The Function of Food in Mediaeval German Literature George Fenwick Jones Speculum, Volume 35, Issue 1 (Jan., 1960), 78-86. ‘Your use of the ISTOR database indicates your acceptance of ISTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use. A copy of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use is available at hup://www,jstororg/abouvierms.himl, by contacting ISTOR at jstor-info@umich.edu, or by calling ISTOR at (888)388-3574, (734)998-9101 or (FAX) (734)998-9113, No part of a JSTOR transmission may be copied, downloaded, stored, further transmitted, transferred, distributed, altered, oF otherwise used, in any form or by any means, except: (1) one stored electronic and one paper copy of any article solely for your personal, non-commercial use, ot (2) with prior written permission of JSTOR and the publisher of the article or other text, Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the sc printed page of such transmission. Speculum is published by The Medieval Academy of America. Please contact the publisher for further permissions regarding the use of this work, Publisher contact information may be obtained at hutpulwww.jstor.org/journals’medacad.html. Speculum (©1960 The Medieval Academy of America ISTOR and the ISTOR logo are trademarks of JSTOR, and are Registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office For more information on JSTOR contact jstor-info@umich edu, ©2001 JSTOR hupswww jstor.org/ Wed Feb 21 19:31:09 2001THE FUNCTION OF FOOD IN MEDIAEVAL GERMAN LITERATURE ‘Br GEORGE FENWICK JONES ‘Tu purpose of this study is to explain why mediaeval German authors so often ‘mentioned certain foods. Such an explanation would have served less purpose generation or two ago, when people still grasped the social significance of these foods. However, because of our present democratic attitudes and economic and social egalitarianism, our younger generation is hardly aware that food once served a social as well as a nutritive function. Nowadays anyone with eash or credit is free to buy whatever he wishes from the supermarket, without fear of rebuke or restraint from his betters. Consequently we tend to forget that people ‘were once expected to eat only what fitted their social station. ‘A person’s social status is now felt to be an external and fluctuating cor « condition depending largely upon his current financial means. As his income increases, he is not only permitted but even urged to acquire the goods and services necessary to raise him above his origins. Such ideas were foreign to the ‘Middle Ages, when one’s social status was considered an immutable condition of is person. Although mediaeval society was actually stratified in complex gradations, ture conventionally divided it into three orders: the clergy, the nobility, and the peasantry. Whereas this scheme divided society into three “orders,” it accounted for only two social eastes, since clergymen varied socially according to their origins. Surprisingly enough, the bourgeoisie was not mentioned, not even after it had become the dominant cultural element.? ‘The nobility and the peasantry had separate codes of privilege and obligation: to use the German word, each had its own reek As we shal see, an important lement of this recht was the right or duty to eat or leave certain foods. The social justices resulting from this system, which was preached even by the clergy, were reconciled with Christianity by referring to the lower classes’ innate lack of virtue, a lack stemming from their proverbial ancestors’ misdeeds, to wit, Cain’s fratricide, Ham's lack of filial respect, Abraham's misalliance with his wife's bondswoman Hagar, and Esau’s sale of his birthright. The thirtecnth-centary aphorist Freidank, who was imitated by many later poet, expressed the ‘thought thos: “Got htt dru Icben grchafen: gb, rtter unde pfafen” (Bescheidenhet, H, Berzenberger (Halle, 1872), 2.1). The same couplet was wed by Hugo von Trimberg in his Renner (ed G, Barina (Pubingen, 1008 0) v. 2218). * Already inthe thirteenth century Rudolf von Ex wrote his Der gute Gerhart sbout a wealthy Durgher, no doubt fora bourgeois patron, Nevertheless iterature continued for centuries to mention only the proverbial thre estates. The duties conventionally assigned to the thee orders are typically expressed by Henry von Meissen ina poem entitled “Pret, Knight, ad Peasant” (Heinrichs son Meissen Leche, Sprihe, tee L. Etter {Quednburg, 143), No. 248). See alto Ree, vv. 2215. “Although Bike of Rebgau had brliantly refated these charges in his Sacaenspizn writers ‘continued to repeat them for centuries. For 8 typical example, see Heinrich Witemoier's Ring, B, Wieser (Leip, 1981), v. 728-44. nThe Function of Food in German Literature 9 An equally interesting explanation of social cleavage is found in the Rigspula (“Lay of Rig”) of the Poetic Edda, which may reflect ancient Germanic attitudes. Once the god Heimdall, calling himself Rig, came down to earth to visit its inhabitants. First he visited a poor couple who could give him only coarse bread. and broth; he slept between them in their bed for three nights, and nine months later the Woman bore a son who developed into an ugly laborer called ‘Threell (“Slave”). Rg then visited another couple, who were in better circumstances and served him veal; and in due time they had a son who developed into a skilled artisan and husbandman named Karl, who had flashing eyes and @ flashing face. Rig then visited a wealthy couple, who gave him white bread, meat, fowl, and wine; and the result of this hospitality was Jarl, a blond bright-checked ruler, whose eyes flashed like those of « snake and who occu ‘weapons, horses, hounds, swimming, and runes.* Here we see society serfs, freemen, and nobles, distinetions being based on birth, wealth, and division of labor. It is to be noted that dietary habits were already felt to be an integral part of one’s heritage. Class diets naturally varied somewhat according to locality; but in all regions the rarer, tastier and richer foods were the prerogative of the upper classes by virtue of their birth. This study is based on the literature of mediaeval Germany, which happens to be the author's chief field of specialization. However, its find ings would probably hold to some extent for other European literatures as well, allowances being made for dietary variations caused by climatic, economic, and agricultural differences. ‘By the thirteenth century, class diets had become almost universally stand- ardized in German literature. As we shall sce, the gentry were divinely ordained to eat game, fsh, and white bread; and the peasantry were ordained to eat dark bread, porridge, turnips, and sidemeat (cheap cuts of pork). the gentry were expected to drink wine, while the peasantry drank water, milk, eider, or beer. Hartmann von Aue, the most classic of the eourtly poets, presents a typical courtly menu in his Evee, in which his gentlefolk receive “vische unde wiltprat, beide semeln unde win” (fish, game, both white bread and wine).* Such fare ‘was not only the privilege but even the duty of the aristocracy, for noblesse oblige. An Austrian poet known as Seifried Helbling, who wrote @ century after Hart- ‘mann von Aue, stated that a wealthy man would lose his social standing (¢re) it he failed to serve someln wtz, Klaren win, and willpract." These foods appear together so often that it seems that some of the less gifted poets just used them fas a matter of convention, without considering their original purpose. This is suggested, for example, in the Middle High German epie about St Oswald; for, although it is normal for the generous king’s retainers to receive vische, semele, guoten vwin, and wiltbraete, it comes as a surprise when his pet raven receives the very same foods from the mermaids at the bottom of the sea. * The Podtic Bdda, ed. LB, Hollander (Austin, Texas, 1928), pp. 141-140, * Brecon Hartman von Aue, e A. Letztnnn (Hale, 1980), ¥¥. 71-08 1 Seiad Halling, od J. Seentller (Halle, 1880, 3, v. 48-60. * Der Manchener Onval, el. (, Bucsecke (Bresas, 1907), w. 16-20, 297-08, ee v. 1888.80 The Function of Food in German Literature Venison and other game were restricted to the upper classes; since only they, like Jarl, had the hounds, horses, and leisure for hunting. During the Landnakme, ‘or Germanic occupation of what is now southern Germany, the forests had been vast and game plentiful. Later, as the forests receded before the plow and as the population increased, game became scarcer and laws were enacted to deprive the peasantry of their ancient hunting rights. Thus the mild hunting laws of old gradually became stricter, penalties for poaching became severer, and it became 1 serious offense for peasants to eat game.? Although the courtly poets usually stressed game in their genteel menus, they also mentioned domesticated animals, particuarly in the commonplace “wilde ‘und am,” Fowls were mentioned too, but usually together with game and fish.!! We have seen that Hartmann von Aue listed fish along with game as an upper-class food, as one might expect in Central Europe, where large bodies of water were few and where fishing rights were jealously guanted. The Eddie Régspula, being written somewhere near the unrestricted fishing grounds of the Atlantic, does not mention fish; but many Central European works do, and thus fish is often paired with venison as a fashionable food." ‘That fish was a conscious symbol of extravagance is attested in many works. In his Renner (w. 10,005) Hugo von ‘Trimberg complained that many people squander their wealth on meat, fish, and wine. After the gluttonous peasants in Wittenwiler’s Ring have devoured their fish, they call for wine because the fish wish to swim (“Trag uns her den weit sche wellent gswemmet 5901-92). It was proverbial that people should not eat fish unless they could afford not only wine but also pepper, which was, of course, an expensive imported luxury. As Wittenwiler stated in his Ring (v. 2007), “Der wein und pfeffer nicht enhab Der tuo sich aller vischen ab!” (If anyone has no wine and pepper, let him refrain from fish). This explains why a woman in the Ring says of fish, “Wiss, es ist ein herren speis” (Know that it is a food for lords).¥* An old folk * A fifteonth-cntary farce say that if a peasant kills his Jon's game, one of his cows should be Killed, “wan got der hast ain unordentliches leben’ (Alte gute Schwtnke eA. v. Keller (eibronn, 1870p. 6). Because of thei resentment against th una gamclaws, the commen people generally sided with poachers like Robin Hood. CL “von zame noch von wiltbrtt” Lanse. K. Habn, [rankfrt, 1645. 718); “vache und viisch gemeine, beidu daz wile und ouch das zam" (Willehlm, 19, 4) (Bescheidenbet 76,7); “ames unde wilbrate™ (Oneal, wv. 129, $505). er vashen und das rephuen, Weia, desc, prott und willrt Apollonius tom Tyrlan, ed S. Singer (Berlin, 1006, vv. 6906-07; se lso vv. 18, 768-80). * (Uuein, od. G. Benocke and K. Lachmann, Berlin, 1877, v. 6218); “wlthract noch vsche” (Helitng, 1, ¥. 4; “wilpret noch fscho” (Peter Lew, v. 478), "wiprat unde visch" (Der Pfarrer vom Kahlenberg, v. 1614), both in Narronbuch, ed. F. Bobertag (Berlin, 188). Wilprel and sisch are associated with wine and white bread as stylish food in Erathlungen aus all deatchen Handeclrfen, ed. A. vou Keller (Stuttgart, 1858), p. 87, vv. $ 3 see also p. 207, vv. 17 4, See note 11 above. Professor Leo M. Hollander has been kind enough to write me that in Nore literature herring is poor people's food. This ia not suprising in view of the unlimited. fishing sounds, In stanza 8 ofthe Eadie HérBardsjs0, Thor, the farmers god, has just exten herving and ‘oat poridge. ‘Ring, v. 2006. Inv. $878 Sch are served to the extravagant Margrave of Ferrara,The Function of Food in German Literature 81 song in the Wunderkorn says that among the fish that listened to St Anthony's, sermons were ‘good eels and sturgeon, which fashionable people eat.” ‘The importance of recognizing dietary satire in mediaeval literature is sug- gested by an error about eels in George Coulton’s Mediaeval Village. In discussing the dietary habits of mediaeval peasants, Coulton quoted Alwin Schulz as saying that Austrian peasants in the thirteenth century were demanding fish and olive oil like the lords. Because this did not concur with my own findings, I looked up the original source; and, sure enough, it said “visch und dl sie liezen schon die herren ezzen” (They let the lords eat fish and a). Eventually I realized that al must have been a dialect variant of Aale (eels), and this conjecture was con- firmed by Grimm’s Deutsches Warterbuch. Eels als illustrate the fact that class diets owe more to fashion than to flavor, more to good taste than to good taste buds. In Central Europe, far from the eel-hatcheries of the Sargossa Sea, eels are expensive and therefore in good taste. On the southeastern seaboard of the United States, where eels are plentiful and therefore cheap, they are eaten almost only by the descendants of slaves, that is, by those of our countrymen who have inherited most of the habits and handicaps of the European serfs. ‘The semeln mentioned by Hartmann and Helbling were the most usual form of fine white bread and were probably what most poets meant by the term wiz brét.t ‘Naturally the finer milling made the flour more palatable and more expensive, ‘and therefore more respectable. As we have seen, Jarl enjoyed this luxury. As in the Rigspula, wine was the only drink that appeared on the upper-class menus. Although the barbarians of Tacitus’ Germania had drunk beer, twelve centuries later their upper-class descendants, in literature at least, served only Peasants were seldom mentioned in courtly literature, except as comical con- trasts to the ideal knight; and consequently their foods were seldom mentioned, except negatively. However, these foods began to be used with literary intent in the courtly village-poetry of the thirteenth century and in the subsequent peasant-satire tradition, Perhaps the chief peasant food, in literature as well as life, was coarse dark bread, as we saw in the case of Thrall. This bread was usually of barley, oats or rye, these grains being cheaper than wheat. Barley and oats were also served as gruel or porridge. Gut Aulen und Hausen die Vornshme schmausen” (in Det Kraden Wanderhor, eA. von ‘Ami and C. Brentano (Hfeidlber, 1806. reprint Leip 190), 1,358). 1 Gearge Coulton, The Medial Vilage (London, 1920), p. 813. See DWVb vi, 120, “8.” “Wein prot” (Meer Bet, v. 184), “wie prot” (Matzenickt,v. 148), both in Der Bauernbock- seitacheank, eB. Wismer (Tabingen, 1986). “Potui humor ex hordco aut framento in quandam similituiinem vini corrupts” (Germania, 25,24, 95,31, 82 ““Gietinen lip" (Hetting, av. 1020) gratin lab harin prot, nd rupyins are served inthe Ring (rv. 8505-87). One ofthe peatants in Metenhockit is named Ginstibrot (v.89) and another is named Rogenher (v. 108), The poem er pute Gerhart (v. 046) mentions “roan bot” as typical of por fare. In Hartmann von Aue's Groporiu (ed. H. Pou (Tubingen, 1963), . 2802) the fisherman's wife offers ‘the penitent sinner water and oaten bread (haberbrde.82 The Function of Food in German Literature Of equal frequency in peasant diet were turnips, which had symbolized poor ‘men’s fare since ancient times.** Turnips were also comical because of their laxa~ tive and carminative effect, which made them popular in the vulgar peasant- satire of the waning Middle Ages. Turnip greens were often boiled with cheap cuts of pork and served as cumpost, which became an important item of social satire* Sometimes this dish was referred to as kit or kraut. Whereas the gentry drank wine, the peasantry were expected to drink only water, milk, or cider, and occasionally beer. Water appeared often as a symbol of village life in contrast to wine as a symbol of court life.* Milk and its products, particularly curds and buttermilk, were generally held in low esteem by the upper classes, who also disdained all kinds of cider,* and even beer.” ide softer used entirely: “ben” (Meier Holbrest, oF. Panzer (Halle, 1992, v. 458) ei” (Alte hook wn niederdetsche Volker, ed. L. Unland (Statgact, 1801, No. 248, str. 6) “bein” (ibid, No. 240, wr. 6)- Also in the comical name Ruerenpre! (Fastachtepiale ous dem Finfelaten Jabrhundert ed. A. v. Kell [Stttgat, 1853), 1, No, 31, ¥. 29) and Sehlickenprein (W. “Arn, Die Peramennamnen der detache Schauspile dee Mitelales (Breslow, 1908}, p- 18), "When the enemies of Rome came tribe Curius, they found him cooking atthe hearth. He refused ‘hee gold with the words, “Tonight I dine on turnips. A man who eats turnips has no eed of gold” Biographie Unierale, ed. M. Michaud (Pars, nd 1x, 688). Ono of the pensunts in Wittenwiler's ‘Ring has an eocutcheon of “zwain ruoben haias gepeaten” (¥. 148) and another is always full of ruaben and geratn (v. 1088) See also re. 1400, 1523. Turnipe are served in Meteenahat(v. 173) fad Meier Bat (v. 149). Cl the names Rubenschlund (Fastnackpid, 1, No.9, x. 11) and Ruben= {rebel (id, No, 10, v. $8). The low socal statu of the turnip contefbutd tothe humor ofthe Latin tale Repularius, in which pant turnip i presented toa ing (in K. Langosch, Waldhariu, Ruodlic Marchenepen (Berlin, 1966), pp. 308-830) 8 Carminative effect in suggested in the Ring (ev. 1628-24) and inthe name Rcbentnst (Hl ling, xv. 1296), which also appears in Hana Sache (Suimdiche Fabaln und Schwonks, eB. Goetze (Halle, 1605-1010, p 5, . 40). In Sitenth-century Shrovetide play a peasant is advised to eat 4 tumap as a laxative (Pasnachispiel, 1, No.6, v. 26); end this effect is alluded to in story in Wenasimth (oH. Onterey (Stuttgart, 1860), 233). From Latin eomporitum. In one ofthe Neidhart Songs a peasant i struck so hand “daz in vl ie vlene velt der cumpost tux dem magen” (Minneomng, ed, Fr. v. der Hagen [Leipag, 1838) x, 240), A peasant in the Ring is named Gumpaat(v. 2681); and Halling (my, ¥. 288) speaks of poor people who eat reba, This dish has a modern desceadant in the corned beef and cabbage 20 relished by Jiggs but spurned by his socially pretentious wife Magaie, Holling (,v- 088 tell of «peasant woman who cooks lat withsidemseat for her husband but serves henalf chicken, wine, and white bread ae soon as he lees. The mastersinger Fredrick of Sunnenbeng complains that the kd served to him isnot fit forthe hogs (Die JenaerLiedrkandochrit, fd. G, Hols [Leiprig, 1001), 1, 114). A Thuringian folksong has a youth say he would have remained ‘At home if his mother had served mest instead of kraut and tamips (DevtacherLioderkot, eT. Bk and F. Bohne (Leiprig, 188), n, No. 1047). ¥ See Helmbract,v. 472. Telling (,v. 808) says that anyone who would desert his master for serving has bread and water would aloo desert f he served veniton and wine. ‘8 This explains euch names as Molkenpauch, Molkenfreser, Milcfrdl, Molkenknoch (Fastnacit- pile 4p. 342 205. 860, ¥. 45 p- 800, ¥. 183 p. 896, ¥- 8), Tn another ply an upper-case person ‘tye, "Get ie purse lout wider aim Und freseet er achlgelnilch alain (did, p. 896 v.20. (Gh. scoton (ibid, p. 110, v.17; p. $44, v. 7) Hane Sachs leo contrasts rin and sheen (Sindiche Fait, No. 185, v.48), For comical poem in praise of buttermil, se W’underhor, 1, 483. ™ When Wittenwile’s pesssnts call for wine a0 Ut ther fish can sw, they reaive only Pier mos, dpfeltranch, and sellechenwasver (Rng, we. 6004-06). Gumpost has to leave the table because The has crunk water, milk, and cider Bing, . 6162); one of his fronds is named Rerenmost (Ring, v.23).The Function of Food in German Literature 83 Just as expensive food and drink served as a means of conspicuous consumption in courtly life, references to them served a similar funetion in courtly literature. By attributing a genteel diet to his heroes, an author could enhance their pres- tige in his reader's eyes. (This was, of course, in addition to giving his public a certain viearious enjoyment, since adult audiences in the Middle Ages seem to have felt as much empathy for their heroes as children do today.) A typical example of this function is seen in Heinrich von Neustadt’s thirteenth-century romance Apollonius: Rusben und kumpost ‘Turnips and compost were not served at ‘Trug man nicht 2e tiseh; the table, Game and noble fish with spices Wilprett und edel fisch ‘were well prepared for the gentlemen. There Was mit gewurtz den heren wol perait. was a wealth of food and also the best wine, Mit speyse was da reychait Und dar 2u der peste wein. vv. 11, 407-12 ‘Thus, by using five concise and well-known clichés, the author makes it clear that he is discussing people of quality. ‘This symbolic function of dietary habits was particularly useful in the nostalgic didactic literature of the late Middle Ages, which deplored the alleged break- down of society and praised the “good old days,”” when the lower orders had known their place. A typical example appears in Hugo von Trimberg’s Renner (vv. 9813-19): Manic gebdr wist schimelgra, Many a peasant became mouldy grey who Der selten hat geazen mensier bl, never ate blane-mange, figs, sturgeon, al- ‘Vigen, hOsen, mandelkern, ‘mond nuts. He was glad to eat turnips and Ruben, kumpost fz er germ ‘cumpott, and he was always just as happy ‘Und was im etwenne als sanfte ‘an oaten crust as a lord with game and Mit einem hebertnen ranfte domestie flesh and fowl. Als einem herren mit wilde und zam. Here we find the usual items: fish, turnips, cumpost, and oaten bread, and the stereotype pair “wilde und zam.” The figs and almonds were not frequent in literature, but blanc-mange often served as a symbol of lavish eating.™ Helbling expressed similar views in describing the good conditions in Duke Leopold’s time, when the peasants received: fleicch und krdt, gerstbrin. ‘meat and ke Darley-gruel. They had to fan wildpract solden sie sin, do without venison; on fast days hemp, som vasttag han, lins und bén; lentils, and beans. They let the lords eat visch und dl si lezen schon. fish and eels. That was custom. die herren ezzen, daz was sit (Goan, v. 881) 1 In one of the Shrovetide plays a peasant says he would profer wine to beer (Festnactopide, 1p. 850, v.28) Holling (1. 648) says of a boor, “ius im bier in den kop! Beer is mentioned in Der gute Gerhart (x. 946) as typical of oor fare. ‘Blanesmange was proverbial for rich man’s fare, since “nearly ll recipes calle for creamed fo, ‘usually capon with see, almonds, sugar, and slt, and often eggs” (Muriel Bowden, Commentary on the General Prologue of the Canterbury Teles [New York, 1048), p. 181). These ingrolients explain ‘why it was a fitting dish for Chaucer's five guldsmen,84 The Function of Food in German Literature Here we find the usual cumpost (expressed as meat and kraut), barley-gruel, game, fish, and ecls, and the less usual lentils and beans. ‘That such social theory was international is attested by the Mirour de ?Omme, ‘a poem by the fourteenth-century English poet John Gower. After complaining of the outrageous wages demanded by the working classes, he continues: Les labourers d'antiquité ‘The laborers of olden days were not ac- Ne furont pas acoustummé customed to eat wheaten bread. Their Armanger le pain du frument, Dread was of bean paste(?) and other grain; Angois du feve et autre blé ‘and likewise they quenched their thirst with eur pain estoit, et abevré water. And then their festive fare was De Feaue furont ensement, cheese and milk, but that was rare. Et lors fust leur festoiement Formage et lait, mais rerement.® “Here the menu is similar and the principle identical: the world was well ordered as long as the lower classes ate what they should. ‘This dietary tradition was used very cleverly in Meier Helmbrect, a thirteenth- century Austrian poem attributed to a certain Wernher der Gartenaere. In this work the old order of docile and contented peasant, represented by Father Helmbrecht, is contrasted with the disaffected and ambitious younger generation, represented by his son, who bears the same name, ‘The father wishes his son to remain at home and eat porridge rather than go to court (v. 464); and he warns him that it is better to eat rye and oats than to eat fish dishonorably (v. 462), that is, in disharmony with one’s rightful diet. The son, who wishes to rise socially by turning robber-knight, says that his father may continue to drink water if he wishes, but that he himself must drink wine (v. 471). Later, when the law has caught up with him and his sister, she realizes that it would have been better to cat her father’s Frit than the robber’s viseke (v. 1604). In other words, they had tried to overstep their divinely ordained order or reek, and that was their ruins for, as Wernher wams (v. 289), “he seldom succeeds who fights against his order.” Whereas the social significance of diet is obvious in Meier Helmbrecht, in many ‘works itis less apparent. When a peasant dance-song in Neidhart Fuchs mentions carp, sturgeon, and pepper in @ peasant’s home," the humor arises from the juxtaposition of upper- and lower-class symbols. Such humor naturally served as ‘an outlet for the privileged classes’ resentment at the pretentions of the more prosperous peasants. At the peasant banquet in Wittenwiler’s Ring (v. 5713) fish is served with kraut. Here again the humor is due to the intentional mixing of contrary symbols; for, as we saw in the passage from the Apollonius, the two foods were socially incompatible. They would have clashed like cabbage and caviar or compone and paté de foie gras. ‘The upper classes ridiculed the lower classes not only when they aspired to eat food that was too good for them, but also when they were content with their lot. Consequently, the victims of peasant-satire often had names indicating their rustic dietary habits. The notes to this study list the names Girstibrot, Rogenher, The Complete Werks of John Gower, ed. G. Macauley (Oxford, 1888), 1, wv. 26, 49 % Neidart Fuchs, . 8888 (in Norrenbuch p. 272).The Function of Food in German Literature 85 Ruerenprei, Schlickenprein, Rubenschlund, Rubengrebel, Riiebentunst, Gum- post, Molkenfresser, Milchfridl, and Molkenknoch; and these are but a sample of many such nutritional names found in mediaeval German literature. ‘Whereas some of these social prejudices have survived till the present, most. writers have now abandoned dietary ridicule. As we have seen, mediaeval man thought that people ate what they did because of what they were. Thrall ate coarse bread becausé he was ugly, bent, and over-worked; Jarl enjoyed white bread, red meat, and red wine because he was handsome, strong, and brave. This process of reasoning survived into the nineteenth century, when even scholars believed that people were what they were solely because of their heritage, a condition willed by God and not to be altered. Social caste was inherited, and with it one’s rightful diet. In other words, “Der Mensch isst, was er ist.” ‘There- fore it came as a blasphemous shock a century ago when Ludwig Feuerbach sug- gested that “Der Mensch ist, was er isst.” Today Feuerbach’s view is universally hield, at least in the Western World; and most writers no longer make use of dietary satire. When we read in Ludwig Thoma’s Lausbubengeschichten of the wealthy gentleman who laughs at the ‘Thoma family’s poor fare of Iungs and dumplings, we do not laugh with the gentleman. ‘To the contrary, we question either his heart or is brain, As we have seen, mediaeval man vouched for the inviolable differences of class diets; and Wittenwiler was merely following tradition in his Ring (v. 5116) when he said that a master should give his servant rough food, since that suited him, In one of the Shrovetide plays @ peasant says: Wir esson all nit gern hebrin pref ‘We don’t like to eat oatmeal, nor do we ike So ess wir unger gerunnen mileh, to eat curds, nor do we like to dress our- So cleid wir uns nit gem in zwileh selves in twill; and we'd rather drink wine Und trinken licber wein, dann schotten.* than whey. At the close of the same play another peasant say: Und karpfen, hecht, schleien und ruppen And we would rather eat carp, pike, tench, Die ess wir licber dan élsuppen; ‘and burbot than oil-soups; and we would So trink wir lisber wein, dan pier rather drink wine than beer. ‘From these statements we see that the mediaeval burghers well realized that the peasants were unhappy with their lot; yet this discontent caused more amuse- ‘ment than pity. [As feelings of social responsibility gradually increased in modern times, Chris- tian consciences began to be troubled by the obvious injustices of the social order. One defense mechanism affected by the propertied classes was the argu- ment that the lower orders were really “happier that way,” and the Genteel Tradition created a whole world of contented peasants, happy workers, carefree slaves, and grateful fieldhands, whose poor diet resulted solely from personal choice or improvidence. ‘Now that sociologists have discredited is tradition, their views have reached86 The Function of Food in German Literature even the heartland of reaction, This is revealed in'a relatively lucid passage near the beginning of William Faulkner's Intruder in the Dust, when a young white boy takes shelter in a Negro’s cabin and eats what is obviously his host's din- ner — “collard greens, a slice of sidemeat fried in flour, big flat pale heavy cooked biscuits, glass of buttermilk: nigger food too, accepted and then dis- ‘missed also because it was exactly what he had expected, it was what Negroes ate, obviously because it was what they liked, what they chose: not (at twelve: he would be & man grown before he experienced his first amazed dubiety at this) that out of their long chronicle this was all they had had a chance to learn to like except the ones who ate out of white folk’s kitchens but that they had elected this out of all eating because this was their palates and their metaboli a rere we see the age-old items: kraut, cheap eut of pork, coarse bread, and butter- milk. Only the author’s intent has changed, from ridicule to sympathy. ‘We have seen that mediaeval writers often mentioned foodstuffs as a means of revealing the condition of their characters. The courtly poets of Germany, as proponents of leisure-class code, developed certain dietary commonplaces which were immediately recognizable as symbols of genteel life; and with this, restricted vocabulary they could quickly invoke a proper social tone for their works. In contrast to these courtly symbols, a set of peasant foods appeared as symbols of village life. This second set of symbols was popular for satirizing the peasants, especially in the poems of the Neidhart tradition and in the Shrov plays. Both sets of symbols were useful in the didactic literature of the period of decay, when moralists deplored the breakdown of society and looked back to ‘an imaginary golden age when the peasants had been content with their divinely ordained lot. Dietary satire continued to play a role in literature as long as people believed that God wished a static and stratified society; but it was gradually abandoned by most writers as humanitarian sentiments spread and sociological viewpoints changed. Govenzr Counce