Neurons, Synapes, & Signaling

1. Nervous system overview

2. Neuron structure
3. Resting potential
4. Action potential
5. Neurotransmitters
6. Sensory neurons

The various tissues & organs arise from these germ layers

Nervous tissue arises from ectoderm

Animals need to respond to stimuli from the external environment (nervous sys.
Electrochemical process)
 The simplest animals with nervous systems, the cnidarians, have
neurons arranged in nerve nets  neuron net
 Neuron = single cell
 Nerve = bundle of neurons

Other animals have nerves = nerves are budles of neurons

Difference amoungst animals // Start with neuron then bundle into nerves

Vertebrates, includeing humans, have a complex nervous system consist of:

- A central nervous system (CNS) integration takes place
o Brain & spinal cord
o Brain = process center and som process in the spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS) brings info into and
out of the CNS

Neuron structure and function

 Dendrites, cell body, axon, hillock
 Most organelles found in cell body
 Synapse: a junction between an axon and another cell
DRAW A NEURON
Transmission of a signal
1. Establish resting potential
2. Propagate an action potential
3. Re-establish the resting potential

1. Resting potential: membrane is polarized; charge = mV

a. Concentration gradients represent electro-chemical portential energy
Transmembrane protein players: 3
Na+/K+ pump, Na+ channel, K+ channel
Sodium potatsium pump (active transport) – needs ATP (against concentration gradient
- Moves sodium ions (+) in one direction and potasium ions (+) in other direction
- Ions surround the neuron
- RULES: pumps 3 Na+ to outside of cell, and 2 K+ pumped inside cell = difference in
charges  positive outside of cell and negative charge of inside
- RESTING POTENTIAL ^^
DRAW

- Transmembrane protein channels that are pores and always open

Sodium ungated channel – diffusion
Diffuses Na+ to inside of cell because goes with the concentration gradient
Potassium ungated channels
Diffuses K+ to outside

** more potssium channels than sodium channels (4 times as many K+ channels)

= much more potassium leaving the cell than Na+ entering
CONTRIBUTES to the build up of the positive charge outside of the PM RESTING POTENTIAL

 Resting potential, K+ is greater inside of cell, while Na+ is greater outside of cell
 Sodium potassium pump uses ATP to maintain gradient
 At resting potential many open K+ channels and gewer open Na+ channels, K+ diffuses
out of the cell (ungated channels)
Transmembrane protein players: 2
VG - Voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels

VG Na+ channels
- 3 confirmations (states)
1. Closed with inactivation loop attached to transmembrane protein
2. Open –
3. Blocked by inactivation loop to block channel pore

VG K+ channels
- 2 confirmations (states)
1. Closed
2. Open (changes in voltage stimulate open)

 At resting potntial VG Na+ and VG K+ are CLOSED

 VG Na+ channels respond to electrical stimuli by OPENING
 Na+ floods into the cell and causes membrane potential to get closer to zero
= changes charge accross the membrane

Membrane potential – difference in charges

 Negative value describes RESTING POTENTIAL bc negative on inside of PM  in human
-70mV
 0 value means no charge arcoss PM - stimulus opens VG Na+ = Na+ floods in (positive
charge into negative charge inside PM) creates less difference across PM
o DEPOLARIZATION
  Positive value describes more positive inside of PM

Generating an action potential

 When a stimulus causes VG Na+ channels to open, Na+ diffuses into the cell 
depolarization
 Threshold  human = -55mv
 Depolarization causes nearby VG Na+ channels to open
o When threshold is hit ALL VG Na+ channels open  action potential
 An ACTION POTENTIAL results if a stimulus causes enough VG Na+ channels to open that
the membrane voltage crosses threshold
o Action potential = nerve impulses carry info along axons
o Neuron is capable of producing hundreds of action potentials per second
 Coordinate our bodies

1. At resting potential, VG Na+ and VG K+ are closed configuration

2. Some of VG Na+ are OPEN  stimulates other VG Na+ to OPEN Depolarization
3. At threshold ALL of the VG Na+ are OPEN  massive depolarization = flip the charges
4. Flip charges across PM = falling phase of the action potential
a. VG Na+ channels are BLOCKED by inactivation loop
b. Then VG K+ channels OPEN and K+ ion move to outside of PM (bc concentrated
inside)  carries positive charge to outside  Falling phase back to resting
5. Undershoot – takes awhile for VG K+ to CLOSE // slow
a. Goes under the resting potential
b. More K+ rushing out = more positive on outside than in
1. Back to resting

** 4 to 5 = refactory period : during this time VG Na+ channels are inactivated and unable to
respond to stimulus
How Neurons Work
 Neurons recieve input from one + cells
 Response = electrocal signal that generates action potential

Axon:
- Many ions move accross membrane driven by sodium potasium pump
- Activily transport Na+ out of cell and K+ inside of cell

Some K+ ions open all the time

RESTING POTENTIAL = negative inside of cell

Gated ion channels – closed at resting potential

Stimulus opens these  movement of Na + ions flows into the cell
Ka+ channel opens  K+ ions flows out of cell and == changes the charges across PM

ACTION POTENTIAL

Conduction of action potential

 Action potentials only travel in one direction
 Region of PM have inactivated VG Na+ inactive and VG K+ are open
 Bc inactive cannot be stimulated and only one direction

o
 o

At the peak, VG Na+ channels inactivates and the VG K+ channels open (K+ ions move to the
outside of the cell.
Condution speed
 Speed of action potential increases with an axons diameter
 In vertebrates, axons are insulated by myelin sheath
 -- myelin sheaths are made of glial cells
 What is the range of conduction velocities??
o Node of Ranvier

M.S. md of glial cells that wrap around axon of neuron – this part is insulated  helps action
potential to lead to next node and stimulates the next Na+ VG channels to open
= 10x faster

Spaces = nodes of ranvier  only place with transmembrane protein associated with action
potential and resting potential