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LOGIC 1
CHAPTER - 1
NATURE OF LOGIC
PREMISES
Statement which includes :
1) Major premises
2) Minor premises
3) Conclusion
Eg :-
1) Shahid love kareena
2) Saif likes Shahid
v Saif loves Kareena
(Common – Middel Term is Shahid)
v Major term : - Predicate of the conclusion
v Minor term : - subject of the conclusion.
EXAMPLES :
1) WHAT IS LOGIC ?
ANS :-
Men sometime reason well, and sometime badly. We use various expressions to indicate
this. The word ‘correct’ , ‘valid’ , & ‘logical’ stands for good reasoning, the words
‘incorrect’, ‘invalid’ , & ‘illogical’ stands for bad reasoning. The science which enables us to
draw these distinctions is logic. Logic furnish principals and methods for distinguishing
between correct & incorrect reasoning.
3) DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT :-
A deductive argument is one, in which the premises imply the conclusion. As such, the
conclusion cannot be false, if the premises are true. A deductive argument is certain.
Eg :- All birds have feathers
All crow are birds.
v All crow have feathers.
4) INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT : -
An inductive argument is one, in which the premises do not provide sufficient evidence for
the conclusion. An inductive argument is probable.
Eg :- A, B and C are intelligent.
A, B, and C are men.
v Men are intelligent.
5) INFERENCE AND IMPLICATION :-
INFERENCE :
An inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusion from premises know or
assumed to be true.
TYPES OF INFERENCE:
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE:
Immediate inference is one, which is derived from single proposition.
Eg:- dogs are animals
v Some animals are dogs
MEDIATE INFERENCE :
A mediate inference is one which is derived from two proposition co-
jointly.
Eg :- every animal is mortal
Every dog is an animal
v Every dog is mortal
CHAPTER - 2
PROPOSITION
1) PROPOSITION : - (2 MARKS)
Proposition is a statement which is either true or false. A proposition is true when it
represents a fact, it is false when it does not.
EG :- Tagore was great poet.
Dogs do not dance.
2) CHARACTERISTIC OF PROPOSITION :
Every proposition is either true or false it cannot be both true and false.
The proposition “India has congress government” appears to be true for some years, and
false some other years. However, wrong impression is created, because the proposition
has not been fully expressed. A proposition is asserted with the reference to a given date
and with reference to that date it cannot be both true and false. “ India has congress
government in the year 2013” it is so expressed, that it cannot be both true and false.
The truth or falsity of a proposition is definite. The truth or falsity of a proposition is always
remain the same, it cannot be change of course we cannot know a given statement is true
or false. For EG:- today we cannot say whether the statement “ there are living being on
the planet Mars” is true. Further, we may even hold wrong believe about it truth or falsity.
But neither absence of knowledge nor wrong believes affects the truth or falsity of a
statement.
3) PROPOSITION AND FACTS :- (2 MARKS)
Facts determines the truth or falsity of a proposition. If a proposition represents the facts
as they are it is true. If it does not it is false.
“Butter melts in heat” is a true proposition. While “the has to legs” is a false proposition. A
proposition claims to represents facts. This claim may or may not be justified. If it is
justified, the proposition is true, otherwise it is false.
4) PROPOSITION AND SENTENCE :- (5 MARKS)
Is closely related, as a proposition is expressed in the form of a sentence. But it is not
same as a sentence. The same proposition may be expressed by different sentence.
EG:. I am an Indian
The three sentences are from different languages, yet they convey the same proposition
this is because a proposition is what a sentence and not the word in which the statement
is made.
EG:. Thief!
What thief would trust a thief!. Truth or Falsity of above sentences are not possible to
determine, so these sentences do not express propositions. So, we can say that every
sentence does not express a proposition. But every proposition is in the form of a
proposition.
KIND OF SENTENCES
2) Indicative sentences :
Which indicate something.
Eg.: This is my collage.
3) Imperative sentences :
Any order, command, request or suggestion.
Eg.: Don’t touch the flame of the candle.
4) Interrogative sentences :
(?) question is asked.
a) WH – QUESTION
Eg.: What is the time ?
b) YES / NO – QUESTION
Eg.: Lalu Prasad asked Bipasha whether you will come for a movie ?
5) Exclamatory sentences :
Expressing sudden feelings or motions.
Eg.: What a giant he is !
Or Oh! How sad it is.
6) DISTINCTION BETWEEN A SENTENCE AND PROPOSITION (12 MARKS)
In common mans language proposition is equal to sentence. But technically
speaking “ sentence that is either true or false”. So it is clear that all propositions can be
said to be a sentence, but all sentences are not proposition. Grammatical sentence can be
distinguished by proposition in following ways :
1) Grammatical sentences are of four types :-
a) Imperative b) Interrogative c) Exclamatory d) assertive or Indicative, while proposition is
only assertive or indicative types of sentences.
2) As language changes, sentences is grammatically is said to be different, while on change
of language make no difference in proposition.
3) Grammatical sense of subject – predicate understanding is different from logical one.
‘also in grammatical sentence subject – predicate can change its position, but in
proposition first subject and then predicate’.
4) Grammatical sentence has two divisions only which is Viz. subject and Predicate, while
proposition has one more part Viz. Copula – (helping verb)
5) Grammatical sentence can have multiple subject. As ‘ Time & Tide waits for no Man’. But
proposition has only one subject.
6) Grammatical sentence can be in past, present and future tense, but logical proposition
must be in present tense only.
7) Grammatical can be with or without any quantity or quality, but proposition must have
one quality & one quantity.
8) Grammatical sentence can be true today and false tomorrow, but propositions truth and
falsity must be universal, that is, if it is true then it must be true in all time and places.
9) Lastly grammatical sentence can be expressed incompletely, while proposition has to be
complete and definite to maintain its condition of true or false of universality.
Eg.: ‘India has congress government’
(It can be true now, but in the past it can be false, so it is not proposition in real sense) to
be proposition it must be ‘India has congress government in 2013’.
CHAPTER 3
TERMS
CHAPTER 4
TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITION
1) SIMPLE AND COMPOUND PROPOSITION :
a) Simple proposition :
A simple proposition is one which affirms or derive a predicate of a subject.
Eg.: All girls are beautiful.
All politicians are not corrupt.
b) Compound proposition :
When a proposition makes an assertion under certain conditions it is called a compound
proposition.
Eg.: If John ride bike, then Bipasha will love him.
Either Abhishek is a Ra-one or Bluffmaster.
2) CATEGORICAL & CONDITIONAL PROPOSITION :
a) Categorical proposition :
A categorical proposition which affirms or denies a predicate of a subject.
Eg.: All girls are beautiful.
All politicians are not corrupt.
b) Conditional proposition :
When a proposition makes an assertion under certain conditions it is called a conditional
proposition.
Eg.: If John ride bike, then Bipasha will love him.
Either Abhishek is a Ra-one or Bluffmaster.
Conditional propositions are of two kinds & these are hypothetical and disjunctive
proposition.
1) Hypothetical proposition :
Hypothetical proposition is one which presence a condition together with some
consequence which follows from it.
Eg.: if Ranbir proposes Katrina, then Salman will beat him.
2) Disjunctive proposition :
Disjunctive proposition is one which state alternatives.
Eg.: Either salman will marry, or he will remain bachelor
CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITION
SIMPLE
COMPOUND
CATEGORICAL
CONDITIONAL
HYPOTHETICAL
DISJUNCTION
IF …. THEN EITHER …..
OR
3) FOUR FOLD CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITION :
a) UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE (A) :-
In this kind of proposition the predicate is affirm of the whole subject.
Eg.: All boys are handsome
b) UNIVERSAL AFFIRMATIVE (E) :-
In this kind of proposition the predicate is denied of the whole subject.
Eg.: No politician are moral.
c) PARTICULAR AFFIRMATIVE (I) :-
In this kind of proposition the predicate is affirm of the part of subject.
Eg.: Some actors are singers.
d) PARTICULAR NEGATIVE (O) :-
In this kind of proposition, the predicate is denied of the part of the subject.
Eg.: Some wives are not dominating.
A All S is P
E No S is P
I Some S is P
O Some S is Not P
E Sentence with No, never, none, not at all, not a single, not even
one.
I Affirmative sentence with, most, many a few, certain, all most all,
all but one several, mostly, generally, frequently, often, perhaps,
nearly, sometimes, occasionally.
O When ‘A’ is denied we got ‘O’; when affirmative sentence which
contain words indicating ‘I’ are denied we got ‘O’
EXAMPLE :-
1) Every man is responsible for his actions.
· All men are those who are responsible for his actions.
4) Every military general does not have a sound plan for defense.
· Some military general are those who does not have a sound plan for defense.
12) A few donors did not help the victims of famine in Bihar.
· Some donors are those who did not help the victims of famine in Bihar.
13) All but one member of the picnic party did not return safe.
· Some but one member of the picnic are those who did not return safe.
5) INDEFINITE PROPOSITION :
Indefinite proposition is one in which quantity is not definite.
Eg.: 1) Planet revolve round the sun
· All planet revolve round the sun (A)
Muslims are not idol worshipers
· No muslims are idol worshipers (E)
7) EXCLUSIVE PROPOSITION :
Exclusive proposition is one which limits the application of the predicate to the subject
only. These proposition are indicated by the expression like, only, alone, none but, &
nothing else but. These are to be reduced to A & E propositions.
Eg.: Only experts can judge scientific matters
· All experts can judge scientific matters (A)
· No non-experts can judge scientific matters. (E)
Eg.: None but, graduate can vote.
· All graduate can vote (A)
· No non-graduate can vote. (E)
EXERCISE:
1) Brother sometimes quarrel with each other.
All brother quarrel with each other sometimes. (MQ)