Macquarie University • 6 October 2017 • Akefia Blair

The Moral Values Reflected in Ancient

Egyptian Literary Texts
Excluding the Instructions,
what moral values are reflected in the ancient Egyptian literary texts?
By Akefia Blair

6th October 2017

Standards of behaviour, principals determining right from wrong and what this entails can be
observed in many ancient Egyptian literary texts. From stealing, lying, cursing, bribery, and
betrayal, this essay will attempt to observe and outline the traditional values which dominated
ancient Egyptian society. Texts that will be examined range from autobiographical inscriptions
and stela from the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms as well as the First and Second Intermediate
Periods. Stories and tales that will be explored include, but are not limited to the "Contendings
of Horus and Seth", "The Dispute Between a Man and his Ba", "The Story of Sinuhe", "Tales of
Wonder", and "The Admonitions of Ipuwer".
The fact that Egyptian society relied heavily on the upholding of justice, or ma’at, should come
as no surprise to one who has read much Egyptian literature, the weight of that concept being
attested to in such writings as "The Memphite Theology" (Lichtheim, 1973. pp 51-58) and "The
Eloquent Peasant" (Simpson, 2003. pp 25-44). Ma’at was dually the Egyptian goddess of cosmic
order and a conceptual expression of balance, justice, and truth - the embodiment of Egyptian
etiquette and behaviour (Lazaridis, 2008. p.2). "The Memphite Theology" describes the upholding
of ma’at as follows:
“Justice is done to him who does what is loved and punishment is done to him who does what is hated. Thus,
life is given to the peaceful and death is given to the criminal.” (Lichtheim, 1973. p.55)
Whilst displaying the general code of conduct that the Egyptians followed, this statement is quite
extensive and does not specify what is considered to be loved and what is hated. Though within
literary works certain acts are at times directly associated with evil, it is more commonly the
context which allows us to understand what the Egyptians considered to be right and wrong. As
such, when understood in its pessimistic tone, "The Admonitions of Ipuwer" provides a valuable
insight into the most unideal of Egyptian standards. It has been discussed by scholars such as
Simpson and Gardiner, that "The Admonitions of Ipuwer" are intended to be understood as the
natural response to environmental disaster and calamity; thus, the description of occurrences in
the text can be interpreted as societies worst-case scenario (Simpson, 2003. p.188). Whether or
not the contents of the this story occurred is unknown, however, Simpson states that the setting
is almost certainly used as a literary device in order to present a dissertation describing the
juxtaposition of Ma’at and Isfet – order and chaos (Simpson, 2003. p.188). Ipuwer describes
the state of Egypt’s affairs as very dire, with thieves and criminals running rampant as well as
a nefarious atmosphere settling amongst those who do uphold the law. This is evident by his
admittance that maidservants are commonly rude in speech and all people “great and small”
proclaim their wish for death.

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There is, of course, also the matter of certain acts being directly associated with evil rather than
told in parable, such as on the stela of Merer from Edfu (Lichtheim, 1973. p.87) where it states that
“lying against someone is an abomination of Anubis”. The consequences of speaking out against one
to whom you are supposed to be loyal is visible in texts such as the "Tales of Wonder" (Simpson,
2003. pp.13-24), where Ruddedet’s maidservant is beaten twice and later eaten by a crocodile after
she discloses her intent to expose Ruddedet’s royal children to the King; an event that would have
appeared to the ancient reader as a case of instant retribution. Abandonment and betrayal may
also be considered a subheading under the umbrella of lying and feature in the "Admonitions of
Ipuwer" in the form of servants abandoning their households (Lichtheim, 1973. p.153) Likewise,
Sinuhe is horrified by his betrayal as he flees from Egypt and throughout the "Story of Sinuhe"
constantly makes excuses as to his reasons for doing so. In Sinuhe’s response to King Senwosret
I’s letter, the reader is presented with an assemblage of ethical ideas which reads:
"Lo, this flight which the servant made – I did not plan it. It was not in my heart; I did not devise it. I do
not know what removed me from my place. It was like a dream .... I was not afraid; no one ran after me. I
had not heard a reproach and my name was not heard in the mouth of a herald." (Lichtheim, 1973. p. 234)
Sinuhe lists several reasons why he might have fled but assures the reader and the king that these
were not the cause of his abandonment, placing the blame several times upon the gods - this act
allowing him to stay relatively morally clean.
Betrayal as an act of wickedness also takes the form of adultery and unfaithfulness in marriage,
briefly attested to in the "Dispute Between a Man and his Ba" where the weary man proclaims “Lo,
my name reeks. Lo, more than that of a wife about whom lies are told to the husband” (Lichtheim, 1973.
p.166). Adultery also features strongly in such stories as the "Tale of Two Brothers", where Inpu’s
wife is viewed as the main villain of the story after unsuccessfully attempting to seduce his brother,
Bata – the repercussion for which is dismemberment. Bata’s wife later abandons him for the King
and is similarly punished. Comparably, an adulterous wife is burned to death by her husband in
the first tale of the Westcar Papyrus’ "Tales of Wonder" (Simpson, 2003. p.16). We may however,
assume that these punishments are an exaggeration of what may have taken place in Egyptian
society and were symbolically employed to demonstrate the wickedness of this act. Emphasis is
placed on destroying the body in both cases which would have prevented passage to the afterlife
by the deceased, thereby punishing the adulterer further (Galpaz-Feller, 2004. pp.155-156). It is
evident from these examples that loyalty is a trait considered in high regard by the Egyptians,
whether you are in the employment of the king or the maidservant of a common household.
With justice featuring so heavily in Egyptian conscience and society, it is no surprise to learn that
corruption of an individual meant to uphold this ideal would be deeply frowned upon. Bribery
is also a deed that was not surprisingly, considered illicit by the Egyptians. We hear a brief
mention of this in "The Eloquent Peasant" (Lichtheim, 1973. p.174) when Khun-Anup accuses the
magistrate of taking bribes from Nemtynahkt, insinuating that not even magistrates are above the
law and can be accused of wrong-doing. Bribery is also alluded to in the "Contendings of Horus
and Seth" (Simpson, 2003. p.97) when Isis bribes the ferryman, Nemty, with a golden ring; Nemty
later has his feet removed as punishment by the Ennead. Curiously, the evil-doer in both of these
stories (Nemty and Nemtynahkt) possess a similar name, the root “nm” in Egyptian meaning
to go wrong, steal, or rob (Faulkner, 1988. p.133); perhaps alluding to the deed of the character
before it is committed and almost certainly implying wickedness on his part. It is also interesting
to note that not even the Egyptian pantheon was above these crimes and that divinity does not
necessarily walk hand-in-hand with moral good, perhaps reflecting humanity’s struggle. "The
Negative Confessions" of Nebseni (intended to be spoken to the gods) speak against turning a

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deaf ear to the words of truth and increasing personal wealth by acquiring possessions or payment
that is not rightly theirs (Budge, 1909. pp 583-584) and may imply that humanity was expected to
overcome this evil none-the-less.
Another act of wrong-doing that is attested to over and over is that of being robbed of one’s
possessions. This is described in exceptional detail in the tale of "The Eloquent Peasant" where
interestingly, a set of circumstances are described where it is understandable for a thief to commit
this crime. Khun-Anup states that:
“The wealthy should be merciful, violence is for the criminal, robbing suits him who has nothing. The
stealing done by the robber is the misdeed of one who is poor, one can’t reproach him, he merely seeks for
himself. Not great is one who is great in greed.” (Lichthiem, 1973. p.174)
This statement implies that whilst thievery was looked down upon, thieves may also have been
met with a certain amount of empathy and understanding, with the act being viewed as one
of survival rather than wickedness. Should the rich and powerful steal, however, society will
understand this to be an act of greed and call for punishment, as Khun-Anup does in the tale of
"The Eloquent Peasant". Robbery is expressly condemned as morally wicked in the "Admonitions
of Ipuwer" where certain text directly links robbery and assault to criminal activity. It is written:
“One sits in the bushes until the night-traveler comes in order to plunder his load, what is upon him is
seized, he is assaulted with blows of the stick, he is criminally slain” (Lichtheim, 1973. p.160)
Whilst numerous acts of evil are readily found within Egyptian literature, so too are good
deeds and praiseworthy actions. Particularly noteworthy are such examples found in tomb
autobiographies, the private context of these writings a testament to what the Egyptians considered
ethical regarding a man’s disposition and prestige (Lazaridis, 2008. p.2). Certain phrases seem
to have become quite popular in autobiographies, with tombs from both the Old Kingdom and
Middle Kingdom, featuring a variation of do-gooder expressions. The short autobiography of
Neferseshemre is a prime example of the elite class attempting to win favour from visitors to their
tomb and the gods, in what may be an exaggeration of their good deeds in life. It reads:
I have come from my town, I have descended from my nome, I have done justice for its lord, I have satisfied
him with what he loves, I spoke truly, I did right, I spoke fairly, I repeated fairly, I seized the right moment,
So as to stand well with the people. I judged between two so as to content them, I rescued the weak from one
stronger than he As much as was in my power I gave bread to the hungry, clothes <to the naked> I brought
the boatless to land. I buried him who had no son, I made a boat for him who lacked one. I respected my
father, I pleased my mother. I raised their children. So says he whose nickname is Sheshi. (Lichtheim, 1973.
p.17)
Variations of the lines, “I brought the boatless to land”, “I gave bread to the hungry and clothes to
the naked”, “I spoke truly, I did justice” and “I rescued the weak from one stronger than he” can
all be found in the tomb autobiographies of Pepinakht (Lichtheim, 1988. p. 15), Sabni (Lichtheim,
1988. p. 17), Harkhuf (Lichtheim, 1973. p. 23-37), and Nekhebu (Lichtheim, 1988. p.11) to name
just a few. Parallels can also be drawn between these statements and Egyptian literature such
as the Berlin Papyrus where the line “I gave water to the thirsty, I showed the way to the stray
and I rescued the robbed” occurs in the "Story of Sinuhe" (Simpson, 2003. p. 59). It is clear from
these examples that the Egyptians believed everyone had the right to fair trial, food, clothing, and
water regardless of social standing or wealth. Acts of kindness and charity were included in tomb
biographies because they were viewed as the correct reaction to poverty and despair.
In conclusion, Egyptian morals are visible in ancient literature through parable, direct association

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with good and evil, and in context. Though considered an act of wickedness, some crimes may
have been looked upon with understanding, such as thievery by a citizen trying to stay alive,
whereas others such as adultery, greed, and bribery were unforgivable. There seems to be a clear
consensus amongst the Egyptian population from all periods that everyone deserves the right to
be clothed, sheltered, provided with food and water and looked after when trouble befalls them.
As mentioned by Khun-Anup, the wealthy should be merciful to those who have little, a sentiment
attested to in tomb autobiographies where it is continuously and frequently repeated that “I gave
clothes to the naked” and “I gave food to the hungry”. Whether these nobles genuinely performed
these duties is uncertain, however the sentiment that “when a man is buried, he is remembered
for his goodness” may have been cause for reminder to the Egyptians that they should at least try.
Bibliography and translations
Allen, T.G, (1974) The Book of the Dead or Going Forth By Day, Studies in Ancient Oriental
Civilisation 37, Chicago
El-Saady, H. (1998) "Considerations on Bribery in Ancient Egypt. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur,
pp. 295-304.
Faulkner, R.O. (1988) A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian., Great Britain University Press,
Oxford. pp. 1-327.
Galpaz-Feller, P. (2004) "Private Lives and Public Censure: Adultery in Ancient Egypt and Biblical
Israel". Near Eastern Archaeology, Volume 67, pp. 152-161.
Lazaridis, N. (2008) "Ethics". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, pp. 1-5.
Lichthiem, M., (1973) Ancient Egyptian Literature Volume I: The Middle and Old Kingdoms. University
of California Press. pp. 17-222.
Lichthiem, M. (1988) Ancient Egyptian Autobiographies Chiefly of the Middle Kingdom: A Study and an
Anthology. Biblical Institute of the University of Friboug.
Simpson, W. (2003) The Literature of Ancient Egypt. London: Yale University Press. pp. 91-104.