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Charge Air After-cooling

Introduction
Air pressurized by turbochargers increases temperature which negatively effects engine
durability, performance and emissions. After-cooling, inter-cooling or charge air cooling
are interchangeable terms describing the system responsible for removing excess heat
from the air charging the cylinders. Charge air cooling is an important technology for
reducing N0x emission which also has a number of other benefits. Fuel economy, power
output and the maximum injection rates an engine can sustain are improved through
charge air cooling. This chapter not only examines the operating principles and benefits
of charge air cooling but describes diagnostics, testing and servicing of charge air
coolers.

Learning Outcomes
Identify charge air cooling system components

Define and explain terminology associated with charge air cooling

Define and explain the purpose and operating principles of charge air cooling systems

Describe the functions, construction, types, styles and applications of charge air cooling
systems

Describe and explain methods for performing inspections and diagnostic procedures on
charge air cooling systems

Recommend maintenance or repairs of diesel engine charge air cooling systems.

Key terms
Jacket water cooling (JWAC) Temperature differential test
Charge air cooling (CAC) Pressure drop test
Air to air after cooling (ATAAC) Inter-stage Cooling
Heat exchanger

What is Aftercooling?
The terms after-cooling and inter-cooling are used interchangeably by various
manufacturers to describe cooling of intake airflow from the turbocharger outlet.
Ambient (outside) air or engine coolant passing though heat exchangers are the
mechanisms for exchanging heat contained in turbo-pressurized intake air. A chassis
mounted air-to-air aftercooler (ATAAC) may be called a charge air cooler (CAC). If
engine coolant is used to cool intake air it is referred to as jacket water aftercooling
(JWAC).
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Charge air cooling involves removing heat from the air pressurized by the
turbocharger. Hot air from the turbocharger enters the aftercooler where heat is
released to the atmosphere. Cooler air leaves the heat exchanger and enters the
intake manifold. The charge air cooler is located between the turbocharger and the
intake manifold.

Why is aftercooling used?

On turbocharged engines, air intake temperatures rise dramatically with boost pressure.
High intake air temperatures in turn negatively affect emissions, engine durability and
performance. The loss of air density and increased cylinder temperatures accompanying
higher intake air temperatures are the main factors casuing these problems. Since
pressurizing a gas increases its temperature, intake air temperature is raised proportional
to its compressed pressure. Additionally, when gas temperatures increase, molecules
spread farther apart and the gas loses density. This means a cubic foot of air, when is
heated, contains fewer oxygen molecules and weighs less.

The relationship between temperature and pressure can be predicted using mathematical
equations.

Consider the following examples:

 If intake or under hood intake air temperature is 75 º F at atmospheric pressure
(14.7psi @ sea level) the turbo outlet temperature will be 285 º F at 20-psi boost
pressure.

 If the inlet air temperature to the turbocharger climbs to 25 degrees to 100ºF, the
discharge temperature will be 320 º F.

 30-psi boost pressure produces 358ºF outlet temperature with a 75ºF intake
temperature and 396 º F at 100 º F air inlet temperature.
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 A 250-HP engine will develop only 240-HP if the air temperature is 130F (54C)
using the same quantity of fuel.

Hot air from the turbocharger enters the aftercooler where heat is released to the
atmosphere. Cooler air leaves the heat exchanger and enters the intake manifold.

Problems with High Intake Air Temperatures

1. Low air density
High cylinder-charging air temperatures results in lower air density with fewer oxygen
molecules available for combustion resulting in poorer combustion quality. As air
molecules spread farther apart, less oxygen is available to support combustion and the air
mass available to cool cylinder components drops too. For every 10º F temperature
increase above 60ºF the changes to air density and oxygen content results in a power loss.
Power loss is 1% for every 10F above 90F. Without a cool air mass travelling across the
piston crown from the intake to the exhaust valve during the valve overlap period, the
piston crown and exhaust valve become very hot. The loss of air’s cooling effect results
in higher cylinder heat loads and shorter engine life.

2. Higher Combustion Temperatures

Increases in the intake charge temperature result in significantly higher combustion and
exhaust temperatures. This exhaust temperature increase is disproportional to the air inlet
temperature increase with small increases in air inlet temperature often producing even
larger changes to exhaust temperature. Generally a three to one ratio exists with every
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one degree-F increase in charge air temperature producing a three degree increase in
exhaust temperature. However, many factors including fuel rates, excess air ratio, air
density, compression ratio and others affect this relationship. Exhaust temperatures
should never exceed 1250ºF-1300ºF or damage to valves and pistons occurs. Very hot
exhaust gases will also cause the thin outer edges of the turbocharger turbine to glow and
eventually melt. If thermal loading of the cylinders is reduced through charge air
cooling, larger quantities of fuel can be injected to develop more power from the same
engine displacement.

This piston shows evidence of excessive heat loading of the piston crown caused by
excessive combustion temperature and pressure. This type of failure is common in
engines modified for higher injection rates and advanced injection timing. A
restricted air intake or externally restricted charge air cooler will cause these cracks
too. Note the cracks are vertical and travel from the edge of the combustion
chamber bowl.

3. Higher N0x emissions

Increases to charge air temperatures result in higher combustion chamber temperatures
which in turn increases the production of N0x emissions. Normally, nitrogen, which
makes up approximately 77% of the composition of air, remains inert and uninvolved in
combustion processes. At temperatures above approximately 2,500F and because of high
cylinder pressures, nitrogen will react with oxygen to produce nitrogen oxygen
compounds collectively known as N0x.

Beginning in 1988, increasingly strict emission standards for N0x were introduced for
diesel engines. The cooling of intake air which drops combustion temperatures goes a
long way to minimizing the formation of these emissions and the intercooler is an
important emission control device.

Emission Tip – Charge Air Cooling & Emissions

1988 marked the first year for legislated reductions to diesel emissions. Prior to this,
diesels only needed to meet a standard for exhaust opacity during a throttle snap test.
N0x emissions dropped from approximately 11-grams/Brake HP/Hr for heavy-duty
on-highway diesels to 6 grams in 1990. During this time almost every medium and
heavy-duty diesel vehicle began to be equipped with charge air cooling to bring N0x
to these levels. Without adequate cooling of intake air combustion temperatures rise
producing exponential increases in N0x emissions.
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Techtip – Leaking Charge Air Coolers

Charge air coolers are large air handling components and vulnerable to damage.
Leaking and cracked intercoolers are often a source of low power complaints. Cracks
can easily develop in these devices due to constant thermal cycling from hot to cold.
When investigating low-power complaints it is a good practice to inspect and test the
intercooler for leaks as a matter of course.

Air handling system technology, including charge air cooling has provided
substantial benefits to emission reduction.

Benefits of Aftercooling
Cooling the intake air charge to the cylinders accomplishes the following important
benefits
1. Increases air density, and oxygen content for improved combustion quality. More
oxygen in the cylinders means better contact between fuel and oxygen for efficient clean
combustion.

2. Intercoolers provide additional air mass for cooling of valves and pistons. Denser air
means the air is heavier and can remove more heat from valves and pistons during valve
overlap. Adding additional air mass to the cylinders helps dilute the heat produced
during combustion for lower cylinder temperatures.

3. Denser cooler air produces up to 5% fuel economy improvement due to improved

combustion qualities. The simple addition of an intercooler does not produce more power
- that requires more fuel and air. However, to the extent cooling of intake air improves
combustion quality, power increases are realized.

4. Intercoolers allow the addition of more fuel to cylinders to provide higher power
output per cubic inch of cylinder displacement. Since the addition of extra fuel can push
the thermal loads of engines to their maximum threshold, cooling charge air can reduce
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combustion and exhaust temperatures. This makes it possible to gain addition power
while minimizing the risk of engine damage using higher injection rates.

5. Intercoolers reduce N0x emissions by lowering peak cylinder temperatures and

pressures through cooling the charge air.

Note the addition of a CAC and larger exhaust to this medium duty diesel engine
has only a marginal power improvement. Engines with charge air coolers usually
have more power but it is a misconception to conclude that charge air cooling
increases power output. Cooling air allows for delivery of more fuel because CAC
lowers cylinder temperatures. Engines can operate with higher power output
without excessive thermal cylinder loads using CAC.

Charge air cooling and

other air components used
to handle air intake.
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Types of Aftercooling
Jacket Water Aftercooling (JWAC)
This type of charge air cooling lowers intake temperatures by passing the boost air
through water type heat exchanger. A JWAC is capable of lowering the turbocharger
boost air temperatures from a temperature of about 300F down to approximately 200F.
Older mechanically governed engines often used a JWAC positioned inside the intake
manifold. The advantage for a mechanically governed fuel system is the injection timing
can be calibrated around a relatively constant air inlet temperature. This type of cooling is
still a popular on marine diesel engines. Today, JWAC are used in series turbocharging
applications where very high boost pressures produce even hotter intake air temperatures.
Air intake temperatures are first lowered by a JWAC before passing through an air to air
cooler.

This JWAC located inside the

intake manifold of a
mechanically governed L-10 uses
engine coolant to lower intake air
temperatures. The outlet of the
turbocharger is connected to the
intake manifold with a tube.

The 2010 Maxforce 11, 13 and

15L engines use a JWAC for
interstage cooling. The JWAC is
identified with coolant lines.
After passing though the first
stage turbocharger the JWAC
cools air before engineering the
second stage turbocharger. A
second JWAC is located on top of
the engine which cools the second
stage boosted air before passing
though the air to air cooler and
into the engine.
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Location of the two

JWAC’s used on Maxforce
13 and 15L engines.

Caterpillar uses a JWAC on its C-

13 and 15 L ACERT engines with
series turbocharging. Prior to
entering the air to air cooler, the
JWAC lowers intake air
temperature after passing though
the low-pressure turbocharger.

Techtip – Servicing JWAC Cooling Systems

Whenever the cooling system of an engine using a JWAC is serviced it is important to
bleed air from the cooler. The cooler is a high point in the cooling system and air can
be trapped in the cooler preventing proper functioning.
Series turbocharged engines using JWAC’s transfer more heat to the cooling system
and therefore require more vigilant maintenance of the cooling system.

Air to Air aftercooling

The most popular method of cooling intake air is to use an air to air type heat exchanger.
By moving the heated charge air through an air cooled heat exchanger, the temperature
can be dropped from over 300F to between 100 and 110F with an outside temperature of
75F. The exact temperature reduction depends on what the ambient air temperature and
the volume of air flow across the cooler core. A properly functioning intercooler has a
maximum temperature differential of 50F between air intake temperature and outside air
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at 30-MPH airflow. Most coolers have an efficiency of approximately 80% which means
they reduce intake temperatures to no more than 30 or 40F above ambient outside
temperatures.

Air to air after cooling require relatively high air flow across the cooler to remove heat.
Therefore winter fronts should not be used with ATAAC. If a winter front is used it
should never be closed completely – at least 20% air flow must remain.

Most engine manufacturers using electronic controls monitor air intake manifold
temperatures as a part of the engine protection system. High intake temperatures will
cause the engine to de-rate power or even shut-down.
A/C Condenser
Air To Air Cooler

Fuel Cooler

Radiator

Transmission Cooler

Today’s’ diesel have substantial amounts of cooling. The charge air cooler is a
down flow type.

Charge Air Cooler

An air to air charge
air cooler is
mounted over or
beside the radiator
to take advantage of
maximum airflow
when the vehicle is
moving.

Radiator
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Construction and Operation

Most ATAAC are constructed of aluminium for maximum heat transfer and strength. In
order to achieve optimum cooling through the inlet and outlets of the cooler may have
different diameters. This is necessary to slow the airflow through the cooler to maximize
heat transfer.

Aluminum side tanks and

an aluminum core of a
typical air to air aftercooler
(ATAAC).

As the temperature in the cooler drops, a corresponding pressure drop occurs too. A
cooler pressure drop from side to side should not typically exceed more than 2-psi. If the
pressure drop is greater than this, the cooler should be check for internal restrictions and
leaks.

CAC are a part of the emission control system and must be maintained like any
other emission control device to ensure a vehicle is emission compliant.

Intercooler Mounting
Since coolers are often made from aluminium they expand and contract when heated and
cooled. For this reason the mounting system of a cooler is designed to allow for thermal
cycling. For example, washers on both sides of mounting bolts may include a spring type
washer along with nylon like washers which allow the cooling to slide. Special care
needs to be given to manufactures mounting instructions or damage to the cooler will
result.
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The Subaru diesel intercooler

shown here has elongated slots at its
mounting locations to allow for
expansion and contraction of the
cooler. Mounting hardware cannot
be too tight and prevent movement.

Testing and Servicing ATAAC

Charge air coolers can fail for a number of reasons which can lead to an air inlet
restriction, excessive emissions, high exhaust and cylinder temperatures. Low power
complaints can be caused by internal or external restrictions to the intercooler. Electronic
engines will often derate the power output if high intake manifold temperatures are
measured. These conditions can lead to severe damage to the engine.

Visual checks of intercoolers include checking for various cracks in cooler tubes and
the joint between the tanks and tubes. It is critical to inspect for external restrictions
in front and behind the intercoolers.

ATAAC Service Conditions

Leakage
Since the cooler is subjected to large temperature differentials as air cools moving from
one side of the cooler to another. Thermal cycling can stress the cooler until it cracks.
The stress is compounded since the aluminium has a much higher expansion co-efficient
than other metals. It is common then to find cracks in areas of the cooler where inlet
temperatures are highest and at the joint between the inlet tank and cooler tubes.
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Replacement is not always the expected service recommendation for this condition since
the size of the some cracks does not justify cooler replacement.

Pressure testing
Pressure testing the cooler to determine the magnitude of air volume lost is the most
important criteria for justifying cooler replacement. Small cracks do not warrant
replacement since dirt ingestion into the engine through a crack is not likely when a
cooler is pressurized. Additionally, if the engine is using excess air for combustion, some
leakage is permissible before the air loss affects the engine performance. Considering
these variables, many manufacturers do not recommend replacing the cooler if the leak is
small. Until the leak is significant, engine performance is not compromised.
After isolating and pressurizing the cooler to manufacturers’ specifications, the rate of
leakage is checked against acceptable limits. Manufacturers typically recommend
pressurizing the cooler to 30-psi and measuring the rate of leakage by observing pressure
drop. Less than a 5-psi pressure drop within 15 seconds is acceptable leak limit for a
variety of manufacturers.

The typical leak rate from

an intercooler should not
exceed 5-psi in 15 seconds
after pressurizing to 30-psi.
Less leakage is acceptable

Leak testing intercoolers

requires pressurizing the
cooler to 30-psi using a
pressure regulator. After
reaching the prescribed
pressure the air supply is
shut-off and the leakage
rate measured.
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Internal Restrictions
Charge air cooler cores can be restricted for a variety of causes. For example, a shredded
air filter gasket, water or oil ingestion can internally reduce airflow inside a cooler core.
Oil can accumulate because crankcase emissions which can pass through the cooler
condensing oil. Turbochargers wisp a small quantity of oil which can easily accumulate
inside a core. Any dirt getting through an air filter can stick to the oily core tubes and
further restrict air flow. A failed turbo may leave a large quantity of oil and even debris
inside to cooler.
It is important to have a cooler thoroughly flushed after a turbo failure to prevent
ingestion of debris into an engine. Engines have been known to run-away to destruction
on the lubrication oil loaded inside a cooler core.

Cooler cores should be back-flushed

with solvent and compressed air after a
turbocharger failure of if a core has
become internally restricted. Water can
accumulate when driving through rain,
snow and during conditions of high
humidity such as fog. In some cases, the
water can freeze causing ice blockage of
the cooler core. Oil will accumulate
from turbocharger oil wisp and closed
crankcase ventilation systems.

To evaluate whether excessive internal resistance to flow because of an internal

restriction exists, a pressure drop test of the cooler is recommended. This is accomplished
by measuring the inlet and outlet pressure of the cooler when the engine is under load.
While monitoring the intake manifold pressure, a separate gauge can be installed on the
cooler inlet or turbocharger outlet. Usually, no more than a 3-psi pressure drop is
allowable. However, test results should be compared against manufacturer’s
specifications for acceptable limits.
A pressure drop test measures
internal restrictions of intercooler
core. The pressures at the
turbocharger outlet and intake
manifold inlet are the test points.
Testing is performed under full load
at rated speed. Some pressure drop is
expected but usually no more than 3-
psi or 6-inches of mercury. The
pressure drop across an intercooler
can be measured under full load full
speed.
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External Restrictions
Winter fronts, bug screens, blocked coolant radiators and A/C condensers can restrict
external airflow over the charge air cooler. Sometimes a small leak in the cooler will
allow oil to migrate out creating a adhesive surfaces for road dust to cling to surfaces
behind a cooler. Even though a quick visual inspection of a cooler might show no signs
of restriction, the area directly behind the cooler may be completely blocked.
This type of restriction would also not allow sufficient airflow across the radiator causing
engine overheating or high engine coolant temperatures. Engine emissions and cylinder
heat loads would increase proportional to the degree of air restriction over the charge air
cooler.

To diagnose an external restriction, a temperature differential test can identify a loss of

cooling across a cooler. The vehicle needs to travel at least 30mph. Normally there
should not be more than a 20 or 30 F difference between ambient temperature and the
intake manifold temperature. For comparative purposes, Cummins air temperature
differential test limits the temperature difference between ambient air temperature and
intake manifold temperature to no more than 50F or 28C with at least a 30 MPH (48
km/hr) air flow across the cooler.

A temperature differential test across

an intercooler measure cooler
efficiency or whether the cooler is
possibly externally restricted. The
temperature difference between
outside air and intake manifold
should be no more than 50 degrees F.

Techtip – Testing For External Restrictions

Intercooler temperature differential test can be easily accomplished on a road test with
an electronic diagnostic tool. OEM software or hand held diagnostic code reader can
usually monitor intake manifold temperature. This can be compared with the known
outside temperature. Make sure to load the engine by operating it under full throttle up
a grade or in a higher gear than the vehicle would normally operate.

Hoses and Clamps

ATAAC use unique connector hoses with their colour often differentiating the hot and
cold side of the cooler. These hoses are made of chemically stable, durable silicone
material. Clamps with smooth underside surfaces are used to prevent damage to the hose.
Spring operated clamps are preferred since they can maintain a constant torque on the
hose regardless of the dimensional variations produced by temperature extremes.
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These “T” type clamps uses spring tension to apply an even smooth clamping force
around the circumference of the intercooler hoses. Thermal expansion and
contraction can loosen gear type clamps like those often found on the coolant hose.

Under hood noises while under engine boost can be produced from leaking clamps and
hoses. A sudden pressure drop in the intercooler caused by a blown clamp can cause oil
to be drawn by the turbocharger compressor wheel.

Update!!

Ford 6.7 Waterpumps – Left is primary right is secondary for liquid inter-stage cooling.
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Two completely separate cooling systems which includes separate water pumps,
radiators and coolant reservoirs caps and thermostats. Secondary system is for
interstage air cooling.

Number Component Number Component

7 Degas Bottle 1 Intercooler

4 EGR Cooler 6 Secondary Water Pump

5 Transmission Cooler 3 Fuel Cooler

2a Thermostat Housing 1 8 Secondary Radiator

2b Thermostat Housing 2