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This essay examines the development of Expressionism during the early 20 th

century, and the impact of the choreographer Michel Fokine in relation to this
development. With a particular focus on some of Fokine’s more influential
works, such as, The Firebird (1910), along with The Dying Swan (1905).

Early 20th century Expressionism developed as a result of the shift in artist’s

work as they left behind literal representations of nature, instead adopting a
more subjective outlook that left itself open to interpretation (“Expressionism”).
Artists such as Erich Heckel and Max Pechstein accomplished this through
use of distortion, exaggeration, and fantasy (“Expressionism”). Though
Expressionism as a wider movement originated in post-war Germany, its
manifestation in ballet was born in St Petersburg, where the likes of Léon
Bakst, Alexandre Benois and Sergei Diaghilev, disillusioned by their
contemporary art scene, received attention for exhibiting radical paintings in
Paris. Fokine followed suit by breaking rules, after likewise becoming
disaffected with the conservative, traditional ballets of Petipa. His
choreography foregrounded innovation in the same way other Russian visual
artists had emphasised (“20th Century Ballet Revolution”). By 1905, there
appeared a new generation of dancers who were strongly opposed to the
constraints of the Imperial Ballet. Consequently, a new style of ballet was
formed, one in which it was transformed into a more collaborative art form,
encouraging the co-operation of designers, choreographers, and artists alike.
This would become a distinctive feature of 20 th century ballet (“20th Century
Ballet Revolution”). This intertwining was aided by Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes,
whose ideas were considered revolutionary in comparison to the structured
and traditional rules of classical ballet. This was due to choreographers like
Vaslav Nijinsky, who expanded their art by experimenting with dance and
choreography (“Vaslav Nijinsky”). Choreographers changed the structures of
dance programmes too, replacing a singular long performance with numerous
shorter contrasting works. Choreography also became more communicative,
but purposely avoiding the use of formal mime, and with the corps de ballet
being considered essential to dance works, rather than a decorative
background (“20th Century Ballet Revolution”). The eventual decline of
Expressionism in the late 1920s was partly due to its use of highly poetic
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language, and the inaccessible nature of its mode of presentation, which was
facilitated by the rise in political styles of social realism (“Expressionism”).
Nevertheless, the impact of Expressionism during this period was significant,
with the occurrence of this revolutionary movement still influencing the world
of dance to this day. As stated by Andrew Nell, in the 1970s and 1980s, as
German visual artists revisited expressionist painting as a source for
innovation, so too did choreographers such as Pina Bausch.

Fokine was born 23rd April 1880, in St Petersburg (Russia). According to

Kathrine Walker, he had a substantial influence on the 20 th century classical
ballet repertoire, composing both The Dying Swan solo for ballerina Anna
Pavlova, along with The Firebird, for Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes. Fokine was
born into a middle-class family, and trained at the Imperial Ballet School in
1889. He had a “fresh and inquiring attitude” (Walker), with ballet, and despite
being a well-known dancer and teacher with the Maryinsky (“20 th Century
Ballet Revolution”), he began planning choreography at quite an early age. In
1904, he hoped to bring reform to the Imperial Ballet with the writing of his first
ballet, but was unsuccessful (Walker). This is because his ideas were deemed
“dangerously revolutionary” by conservative Russian theatres at the time
(Walker). However, as the expressionist movement gathered momentum,
Diaghilev started bringing artists together, choosing to make Fokine his chief
choreographer. This resulted in several unified creations between Fokine and
the Ballet Russes, including Petrushka (1911). These works embodied the
movement of Expressionism in their abstract nature. Fokine stayed with
Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes until 1914 when he returned to Russia (Walker). In
the same year, Fokine created his five principles which he believed should
shape the creation of ballets, - a significant contribution towards the advocacy
of Expressionism in ballet. Firstly, he believed work should not have a
combination of ready-made dance-steps, and should reflect the period and
character of the work; secondly, that mime has to connect with the ballet, and
must be purposeful i.e. not just decoration; next, that expression should
happen with the whole body, not just originating from one part; furthermore,
that the expressiveness of groups and ensemble dancing needs to be shown,
rather than only being expressed from one individual; and lastly, the necessity
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to align dance with other arts, being seen as equal to each other rather than
slaves (“Fokine’s Revolution”). These principles were to shape the
expressionist movement, and lead to further change in the 20 th century dance
scene. After leaving Russia, Fokine made home in New York. Here he worked
with various companies in the U.S. and Europe, continuing to create new
ballets, however, none had such the lasting impact as his earlier creations did
(Walker).

Fokine's ballet The Firebird, befittingly expressed in an article by Jane

Pritchard as "a riot of rich colour and movement", marked the beginning of a
new trend in ballet, fully embodying the principles of the expressionist era,
such as dance-steps emulating the character of the work. The storyline, which
originates from Russian folklore and fairy tales, is centred on the firebird that
has magical powers (“20th Century Ballet Revolution”). Fokine's expressionist
principles are evident throughout the ballet. For example, the use of pointe-
work for only the firebird gives a sense of flight and hovering (Pritchard),
demonstrating his first principle, of movement being expressive in that it
should mirror the character of the work. The erratic head movements of the
firebird (“Firebird” 01:10) emphasise that expression coming from the whole
body, realistically mimicking the behaviour of an ensnared bird. The pas de
deux section (“Firebird” 01:25-07:05) also does not have much mime. It is not
separate to their movement, and the relationship between the two characters
is still clear, calling attention to Fokine's second principle, of mime having to
connect with the ballet, used purposefully, rather than as mere embellishment.
The collaboration with Igor Stravinsky was also significant, as it represents a
key hallmark of the expressionist period (and Fokine's 5th principle), i.e. the
equality of different arts. In this case, Stravinsky's score was seen as equally
as ground-breaking as Fokine's choreography (“The Firebird”), as Fokine
transitioned from classical ballet towards "a more realist and folk-derived style
of movement" (“The Firebird”), so too did Stravinsky. He also incorporated
elements of folklore into his music, so was just as crucial in conveying the
storyline, as the score was essentially a reflection of the choreography, and
vice versa. The first performances were met with praise from audiences and
critics alike. Henri Ghéon enthused in Nouvelle revue française (1910), “The

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old-gold vermiculation of the fantastic black-cloth seems to have been

invented to a formula identical with that of the shimmering web of the
orchestra” (Taruskin). Ghéon is suggesting that all aspects of the ballet, from
scenery and costumes, to the score and choreography, were so well
considered in how they would collaborate, it appeared as though they were
designed solely for the purpose of complementing one another, a feature that
seemingly left spectators in awe. Thus capturing the very essence of what
Fokine (and Diaghilev) was aiming for; to create a ballet in which all parts are
equal in their contribution to the creation of the ballet, instead of one element
accentuated above the rest. They were successful in this aim, and in pushing
these expressionist principles to the forefront of the ballet, demonstrated a
new engagement with the art on a deep and symbiotic level.

The second expressionist work of Fokine’s to have such impact was his 1905
creation The Dying Swan. It is a solo dance choreographed by Fokine for the
ballerina Anna Pavlova, and has since influenced modern interpretations of
Odette in Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake (Julius Reisinger, 1877) (Greskovic). As
articulated by Fran Michelman, the piece highlights Fokine’s longing to free
ballet from stifled tradition, which can be seen from the omission of predictable
movement sequences, as well as expected elegance that have so defined the
art in years preceding. As in the Firebird, the distressed fluttering movements
accurately convey the struggle of a dying bird (Craine et al.), evoking a
poignancy which the reliance on an ethereal performance would fail to
achieve. This illustrates Michelman’s analysis, which sees the fluctuations in
choreography as emphasised not only in order to construct an authentic
struggle, but to reflect Fokine’s own struggle with the rigidity that accompanied
choreography in ballet. As Carter has highlighted, Fokine's granddaughter,
Isabelle, comments that the ballet does not make "enormous technical
demands" on the dancer but that it does make "enormous artistic ones”. Here
Carter reiterates the paramount nature of Fokine’s decision to put the
expression of the dancer as the driving feature behind the choreography.
Principles of Fokine’s reform are clearly intertwined with the choreography,
with the frequent use of upper body (“The Swan” 01:09), portraying Fokine’s
wish of expression being made use of by the whole body. Not only this, but

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the symmetry of the upper body being distorted on several occasions (“The
Swan” 00:34, 01:51). By purposefully not showing anything too structured in
the choreography, it is reflecting the character, in this case the distortion
echoing the pain and struggle of the dying process. This is also supported by
Fokine’s avoidance of conventional port de bras, (“The Swan” 00:57, 01:02),
with this lack of fluidity being disregarded in order to portray the character.
This again goes against traditional ballet expectations, so that the expression
is leading, rather than technique. In 1934, Fokine told dance critic Arnold
Haskell: “a highly developed technique is necessary, but the purpose of the
dance is not to display that technique but to create the symbol of the
everlasting struggle in this life and all that is mortal. It is a dance of the whole
body and not of the limbs only; it appeals not merely to the eye but to the
emotions and the imagination.” (Balanchine et al.). This effectively showcases
how Fokine approached the choreography, by wanting to show the struggle of
death, and hopefully making audiences feel this turmoil she is experiencing
through the process. In an attempt to compellingly engage them with the
emotions being portrayed, he successfully incorporates Expressionism into
the ballet and viewing experience. Fundamentally, emotion comes before
aesthetic.

To merely say Fokine’s impact on 20th century Expressionism has been

significant is an understatement. Through foregrounding movement as the
primary driving force in his work, he captured the essence of what it meant to
‘express’ oneself, unfettered by the dictates of previous institutionalised
modes of movement. Moreover, in doing so Fokine created the opportunity for
audiences to subjectively experience ballet; the distortion of movement
evokes and invites powerful emotion, and encourages a personal engagement
with the art. And this principle of pushing boundaries, creating and innovating,
shows him to be very much a product of the early 20 th century in all its flux.
With the radical dissolution of fixed rules in his choreography, came however
the simultaneous unification of art forms, having different modes work together
synergistically. Fokine not only shaped the movement of expressionist dance
during his own lifetime, but set the stage for its advancement through the 20 th
century as well.

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References:

Anna Pavlova. “The Swan”. YouTube, uploaded by DarkDancer06, 4th Oct. 2016.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tkFSBkl9mmo Accessed 19 April 2020.

Balanchine, George and Francis Mason. 101 Stories of the Great Ballets. Bantam
Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, 1975.

Carter, Alexandra, editor. Rethinking Dance History: A Reader. Routledge, 2004.

Craine, Debra and Judith Mackrell. The Oxford Dictionary of Dance. 2nd ed., Oxford
UP, 2010.

“Expressionism” TATE. 2020. www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/e/expressionism

Accessed 19 April 2020.

“Fokine’s Revolution”. Fokine Estate-Archive. 2020. www.michelfokine.com/id63.html

Accessed 19 April 2020. 

Greskovic, Robert. Ballet 101: A Complete Guide to Learning and Loving the Ballet.
Hal Leonard Corporation, 2005.

Mariinsky Ballet. “Firebird”. YouTube, uploaded by Ewaasia, 30th May. 2010

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EC6MmmLKEmA Accessed 19 April 2020.

Michelman, Fran. “Michel Fokine”. American Ballet Theatre. 2020.

https://www.abt.org/people/michel-fokine/ Accessed 19 April 2020.

Nell, Andrew, et al. “Expressionism” 9 May. 2016. Routledge Encyclopedia of

Modernism. 2020.
https://www.rem.routledge.com/articles/overview/expressionism Accessed 19
April 2020.

Pritchard, Jane. “The Firebird: A ‘riot of rich colour and fantastic movement’” 1 Dec.
2012.  Royal Opera House. 2020. www.roh.org.uk/news/the-firebird-a-riot-of-
rich-colour-and-fantastic-movement Accessed 19 April 2020.

Taruskin, Richard. Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions. Volume 1. University of

California Press, 2020.

“The 20th Century Ballet Revolution” Victoria and Albert Museum. 2016.
www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/0-9/20th-century-ballet-revolution/ Accessed
19 April 2020.

“The Dying Swan”. Wikipedia. 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dying_Swan

Accessed 19 April 2020.

“The Firebird”. Royal Opera House. 2020. https://www.roh.org.uk/productions/the-

firebird-by-mikhail-fokine Accessed 19 April 2020.

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“The Firebird”. Wikipedia. 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Firebird Accessed

19 April 2020.

Walker, Kathrine. “Michel Fokine”. 20 July. 1998. Britannica. 2020.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michel-Fokine Accessed 19 April 2020.