, decrease Al saturation, and improve conditions
for plant growth (Wong and Swift, 2003). The acid-ameliorating proper-
ties of farmyard manure and of undecomposed plant materials have been
used to improve the yield of corn and beans on an acid Oxisol (Wong
et al., 1995).
The mechanisms involved in reducing soil acidity by the use of organic
manures or crop residues include specific adsorption of organic anions on
hydrous Fe and Al surfaces and the corresponding release of hydroxyl ions
(Hue, 1992), proton consumption during reduction of metallic ions due
to oxygen consumption during decomposition of composts and manures,
and ammonification of labile organic N in composts and manures (Wong
and Swift, 2003). The proposed liming effect of organic matter adsorp-
tion on hydrous Fe and Al surfaces is similar to that of sulfate adsorption
(Wong and Swift, 2003). Adsorption of Al by organic matter sites and the
subsequent dissociation of the inorganic phase to maintain the equilibrium
Al activity in soil solution have also been postulated to increase pH (Wong
et al., 1998). Wong and Swift (2003) reported that an additional benefit of
organic matter use is the recycling of plant nutrients and increased nutrient
availability due to improved physical, chemical and biological properties of
the soil.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Soil acidity is one of the most important constraints in crop produc-
tion in temperate as well as tropical regions of the world. At the world
level, about four billion ha is affected by soil acidity. Acid tropical soils,
which have generally been considered marginal for food crop production,
represent the largest block of potentially arable land in the world. The acid
tropical soils, which belong to the orders Oxisols and Ultisols of the US
Taxonomy, comprise about 1675 million ha or 38% of the total land area
between the tropics of cancer and capricorn. In tropical America, there are
over one billion ha of acid, infertile soils. This vast area is dominated by
Oxisols and Ultisols in the savanna regions of the Lianos of Colombia and
Venezuela, the Cerrados of Brazil, and much of the Amazonian area.
Soil acidity is a complex of factors including deficiencies of N, P, K, Ca,
Mg, and Mo and toxicities of H+, Al, and Mn. In addition, acidity reduces
biological nitrogen fixation, and acid soils are susceptible to erosion and
compactation. In Oxisols and Ultisols of Brazil, Zn deficiency is very com-
mon. Soil acidity may result from parent materials that were acid and natu-
rally low in the basic cations or because these elements have been leached
from the soil profile by leaching.The incomplete cycling of N in soils under
agricultural management has been identified as a major cause of increas-
ing soil acidity. In particular, symbiotically fixed N, ammonium fertilizers,
and losses of organic products through removal and nitrate by leaching are
involved in the accelerated acidification of agricultural soils.
Chemical constraints are the principal yield-limiting factors on acid
soils, and if these are eliminated or reduced to a substantial level, these soils
can be quite productive. The use of amendments such as lime, gypsum,
organic manures, and adequate fertilization are the common management
practices to improve crop productivity on these marginal lands. The use of
acid-tolerant crop species or cultivars within species is an attractive tech-
nology for improving crop production on these soils. Some acid tolerant
crop species that can produce reasonably well with a minimum input on
such soils are cassava, rice, peanuts, cowpea, and potato. The best solution to
improve crop productivity on acid soils is the combination of both liming
and planting acid tolerant plant species and cultivars within a species. Some
acid soils that are very low in native fertility and having a sandy or gravel
texture should be used for permanent pasture rather than for row crop
production.
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CHAPTER SIX

Management of Soil Acidity

Advances in Agronomy, Volume 128

an effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC—sum of exchangeable Al3+,

is a complex of various factors. These factors include deficiency of several

2. SOIL TYPES IN SOUTH AMERICA

3. CAUSES OF SOIL ACIDIFICATION

3.1 Leaching of Bases

Fageria and Stone (1999).

“Varzeas” soils of Brazil. Soils of both the ecosystems (Cerrado-upland and

3.2 Acid Deposition from the Atmosphere

3.3 Use of Ammoniacal Fertilizers

from calcium nitrate.Volatilization of ammonia from surface applied nitro-

NH4+ → NH3 + H+ (pK 9.5)

3.4 Proton Generation in the Soils

3.5 Plant-Induced Processes

3.6 Nitrogen Fixation

Many legumes, however, commonly export H+ ions into their rhizo-

3.7 Mineralization of Organic Matter

3.8 Reduction and Oxidation of Sulfate

4. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

4.2 Indices Used to Correct Soil Acidity by Liming

4.3 Calculating Lime Requirements by Empirical Equations

LR (CaCO3 equiv. Mg ha−1) = 1.8[Al-RAS (Al + Ca + Mg)/100]

Lime rate (Mg ha−1) = (2 × Al) + [2−(Ca + Mg)],

Lime rate (Mg ha−1) = (Y × Al) + [X−(Ca + Mg)],

4.4 Factors Affecting Lime Requirements

4.5 Use of Gypsum

equations to apply gypsum in the Cerrado soils of Brazil (mostly Oxisols

Rate of gypsum (Mg ha−1) = (0.4X ECEC−Ca)X 2.5 or

Rate of gypsum (Mg ha−1) = (Al−0.2X ECEC)X 2.5

4.6 Use of Tolerant Species and/or Cultivars

A substantial number of plant species of economic importance are gen-

4.7 Improving Soil Fertility

Figure 6.5 Growth of crotalaria (Crotalaria breviflora) at three pH levels in a Brazilian

Figure 6.6 Growth of pigenonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh) at three pH levels in a

fertilizer in an effort to produce and sustain high crop yields. Consequently,

to enrich surface runoff with P, which can cause eutrophication. Eutro-

extended periods without needing supplemental K to maintain crop pro-

when soil test concentrations were >50 mg K dm−3 (Mehlich 1 extractable

4.7.4 Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur

Table 6.2 Functions of micronutrients in plants

Deficiencies of Zn, B, Cu, Fe, and Mn have been reported in annual

Table 6.3 Micronutrient deficiency symptoms in field crops

The micronutrient deficiency symptoms in field crops are presented in

4.7.5.1 Functions and Deficiency Symptoms

Deficiency symptoms normally occur over an area and not on an indi-

4.7.5.2 Influence of pH on Micronutrient Availability

Cu is specifically adsorbed as the pH increases. For example, increasing the

organic colloids diminish as soil pH increases to increase surfaces where Mn

increased CEC (Stahl and James, 1991). A 30-fold decreases in Zn concentra-

4.7.5.3 Critical Levels in the Soil and Plants

Micronutrient Adequate* Toxic* Adequate* Toxic*

happened due to an increase in dry matter, and it is known as dilution effect

Table 6.7 Iron sufficiency level for different crops

4.7.5.4 Uptake in the Straw and Grain

Table 6.9 Uptake of macronutrients and micronutrients by upland rice, common

Table 6.9 Uptake of macronutrients and micronutrients by upland rice, common

4.7.5.5 Correcting Deficiency

Table 6.10 Methods of correcting micronutrient deficiency

Fageria (1984, 1989), Fageria and Barbosa Filho (1994).

Boron is usually applied at 0.25–3 kg ha−1, and higher rates are required

Westermann, 1991). Differences in broadcast rates of Cu required to correct

band (3 kg ha−1) applied, and Mn deficiency was corrected by broadcast-