Architectural
Institute of Japan
Translated Paper
Exploring the Panel Exercises in the Modulor as
presented by Le Corbusier
Shun Watanabe
Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, Japan
Correspondence
Shun Watanabe, Faculty of Engineering, Information and
Systems, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba-
shi, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan.
Email: shun@sk.tsukuba.ac.jp
Funding Information
Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research.
The Japanese version of this paper was published in
Volume 84 Number 766, pages 2679-2686, https://doi.org/
10.3130/aija.84.2679 of Journal of Architecture Planning
(Transactions of AIJ). The authors have obtained
permission for secondary publication of the English
version in another journal from the Editor of Journal of
Architecture Planning (Transactions of AIJ). This paper is
based on the translation of the Japanese version with
some slight modifications.
Received January 7, 2020; Accepted February 20, 2020
doi: 10.1002/2475-8876.12147
1. Introduction
After many unexpected events, "The Architectural Work of
Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern
Movement" was registered in the list of World Heritage
Sites on July 17, 2016. The National Museum of Western
Art, which is the only work of Le Corbusier in Japan, is also
included in its constitutional elements (Figure 1). The
World Heritage Committee evaluated this museum as one
instance of his contribution to the movement of the Japanese
modern architecture.1 To be more precise, it is well-known
that his three disciples, Kunio Maekawa, Junzo Sakakura,
and Takamasa Yoshizaka, who were the leading architects
of the Japanese postwar period, conducted the execution
design and field management of the above museum based on
the sketches and drawings of Le Corbusier and the Modu-
lor.2,3
As we all know, the Modulor constitutes the foundation of
the design concepts needed to discuss the architectural work of
Le Corbusier. There have been many articles written and much
research conducted related to the Modulor. However, the
majority of previous studies have dealt with the analysis of his
work, criticism of his artistic theories, and comparison with
other scale systems.4-6 They did not reconsider the fundamen-
tals of the Modulor precisely, because Le Corbusier himself
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited.
© 2020 The Authors. Japan Architectural Review published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Architectural Institute of Japan.
Abstract
In this study, the possibility of using the Modulor in the digital era is explored
by employing computational methods to solve "The Panel Exercises" that Le Cor-
busier presented in his well-known book "Modulor" and confirming the explo-
sions of their combinations. First, the mathematical characteristics of the Modulor
are reconfirmed. Thereafter, we present the gradual bisection method to gener-
ate combinations of the first panel exercise and a program of the depth-first
search to enumerate all the possible solutions of the second panel exercise. It is
also demonstrated that the other panel exercises that evolved from the previous
two exercises can be solved with these methods.
Keywords
combinatorial explosions, depth-first search, golden ratio, gradual bisection
perfectly summarized the discussion of its geometric and math-
ematical features.
In principle, the Modulor is based on the golden section and
seeks a system of irrational numbers closed under addition in
mathematics. However, for practical use in the analog era, its
values are rounded off, and the use of other values that do not
follow the golden section is occasionally accepted. In a strict
sense, the values in the Modulor do not constitute a system
closed under addition. Additionally, Le Corbusier presented
some "Panel Exercises" in his well-known book "Modulor" to
illustrate that the Modulor was a system capable of producing
infinite combinations and did not restrict the degree of freedom
in design. However, he only showed some combinations (solu-
tions of the exercises) at random and could not seek its infinite
possibilities in a rigorous manner.
In this study, we have not considered the conceptual, practical,
and artistic aspects of the Modulor. We explored the possibility
of the Modulor in the digital era by using computational methods
to solve "The Panel Exercises" that Le Corbusier presented and
by confirming their "combinatorial explosions."
2. Methods: Reconfirmation of "Modulor"
The Modulor is constituted of two numerical sequences, a red
and blue series, as follows:
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Figure 1. The National Museum of Western Art (from the "UNESCO Nomination file")

Figure 2. Panel Exercise 1 (from "Modulor" Fig. 39)

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Red series: . . ., 165, 267, 432, 698, 1130, 1829, . . . Table 1. Estimated combination numbers of Panel Exercise 1
Blue series: . . ., 330, 534, 863, 1397, 2260, 3658, . . .
Panels Combinations
Le Corbusier decided the basic dimensions based on the
solar plexus height of a six-foot person (Runit = 1130 mm) and 1 1
the height to the tip of the fingers of the raised arm of this 2 10
subject (Bunit = 2 9 Runit = 2260 mm). He then generated 3 188 = 10 9 8 + 9 9 12
these series by multiplying these basic dimensions by the 4 5172 = 188 9 8 + 158 9 12 + (10 9 10) 9 8 + (9 9 9) 9 12
golden ratio cumulatively, where the golden ratio, Φ, is 5 187 368 = 5172 9 8 + 4140 9 12 + . . .
6 8 421 456 = 187 368 9 8 + 144 336 9 12 + . . .
pffiffiffi
1þ 5
/¼ ; Specifically, in the Modulor series, each subsequent value is
2
the sum of the previous two, like in the Fibonacci series. In
and has the following features: addition, the following relations can be satisfied between the
two series:
/ þ /2 ¼ /3 ;
Rn2 þ Rn1 ¼ Rn ;
1 1
þ ¼ 1;
/ 2 / Bn2 þ Bn1 ¼ Bn ;

1
þ
2
¼ 1; and Rn3 þ Bn2 ¼ Rn ;
/3 /2
Rn2 þ Rnþ1 ¼ Bn ; and
1
þ / ¼ 2:
/2 Rn þ Rn ¼ Bn :

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of division rules

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However, certain rounding errors can be found when the val- Table 2. Accurate combination numbers of Panel Exercise 1
ues of the red and blue series are carefully observed.
Panels Combinations Calculation time (s)

330 þ 534 6¼ 863: 1 1

2 10 0.4
Kenzo Tange had stated about these errors, “1-mm error is 3 172 5.8
negligible, . . . but this can be a significant obstacle in actual 4 3453 115.2
design”, and he developed his own module system [Note 1]. It 5 75 186 902.4
is evident that using these values as they are will cause fatal 6 1 724 764 5219.9
errors in the computational environment. Conversely, we can
deal with irrational numbers with greater accuracy in the com-
putational environment and use the Modulor in its true form.

3. Results Bn Bn
Bn ! : ¼ Bn2 : Bn1 ;
3.1 Panel Exercise 1
dvi: /2 /
The first Panel Exercise proposed by Le Corbusier was a game of
dividing an initial square (2260 9 2260) gradually under the Bn / Bn
Bn ! : ¼ Rnþ1 : Rn2 ;
Modulor (Figure 2). According to the characteristics of the golden dvi: 2 2/2
ratio, a method can be formulated such that one of the following
four division rules is applied in the case of the red series: Bn Bn /
Bn ! : ¼ Rn2 : Rnþ1 ; and
dvi: 2/2 2
Rn Rn
Rn ! : ¼ Rn1 : Rn2 ;
dvi: / /2
Bn Bn
Bn ! : ¼ Rn : Rn ;
Rn Rn dvi: 2 2
Rn ! : ¼ Rn2 : Rn1 ;
dvi: /2 / about either the horizontal (x) or vertical (y) direction of the
intended rectangle. As long as this method is followed, indi-
Rn 2Rn vidual rectangles after division certainly meet the conditions of
Rn ! : ¼ Rn3 : Bn2 ; and the Modulor, and these rules can be applied recursively.
dvi: /3 /2 Specifically, the game is a continuous process without giving
the number of divisions. On the contrary, if the system is
2Rn Rn closed under addition, it may collapse without following these
Rn ! : 3 ¼ Bn2 : Rn3 :
dvi: /2 / rules.
Figure 3 illustrates the schematic of these rules. By a single
And one of the following five rules is applied in the case of operation, the rectangle with red values in both directions can
the blue series: be translated into eight patterns, and that with blue values in
both directions into 10 patterns. Furthermore, the rectangle
Bn Bn with blue values in the vertical direction and red values in the
Bn ! : ¼ Bn1 : Bn2 ; horizontal direction can be translated into nine patterns, and
dvi: / /2
that with red values in the vertical direction and blue in the
horizontal direction into nine patterns.

Figure 4. Same combinations via different division routes

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Figure 5. Example combinations of dividing up to 8
These N panel combinations can be generated from N-1 panel
combinations by selecting any one of the panels and applying
any one of the corresponding rules. Therefore, the potential
number of generative combinations at a certain number of divi-
sions is the sum of these multiplications. Because the initial
square has a blue value (2260) in both directions, it can be esti-
mated as summarized in Table 1 [Note 2]. Moreover, these val-
ues explosively increase according to the number of divisions.
On the other hand, these numbers include the same combi-
nations via different bisection routes, as shown in Figure 4. It
is impossible to count and draw out all the combinations that
are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive by hand,
whereas the generation procedure can be described with a sim-
ple gradual bisection algorithm by a computer. Based on the
analysis of Figure 3, a Python program was coded in which
four classes (BB, BR, RB, RR) were defined to represent these
rectangle types. Each class had a method of the bisection rules.
The set of N panel combinations could be made from a set of
N-1 panel combinations. The problem was how to find dupli-
cates efficiently among the set of N panel combinations, which
explode according to the number of divisions.
In Python, a simple representation for a set of combinations
is to use the "dictionary" object, which stores the index num-
ber as the key and the list of panels as its values, as follows:
{’1’: [BB(0.0,0.0,863.24318543..,2260.0),
BB(863.24318543..,0.0,1396.75681457..,2260.0),
BB(1396.75681457..,0.0,2260.0,2260.0)],
’2’: [BB(0.0,0.0,533.51362915..,2260.0),
BB(533.51362915..,0.0,1396.75681457..,2260.0),
BB(1396.75681457..,0.0,2260.0,2260.0)],
’3’: . . .}.
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In this case, a linear search is required to find the duplications,
but it becomes too inefficient to be used as the number of solution
increases. An alternative representation is to dissolve every com-
bination into individual panels and enumerate the indices of the
combinations for each panel in the following way:
{’BB(1396.75681457..,0.0,1726.48637085..,2260.0)’: {12},
’RR(1130.0,0.0,2260.0,1130.0)’: {163, 86},
’BB(0.0,0.0,1396.75681457..,863.24318543..)’: {107, 7},
’BR(0.0,0.0,266.75681457..,2260.0)’: {57, 74, 4},
’RB(863.24318543..,0.0,2260.0,1828.37840729..)’: {37,
127},
’RR(1828.37840729..,431.62159271..,2260.0,2260.0)’: {154,
55},
. . .}.
Each panel can be a hashed key of the "dictionary" object in
Python and a high-speed search for the duplications can be
realized. Eventually, an accurate total number of combinations
and calculation times can be counted, which are listed in
Table 2 [Note 3]. Figure 5 provides the combinations gener-
ated by this program and selected at random.3
As shown previously in Figure 2, Le Corbusier provided 48
combinations for this panel exercise, of which a few combina-
tions opposing the bisection rules can be found with precise
observation. For example, the left and right proportions of the
fifth combination in the first row are
Rn Rn
Bn ! Bn  :  1562 : 698;
dvi: / /
and neither the red nor the blue series include the left value.
Le Corbusier did not always hold the values of the Modulor
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Figure 6. Panel Exercise 2 (from "Modulor" Fig. 40)

Figure 7. Example condition of allocating the fourth panel

and insisted on giving priority to aesthetics in the end. He also The total number would explode further as a result of
recognized that these sorts of values can be reduced to a sum including these types of aggregation rules to tolerate these
in the Modulor, and actually, combinations.

Bn ! Rn : Rn ) Rn : Rn2 : Rn1 3.2 Panel Exercise 2

dvi:
Le Corbusier proposed another panel exercise of dividing the
initial square (2260 9 2260) by means of specified panels
Rn Rn Rn Rn measured in the Modulor. More specifically, the first batches
! Rn þ Rn2 : Rn1 ¼ Rn þ : ¼ Bn  : :
dvi: /2 / / / of 16 combinations were given with respect to (a) 12 pieces of
six different panels [Note 4], (b) six pieces of four different

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Figure 8. Pruning of the search tree
Table 3. Combination numbers of Panel Exercise 2
Pattern Combinations Calculation time (s)
(a) 1 449 912 10 190 990.3
(b) 232 32.4
(c) 315 425.9
panels, and (c) nine pieces of three different panels (Figure 6).
In the narrow sense of "dividing," all the combinations in Fig-
ure 6 can be generated by the gradual bisection method
described in the previous section. However, understanding the
intentions of this game, it is impossible to derive all the possi-
ble combinations with this method. There is a possibility that
some combinations may not bisect the initial square (guillotine
cutting) depending on the arrangement of the panels, like a
herringbone layout.
These games are known as "packing puzzles," and pen-
tomino is a notable example for which it is difficult to find a
single solution, although there are 2339 solutions to tile a
6 9 10 rectangular box. There is no known method of easily
counting the total number of solutions for this kind of packing
puzzle; therefore, it is required to examine all the combina-
tions of the arrangements with great attention to detail. This
procedure cannot be performed by a person; it needs to be per-
formed by a computer.8,9 The algorithm for this procedure is
called the "depth-first search," and the practical steps for solv-
ing this panel exercise are as follows:
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1 The first panel is located at the left bottom corner (origin)
of the initial square.
2 One panel is selected from the rest of the panels, and it is
located to satisfy the following conditions:
a fits inside the initial square
b does not overlap previously located panels
c the left bottom corner is placed at either edge of the pre-
viously located panels
d located panels can be united into a singular shape
3 Step 2 is repeated until the rest is empty.
4 If a panel cannot fit inside, it is turned sideways, and the fit-
ting is tried again.
5 Nevertheless, if a panel cannot fit inside, the previous con-
dition is returned to.
For example, the acceptable locations of the fourth panel
(Pc2) are (1) to (4) or rotated (5) to (7) on the condition
that three panels (Pa1, Pc1, Pe1) are located as shown in
Figure 7.
In principle, the above procedure must be able to enumerate
all the solutions. However, it is noted that this kind of search
tree sets off a "combinatorial explosion" according to an
increase in the number of pieces. Indeed, most people easily
find many solutions of this panel exercise with no plan,
whereas the Python program of simply describing the above
procedure cannot find a single solution in pattern (a) even after
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Figure 9. Example combinations of each pattern

Figure 10. Panel Exercise 3 (from "Modulor" Fig. 41)

spending 12 hours trying (depending on the initial order of If no square panels are included, like pattern (a), it is unnec-
these panels). Efficient pruning of the search tree is required to essary to turn the first panel sideways and deepen the search
avoid unnecessary calculations. tree again, because the symmetric configurations can be

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Table 4. Combination numbers of Panel Exercise 3 therefore, no solutions will be found even if the search contin-
ues. Additionally, in the case of (2), (3), (5), (6), and (7), the
Panels Combinations Calculation time (s)
allocated panels are combined with a concave boundary, espe-
1 1 cially when the concave width of (2) is less than the minimum
2 9 0.3 size. In any case, deepening the search tree is not required
3 138 4.6 from the halfway conditions of the concave shapes, because
4 2564 85.3 every solution has some allocation orders for keeping the con-
5 52 955 1590.3 vex boundary.
6 1 168 932 4282.6 The pruning of the search tree is illustrated in Figure 8.
To derive all the possible configurations of each pattern,
the depth-first search program implementing the above pro-
cedures was written using Python [Note 1]. The first prob-
generated by converting the x- and y-axis, and the total num- lem with this program was that computers cannot deal with
ber of solutions is twice as many as those for one-sided config- irrational numbers directly. Basically, they need to be
urations. Clearly, turning the square panels sideways is approximated by floating-point values, thereby inevitably
meaningless under every condition. If there are a number of including very slight errors. For example, 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 is
same-size panels, it is unproductive to deepen the search tree not strictly equal to 0.3. In fact, the Python program using
again on a condition like replacing Pe1 to Pe2 in Figure 6. In floating-point values for the golden ratio, φ, and the Modu-
addition, if Figure 6 is the condition of allocating Pa1, Pc1, lor scales occasionally produces 1013 width gaps between
and Pe1 in order, the same condition of allocating Pa1, Pe1, the allocated panels and cannot accurately determine the
and Pc1 in order subsequently traces the same search tree. concavity of boundary. The "decimal" module in Python
As in the case of (7), the gap between the panel and the ini- provides an accurate representation of decimal numbers and
tial square is less than the minimum size of all the panels; can be used to resolve this error [Note 5].

Figure 11. Panel Exercises 4 (from "Modulor" Fig. 42)

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Figure 12. Panel Exercises 5 (from "Modulor" Fig. 43)

Table 5. Combination numbers of Panel Exercise 4 and 5 numbers, and so was the case with the red series. Only their
proportions were different. For comparison, the totals of the
Width Collections (tentative) Combinations red series are provided in Table 4:
(1) 1130  / 32 (207) 2032
(2) 2260 79 (560) 14 895 3.4 Panel Exercises 4-6
(3) 2260  2=/ 145 (1051) 39 084 The fourth-sixth panel exercises evolved from the second exer-
(4) 2260  / 429 (3072) 724 642 cise by augmenting a series of five initial rectangles (A), as
(5) 2260  2 762 (6912) 8 373 890 shown in Figure 11. The difference is that the allocating pieces
are not fixed and are collected, allowing duplication from five
panels, two band widths (flexible length panels), and dotted
Another problem was that the recursive structure of the depth- panels for doors (B) [Note 6]. In addition, "residues" can be
first search exhausts the system resources. On the contrary, effi- found from time to time. Therefore, the same Python program
cient search tree pruning requires the storage of not only all the for the second exercise could be used to find the solutions, but
solutions but also the halfway allocations to quickly determine the allocation of pieces for each case should be decided first
whether the current condition is previously searched. However, before executing the depth-first search.
the data structure for finding duplications, as proposed in Sec- Le Corbusier presented 101 combinations (collections) for
tion 3, requires a large amount of memory to store all the condi- five initial rectangles as the fourth exercise [Note 7], then
tions, and the program encountered an out-of-memory error chose one out of them (C: line 4, row 3) and showed 48 com-
when solving pattern (a). To reduce the memory consumption, binations for the retaining choice as the fifth exercise (Fig-
an idea emerged of hashing a bitmap image converted from any ure 12). In this context, he concluded that this gave 4848
conditions to individual 128-bit keys, which could be efficiently combinations, but it was unfortunately incorrect. The 101 com-
stored in the "set" object in Python and quickly checks for dupli- binations included the same collections of panels, and more-
cation. However, this method is only applicable for the panel over, each collection had a different number of combinations.
exercises in which the minimum-sized panel can be distin- The infinite possibility of these exercises should be confirmed.
guished in the bitmap image, so that it cannot be applied to the Before enumerating, the two bandwidths (flexible length
deep level of the first panel exercise. panels) should be restricted to the lengths presented in the
The total number of solutions and the calculation times are other five panels, because these exercises have literally infinite
listed in Table 3. Especially in pattern (a), it takes more than combinations under the permission of using bandwidths of any
four months for enumeration and numerous solutions can be length. Then, the tentative collections in which the sum of the
confirmed. Figure 9 illustrates five combinations for each pat- areas of the pieces is equal to the area of the initial rectangle
tern, selected from all the solutions explored by this program. should be listed, whereas many of them have no solutions in
the end of the depth-first search. According to Figure 10, if
3.3 Panel Exercise 3 the two bandwidths are less than six and the door panels are
The third panel exercise evolved from the first exercise by less than three, then the total number of collections and total
changing the aspect ratio of the initial rectangle according to number of combinations without residues are provided in
the Modulor order (Figure 10). Therefore, the total numbers of Table 5. Figure 13 also illustrates four combinations for each
combinations for each initial rectangle could be calculated width, selected from all the solutions explored by the program.
using the same Python program from the first exercise, but the In terms of the "residues," Le Corbusier only mentioned
individual cases did not need to be calculated again. All the "they are useful to the architect or deliberately caused by
initial rectangles from the blue series width had the same total him"1 and did not explicitly indicate which residues were

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Figure 13. Example combinations for five initial rectangles

Figure 14. Panel Exercise 6 (from "Modulor" Fig. 44)

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permitted. Theoretically, the proposed algorithm would be able
to enumerate solutions if the possible residues were defined as
the same as for the other panels. He also mentioned "they are
inserted into the lower values and incorporated in the whole".
For example, in Figure 10, all the widths of the residues are
either 2260=/5 or 1130=/5 and able to be assumed arbitrarily.
However, the number of tentative collections increases much
further (more than 20,000), and the search space explosively
expands in proportion. Thus, it will be impossible to calculate
a figure in real-time unless using a cutting-edge super com-
puter. This is nothing less than a "combinational explosion.”
Incidentally, panel exercise 6 of assigning five different
materials to the N panel combinations in the fifth exercise
need not be explored, because it is simply the Nth power of 5
for each combination (Figure 14).
4. Discussion and Conclusion
In this study, the infinite possibilities of the Modulor were
confirmed by demonstrating how many combinations are pro-
duced by the "Panel Exercises" presented by Le Corbusier.
These design exercises are also found in many other places in
his architectural works.
On the other hand, the Modulor has not become popular in
practical design fields because of the complications in dealing
with broken numbers. Now, in the digital era, we are released
from these constraints. Overwhelming computing power can
easily help to realize free-form architecture within a disordered
dimension.
Takamasa Yoshizaka, who was a disciple of Le Corbusier
and the Japanese translator of "Modulor" and "Modulor 2",
had even written in his article11 that "with all things consid-
ered, architectural design in itself seems to be the ’combina-
tion and permutation’ . . . there is no alternative but to try at
random and select a better solution as much as time and
means allow." Overwhelming computing power will be much
more useful for inquiring orderly infinite combinations and
exploring the possibility of design.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research
(16H03014A) in Japan.
Disclosure
The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
Notes
Note 1) See Reference 7, p.243.
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Note 2) According to the example in "Modulor," the combinations are
regarded as different even if their mirrors or rotations are matched.
Note 3) These programs were written in Python 3.5 and Shapely pack-
age 1.6 was used for the geometric operations. They were executed on
Mac Pro (CPU 3.7GHz Quad-Core Intel Xeon E5, RAM 64GB).
Note 4) The original text said, "by means of five different panels," but
the six different panels can be confirmed exactly in the original figure.
Note 5) In the decimal module, input values are not translated in bin-
ary numbers but are stored as decimal numbers as they are. Hence,
0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 is calculated to 0.3 accurately. In addition, any decimal
places (default is 28) can be set up and accurate calculation is realized
within the places. However, this does not mean that irrational numbers
can be expressed without errors. In the program, numbers in Modulor
are expressed using the decimal module, and the concavity of the
boundary of the allocation of the panels is determined by translating
them to floating-point values. See Reference 10.
Note 6) See Reference 3, p.49.
Note 7) The panel at line 1 row 2 in (B) is dotted in the original fig-
ure, but it is one of the five panels. Another size panel for the door
can be confirmed in (A). In addition, two compositions (line 2 row 8
and line 4 row 10) cannot be arranged with these panels.
References
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How to cite this article: Watanabe S. Exploring the
Panel Exercises in the Modulor as presented by Le
Corbusier. Jpn Archit Rev. 2020;00:1–12. https://doi.org/
10.1002/2475-8876.12147
Jpn Archit Rev | 2020 | 12