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    211 views155 pages

    Introduction To Matrices and Linear Transformations by Daniel T. Finkbeiner, II

    Uploaded by

    Jose Soto

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    Introduction to Matrices and Linear Transformations Introduction to Matrices and Linear Transformations BY DANIEL T. FINKBEINER, II Kenyon Colage | ME w. H. PREEMAN AND CompaNY 10 Francia and Leno © 1810p WE Brana Com ‘Pei er a sto pte hi ea ‘Erin py wh the apo lh ih nu of Cong Calo Card Nala 1850 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ‘Denim the five youre since this book was frst published, many’ people Inve Kill tan fie to send te ther comments, aeparing in exon ‘eet deft Dt generous in cursing We text in gear, ober tons sinalated se to undertake thi tevin and infenesd the nate of {he tanger which apne "The approch to lncar algebra ab the organisation af te content rain tail uneinged ftom the fst elton, Profs and txt intepretatone ‘re rove im mtumerous plate for greater eats. The eave a the di ‘ace nto ata ery stage to provide a geomet interpretation (the transpore of mate. Muh ater te used to ety normal tae feuations ato express the primal att dul oem of soe ogra ‘ing. Chapter 7 combine the entent of Chae 7 and 8 f the ft elton 1H ieluder an improve deatson of the enone frm for tpotent ‘non, sing eye subopes hie ye he Jordan canons fora for any uae matr Tn Chapter § Gormely Chapve 0) the daeuasion of mate ‘cept i cnvnd ou for bth ral and complex vetor spe, ad material fon Hermitian functions ston orm taasormations in developed Ts Chapter the damien of combinatorial euvalene farmedy Appi B) ta bean ext to inet ler to Hora prograsaing Fly, {tew Appendix las been added to eal ditineion which ars nthe Tturatur baie fliers conventions of setation fr mates rele tht change ds nol nec np iprovement; that iin tin fers dows nt prevent the intradetinn of se oem sal be mort att or Farther mations frm people wh se this book. Fepeialy, ‘ri to take my fends atthe Univer of Woster Aastra, whose ‘ncorparble borat in 1064 pleasantly aed the work of thisrevio, Sept, 1065 bon ranemein PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Marasx ranony, ormoregenceally linear algebe, isa relatively recent tuathemateal devropnet. rst extend take 1 yar to the mor of allon, Cayley, and Sylvester, but it has atactd wep treat ‘onl in the part bo of tive doaden Tay mares are fective tain ‘uantu theory a well a due! mechani a seonauts, hana, st letra nginceviog; tai td Enorprograniing an! therefore inal the esi cen wbih thee thor srve, Even cursory glance af curt mathemati! erat reed that rates thoy i nag of ative growth ee ater suring therfore {hat the mathematical Iaskgotnd rowed fr an andestanding of ate theory i mliety mds that substantia fet eoure ea he mastered ty undergrdate, The major perenne i ota specie Bint of ene in athena, bat valle the abit to reason abstractly o proceed logy {rom hypothe to eonehn, Angone who pow thin quality, even I tently, i apable of utdertandg the mater presatlore, whether he ean somos, paycolgi, engine, heist, pis, or mathematician ‘The seeowary mathematical lacgroutd ie normally seule in one oF 0 year of ole matberatis, ‘Corse in mates theory are currently present in several ways A com taiocal course ean be feed in hich the ealelations themes ate raphael more than thermo, Alterstly, the tay of mato can ter otvated from the faiar problem of sing eaten of eae ‘ons the impetan sont teen tates and near trnefoealons aig dere tl the end ofthe coe third prcedar, and th one hose her, systematically ep the elegant technique of ate agen to develop tinultanwouny the algebra of mate and th grote oat ‘Although an axiomatic apprach places a grater burden at the outst of the cour on bth the instr andthe student, the late gai under ‘Asoding Loar alba, and indood mera mathemati ata ne, amply {iat th extn effort. Undealy, the understanding of ata concepts ede y front trations fre fami ontot, and min te vii Preface tempt has bom nade here 4a rin fm contact with cntete eas wile Ney developing bgher daze of geal “Tue obvi rp of thie ton to post uid and wil into duction to near aga level hin ean be udettod by udenea Stes no pours resonable niathenateal apie ad thus to ay sl uation fn hk each stent ean apply thee notions ad terbiqae forthe Bld of hs intent. A eae bat equally wrous objective i to vrcgur he ste for vanced sate work by developing hs powers af atest aoning, Linear str x aaa uit otha poo. ‘The pnt test ns revile forth of meographol lecture notes wien In 951 forte nod csr of = are couse in abtret alsa at Remon College, Beats Kiar alba is x coesve body of knows ich Hide taney of alge aed geometric concepts, Ibe that it vreican more natural intodurtion to steak algebra than doe hel vey une, The et chapter, supplemented by Appendix A, pees the “Ife noose for thin tay; thas the text ane ed by tae ‘Mo tave ro previous expeenee with modern algebra teh "Tc reaining materi hs en slectodan tangol to proceed diet to th puto of equalene latina and eaonial forms, The dui of cee nad slg phased, bt eompatational aspects a nig ud Meer onions ate defer wl Chapte 9, prepay bsease they root ental forte major act ofthis work. Depending apn the ailty elas, there adequate materia for enue of elas hour. Chapter Thun toa heser extent Chapter, may be omit without intrring evo with the aor ina ofthis presentation, inc some rer ga nest re ated exe, cach tent ie une to make a pace of tenga exerises and Tearing the Tats ‘fatal tri, even though he might choose otto prove all of shom, Rois a he ral es wae performed dvi my tentare as ioe ‘rusty Fellow ofthe National Seisneo Foundation, Tam greatly indebted Tote Foundation fort suyyst to Pingetan University fr the we of ie facie during this pera, at Keon Celle fr aniston with the (gia! yen, Personal gattade i exprewed to JG. Wendel for matbe- TERS Uncle nfending vera decade, to A. W. Torker for making IMRIMLIS bis come work on ombiatoria iene, to W: D. Kidston foe ang erty sete yrs ofthe mata, nd o the editors nd [Ghose of the publaer for any Repl sugertions. Appreciation fe ‘ral ia to Nie Rehand Adore snd Mrs. Charles Hele for Ui Fatp in preparing the original wd revised manierps Pebraary, 1050 bon, wiveneocen CONTENTS Ghapler 1 Abstract Systems $14. Intoduetion 12, Sate 13, Relations 14, Pnetioon and Mappings 15, Abetraet Sytems 18 Fille Chapler 2 Veetor Spaces 21, Ineodaeion 22 Vector Space over a Vink 23. Subepane 24, Lowa Independence 25 Bais 28. Dineion 27, Teomorphian of Veetr Spaces Linear Transformations Heromorph of Vector Sees Rank and Nulity of Liver Transformation ‘Nonnguler Traeforaaions Dial Space 85, Trunpoe ofa Linear Transformation 2 near Algebra SST. Specie Form of «Linas Transformation Chapler 4 Matzices 4.1, Matsoes nd Matix Operations 42 Special Types of Matrices asee eeeeass ese ae Contents a Chapler 3 ou a wa Chapter 6 62 ba Chapter 8 83 80 Fundamental nto Theorem Rank of» Mati lock Mutipestion of Natsoes Linear Equations and Determinants Sysene of Liner Equations ‘eterminaste| kn Fol Form for det A The ler ofa Matec: Ajit Method Opmrations on nea Stems Fquivalence Relations on Matrices Ielradton hemeatary Matis Row Eavaience Exuivaence Snulaity A Canonical Form for Similarity CCharcteriie Vectors and Yale ‘Method of Disgoatiation ‘inital Ppa of» Mattic variant Sulepnces Diagonal Theos ilpotet Transformations Sonia Canonical Form “hn Appian ofthe Hanson-Cayley Toren Metric Concepts (Conjugate Bit Fonetions Taner Product Ting, Dstanse,and Ortlogonlty Iometne Teitian se Quadratic Forts ‘Norn Matric and Transormatons 103 10s ua ue 180 ro i” ao Chapler 9 Combinatorial Equivalence 91, Prekiminary Rem 22. Linear lng: D3. Linear Progeaing 84, CombintrialEeuivalnee Chapter 10. Punctions of Matrices 10.4, Soqueoos and Soi of Mateons 102. Matis of Functions 103 An Appiation to Defecatial Batons Appindic A” Algbmie Concepts Append B Matrix Notation Referees Satins ond Anawers fr Slated Eseries Ince Cont xt a9 2 CHAPTER I Abstract Systems $1.1. Introduction ‘When a student bins the ty of trios be soon discovers propos ich nt to have no otra in previous mathemati experience, This iso unavodle gni xexing The eoneepts he eons and the Tina he enpye ace mare diferet rom those ho has enoontered i mathenstes through sco ad nto alg. Flementry school athens ie cnteond pinay with ho asthe fmumber tyre beating with he pive tgers and developing eral ally to ela al of he integers ad the rasa! suber The ater se of Inter to repens suse i zal sede toward absimetion, and the cervecponding dy i alld algebra ited of arith. The agree wobiem of eiving quate equtins reveals the pod for sll mae com- Prebeonve number apsams, wich Teds tothe etudy of rel an complex “An exrpion othe empl on unbers ear in plane geometry, where the sementastuiod are elle) points aad Tne eather than subs and ‘Sustion, and wer tho lations between gomeiefigures ar no Tongs mesa equality or iequaty Dut congraence, inlay, paral, oF fupenfraarty Gennatay normally the en's fet excursion fom {worl of nubs to «ral of doduetvethooght whichis eels "Tignomety ad analytic geometry provide abd Btn numa saul geomet cone by wing number ad equtions to dasribe gonete ‘uunes The oes si ae grometi, bt the methods wed nines (itng it properties te nome Tit aa rans rm the stu Pitre to the stay of wounmeseal ements continued in alu 2 AbwtractSoeteme [ea in which faneton nd operations on fuetion are deserted meray bat Inve igieant grote terrains, hewn, mates ae decid zericaly and havea gometse Interpretations, Matrices fort a typeof sumer ete, and in this ly rela be conrad nth developing the algae proper of thirst “However, inc natin ce nritiely lated to geometry, ile re [aon to arid is somnparatively caper, «grometi interpretation ‘St oaui hry bath natn fet tr thi iteductry chapter ‘rtm imineitely to deeipton ofthe geomet setting for oa er ‘ork, teen tar pace Ty Chapter we ay er anor nt ofa spc, and wot an Chapter 4d we say mai heme Tis csdnt from the Table of Contents that varius rather Aon are dics a hi ook, ray of which ray now be unas ko Jour Thur we sal gin hy deverbing mathematical ystems grown. Tonto ty sages that ear present terete primary in the internal trac fhe spate rate than init lation tothe phy! word, we ‘oak an bare pom, Yon ar see not onterpot he wor “ata” waning tht fama geome il ot arse as pctiulr examples of ettcteytems A we shall ex abraham i olen deed a 2 ‘tha of on cones tem, "Ths ntedoetory chapter, which discus wat eytems fom th point of view of wor aig, ha hr objectives to ntact base nat ‘Gon al in ths bok, to extend and mdersse te sade mathe ‘ort edt captor sue of the pit of atc materi "Tomar matbeatcae the ett apa of an abstract ye = cit ntti forts tay, Prom a nr practical tapi he ives ato of ate apeeme ba reat large aod ued the Fandaents nip of mathematics, al as provided deeiption of wach important ton a relations, funtion, abd operations in terms ofthe singe and Tuten fe Such a dierption i ven in Appendix A. fy ave msi for abeetion or dei for more peciion than i fod in {a inaaduetory chapter, you nay wih oat Appendix A immediatly. ‘Or you may prefer to proted more gradually, deferring a genera study of ‘bale woneept until you have ace some espercnen with ew ies i the pele yen conse nts book. Inter ent, 7 soul mat ape to stan inmate ad oferta fay with all ofthe es resco You abou otdy the text material earful as work {irough the exampls and exes deta teal inresing our Fact for abet thougit and caning your insight into the nate of mathe: Soe a 1. Asse thea of to or more tients i organi nt comniios| ln tach way that each of the following statement (ponte) in tam (a) Every comnitte a eoleton of oe or more student (G) For eah pl fen there i rely coe eomiten on which tothe, {c) No single somite is ampond fall the stants in the la, (@) Given any committe snd any stent nt on that omen, thee cists ext one somite on whidh that stodent serves whith hae mo lot of theft comin ite mints. Trove cach f the statement (Uherens) inthe folwingsoqusz, ustiyng each step of your pro! by appeaing ta one ofthe Bve potter orto an erie thorn ofthe sequence (Alioogh this tem may app ‘or coerete than asta is general nature india by Exerin of {is setnn and Exes Bf § 12) (i) Bry atuent serves on at It evo comnitons (i) very eommiton ha at leat tro mente (is) Ther area et fr stent a he ab (i) Thre are at lst scents inthe 2. (i) Tranlate te dserption ofthe sytem ofthe pelos nrc into somatic language by calling the ela a "gomtey,»enta "poin,” Sh comnittce« “nn” and Hy making other changes as nade to ery Gut the gemeie Savor witout hang the inherent acing of the (i) Tranelate Ue our Urea int gamete lngua, and sinlaly tran your proto theft thee. (i) Pd he gore yom wih the salt mabe of pints which satin the our poste, (Such a ayste scale it gentry {horeme aba the spate can be dacoverl and prove.) (iv) Which of the four postulates re coset with the aiome of Bude pave geomet? §L2. Sets. Belo we attempt to dere strc eytms, me shoul ist reogsie| that it ite Hoples fort india oy to ary ona itl conversation uno ty sare sone bee Krowlngs. We now sate two 4 Abstract Sostemse [ea moral assumptions about the tase knowledge that sus as foundation foro ster acu: “Phere ew common uersading ofthe base language which we bal se to dali other tem "Thee ra common understanding of he sytem of Vga ening with she we posed fom Bypothesis to eonduson, “Thaw sumptions ar so goal hat hey now appar ob ate sve: pony we eal be are spo. Tn eet the fist asumpion renin The uy ring to deine all trax whi wl be need, and herby ‘Mtb eel fore ome Tesco asp declare ‘that no frmal ean ofthe roles duction wills in ths book ‘oe peal, as prt of our ace language we assim an inbitie “undentaningof the ation oa wt Te word tied to denote eli, ‘Gnu Jomy,o agent oot, whic ae eli elemens or mentor of ‘howsTt widen that this expansion doesn define n sto he cones comfrey in ses These eanept re part of the weed Ingunge ‘hich ad fortis beak is cvtomary to denote a by nepal eter a the element of et ‘by el etn To dente that un eement a weer ofS, we bes, ‘nhc can ab bo ead a long t 8." "To dente that dos nt Dong tos we ste bes “The ase conn ways of mein ty ing mets kine TESS cnet pet ish dns wth mt a sin tea tt ft ‘The vaton wich weap fr the mo men compris to pa TRY Serta itn bce The rt at el wr he TERRE nc ome at tera prt eis th ears see For samp et Ident he tof al inp ad et sree desta a tg sue sw ha ve. Tho ro mins string Sar 8-2-1013, tena ingot to ther i wich sh dete oo Se weniecn, which read, 8 tho gt of al integers ah shat 2 is es than 2." We us th spol to denote the rid or empty ety which ontains wo el Sas kent tal. While th void et may mem a fist to he an aif oto, ‘ts ateeplane asa bons ide i onveniant Bet Sand ar aa be mu i a oy if hey eoaainexaly the same elaents Tn terme of the meabesipsalation, this exprewel as T= Simeanes € Tif and only itz © 8" ‘he neat concep i tha af aso. 1S a at is, Tis ai oe a ‘het of 8, written T/C and only if erry element of alent of Sita, TC Sram ite © 7, then 2 28 ‘The must notation T'S S ean aly be writen $2 7. This woation is unig to te notation for naga of nib: w & 6 mena the sae S562 a Tes readily void that equality fs oan be expr a ers ‘of heat tation a T= Smee °TC Sank Sc 1" Tt le lee fom the definition of svt tht any sti bet of itt ‘Ale, singe the void tas no elements, the statement Il 2 = then 2 E55" loialy va for anys, Tht we have VCS and 5 5 for every a 8. in said tobe a proper elt ofS fa only evry semen of san cement ofS, ut ot evry cnet of Sinan leat of 7. Thi wien Te Sit andonly #7 C Sand 7 7 5 In peti mets unl to apt gta for wi, caing an eet pit eventhough the Sent tay hae mo Ovi frome cant Whe we apt mh dons tse ve mat ‘arin mid th he dom ofr smoot al we mt cay ‘un from suing aay popes whch imy be mages Uy rage ut wich [= {ot ther ninety lad oh gee lean of sree he uo ttc la Youn grams io rove ctsand tnt eer te Thi thems elton TS ant hora raph ‘cally a in Figure 1.1. Such diagrams provide Plewe Lt insight ening ls hy est tds by ich atenents stout tac be pone dapove. Hower dag arenot ral tts ora pot "Wen tum oes o eel nays in wich el can be coin tw pads thr mt ot 9b ay tl eK tote te ent athsabtsot S. (The leentsof Kare the ubsets ofS) We tl dine thee “penton om eal union, ert, a ample: Union Aub (ee8|re dors cB Intron Ana (reS|zeAandz eo}, Complementation: A = (ESL A, sthurif A and Bare any elements of K, tho eA unin B costs of all sag atk ela to yew Bot both. The ae "Ailes Cremer cosas af al lt ofS which belong to bath A and. The eee cuenta A cont ol leet of Swick dont belong to 4 Fees ine void nt), wey hat And ar dit, Von darame Al? ote tno operons ae ahowa io. Figure 1.2, More geal = e Ave tiaded Aa hated ‘A ehaded Figwre 2 he union nd ntti fay aly Pf mets of Sa df in a tags: Uda (eeSle ed oesome 4 eI, A= eS|eed fora A CF aving made thn deft ne no hae fore oa onerte ame er a eee ar of wh wl be seed in § 15 co eee a dpi, wi be una eg ha we eae wang anata systenn wth the tetsu atentin mate ab ae nd. We have dnd o ein ox aa a tytn nh suet ton Parte, we Bae a ch ion ad intention Uy wi ao abet Jae ed a mare ae sat ofS. tl operon, ce ards hana mc eh ia of S dternies caer at 5 If we cne to dom, we culls wks & a ston tho proprio thi osm proving thems a ci fi Af ck hems are ated tio a vr a a Ae ann sonnei tenia ApemdiS BAS. (oz) cut Exercises 1.) List al the subst of = (02,64) GG) IOS i teething moments, how many sect does 5 nye! Prove your ane 2 Refer to Bxreze 1, § 1 rate the design ofthe system {nto the abrct nnzage and notation of at. Abo trate the four ‘theorems but you needa prove them agin). "Let A and beastly bc fa given ot, Use he dition of set theory to prove the allowing theres () AS Bitand oly AUB = B, G) Ava@ng=aunaaue, i) Quay = ane 4. The deren af wo abuts of 5 ie dina by A-Betelzem (Pind and prove an eguation which express A — in tam of the bait operations (U, Nand), Draw an ilastrative Venn diagram () Proves (4B) = 4°U B (i) Tat aiereuee x commutative operation? Thai, are A and B= A eal? Prove your answer 5, The aymmatredifernce A @ H of to subst of Sethe st of al ements which blog ete oA oe to B, Dut not to bth A and B. (Bind and prove an egprsion for A © B in tem of the baie at paations (0, My ad). Draw an istrative Venn diagram. (a) Prve at (4.9 BY = (AUB) AUB, i) Is eymmmirie erence commutative operation? That i ane A.@ Band BO A esa? Prove your anne. (iv) Discover simple dezrptio of the we (A. @ #) © € (@) Ie opmmetie ference an sssoative operation? That ie, ae U9 BoC and A © (HC) owal Prove yur anewe 6. Stow that st union can be exposed in terms of iteration ad complemestatin, 7 Considering only ists et nS) denote the number of ements (i Prove nA B) = wld) + ai) ~ aA 05) () Discover and proves sim rol for nLA U BUC) Attract Systems ten §1.3. Relations Given any st 5,1 often neeny to eno how the lament of are tel ons toapither wo abjects might bo af the se clr, but ene ‘okt beter an thoothe, ine Light intr! ne bt be paral waa ein geaea, ten, we with 40 eomider all ordered pais (2) of Gutus of Sand to have some mane of dstingishing erin ofthe SSe tom ote pur The pais wich re thus tinged ensue @ Fc rat nS and we any that arated obi and only if hepa (God tv distnglcbod pai. "2. paso mone frail, we st den Uo atsion roa of act 8 with eal to be Ue set § So all ordered pairs of elements of 5 8x8 = ((b)]aeSand eS) ‘pw pirogue onl if ie fet components ace sae an their Mend components ae the sno, Then a binary tation on. i ply SEM 9 8-11 (0,0) © Rive say that cede ob by the ration Ry Sand wo write ab IC (0,0) €R, we weit ab Examples wren tis the wt ofall al suber, rprscoting the points ona rel oxedite ay then HX He hes ofall ordered pais of eal ssa setting tha punts ona wal eorinale ple The ration of equality eelcartod by the act {Cya) | a. comeing of all pints on the line fs Tae elation o <8 ie ropreaatol by all points wich ie above the Tine y= 2 TU) IFT Sth wt of integers, 1 Tl vepremated by the ot fall point “ot leepan fe which both connate ar integers, elle stn points” Therston bie een dvinble by 8," waten a = 8 ood, ir ‘Rented by al late pointe wich Leon any Tine of slope 1 Usrough he eit (0), € Tntinea alga sone thoughout mathematics, we re partially snc a binary relations which have Ue abstract proper of eat "Theo are Referviys Ra lor every a€ 8, Symmcrys aR tea HR, Tranatiniye if a¥e band be, then ac Any mln Bon 8 which as thw thw proper icallod an equine ation “Ona th major investigations that wo shal undestae in this book om cours demspton of Yanan equvsleae rations wich aro ia natural (say Funtions and Mappings 9 mano in the say of ties Ther, efor reading Chale 6 you wil nl obese non foie withthe soe amy lo tn eepily equiva elton Temes developed me fella comps in pond A = Exercises 1. Givon the ct $= (1,2, 6,8. i) Represent 8 > 5 geometrically. (8 Rape gua he it of SX 8 wih eter ‘by the relation “ae divides 6 evenly” for a, b € S, * a {a Neo ge ly te of 8X 8 whi dete by the relation “a > 6” for a,b & 8. Men Gecenied 2. Sho tha if has oe than he eet he esti sh 8% Sha tan ice hv nt band AXA io sh ert ‘4 relation on A. Describe each of these two relations, - Tia ete al tiv tg Fi ny Se» on hen pts es eing a= Kom aad oly bide 6) Prov that tis an aiatnce relation J (i) Prove that ia = Hod 9) and i em dad), then atem b+ dinods) and 2c = bdod (5) Sow yon cg ta i fo) ad a ‘it docs not necessarily follow that a = (mod n), “onion $14. Functions and Mappings tis asoumel that you are fain with mame funtions fms your previ hemi pei ot prin hv dei faetoe ‘mr geal ing Hel ha rth i tn ha dain ‘efnion (a et D of numbers), and What to each 2 € tho fneion ‘signs a unique aumber 9), wich ical the ae of faz Anz vars ‘ver D, the numbers () frm se whith eallo he ronge 0 J ‘A goncalaation fom america funtion to arbitrary futons i made scythe at Dat Rows mms ‘and consider them to be ubstract sets, =e * 10) Abstract Systems ten) [Action F from aa Aina Ben of 1a wonid eet D&A, elle ta daa of Fy Fe pbodence wich that to each a= D these asciatd ooe and ony oa b= B. the eiomunt © which is amosiated with a © D hy the fantion Fi Tr dented (0). ‘The ranqe of Fi the subst SB, die by B= (be Bd ~ Fe) forsame € D) 1A = B, wey that Pi fection fom A ont Foe a omaatign to gtomrtvie ngunge i sel. The domain. D ae anata pins at the Fanetion Passa with ac pont { eaely one pono Pie omar aytonytn of Sanson is ppg, « terminology anced oy Figure 1 ben, the pint) all the ie of = sane te mopping For fvetionf sbtect ts thi goes terinlony Fe delete thn tha sed for nner foneins, Thee is ako 8 se ancl change which we tal adopt—insead of devoting the nage cre inie Fy the fneional notation P(e), we sal ont the parents ore Iain bldlace yp to the ight of = In this now rataton a fanetion ‘il be intd thos: Fiz +28, forall: dom, ‘Thus foreach € dom F tho syn devote the image of une he snapping F. Arr rant to eee that althoagh # mapping F sens a unig snmse ab fo each 4 dam Hite poole that» pit of rane F 3 Aempageat mare hn one it of dm tht rom tbe emuation P= se eneeee deduce that v= r‘Thnrefr, rppings i gmeral re many Treen that many dstinet pint ofthe domain mas be mapped ‘ereine sme point of the range, Jurt as with numeral functions 3 reese at ac point af ngs ¥ he imago of ety ne pin of dom E ae anne mapping Fe canbe ded fom range F onto dom F, sich that fy a erage , then pee GHP = forovery x dom. ta oe range FS eauge F Piguet tom F dom Ft To mammary, we sey tht a raping F ene fr rr) caly f= Fila = me ic mete then a vee fe thn Fea be de Sn ange dm Fou ht fra dom snr to dom oh tht for each © doo F, ‘The quan ()R* ~ sao hati nein te th = nap it hy Fan i 2 yh et gs tT nt rl in mpi Rae 4H Can a Fa 4B ta ween tines tie magpie PG ow ite Cass PGs + AFG = GIG forall» edo, ‘The cont of comps fant on wry ipo i Base alia ‘because matrix multiplication ean be interpreted in terms of ar hero rn rh ed aon wh rapid for aeons pases he sail for 8 maping othe i of Functiont an Mapping 1 12 Abstract Stems en. 1 they forthe object which mapped, a eavention which partially ‘nveet fr crapste faethe tb image of ner tbe compte sine "F flied by 6" i dented by 2FG, the individual yma vente om lt to gt i ae natral oder of occurence. By ents Prikl nha notation ih a for Tnetions in intodtary aaa pe emspuning notation GUE), and the term nction af = TaN end At we sale ae hea we represent near mappings by (Retro, he are ipo dferenn inthe Forno hat representation, ‘Tein upon wher mapping avo writen in right-hand or left-hand ttton, Boh ystans ae widely sd Exercises 4 Lat, 1, U, and V bo ets ad et FG, an be mappings whose douaios ae 5,7, nd Ud hoe anges ae mbes of 7, C, and Vy respective i) Deserts th dain and ange of Fan GH, (i) Show tat (GH) = (POM. Gi) Suppose that and are both verse (one-one, Show that (86) = GAPr, and tat OF {i Suppose U'~ 8. Desibe the damn and range of FG and GE. ‘Ave these io feo ua Explain Io) Suppose U'= = S. Are BG and GF equal fonetsos? plain, 2, Let F and beth be ppg fom he rea ube othe eal ts Sings mitpeation of eal numbers dfn, protic FG of mappings ean be dei by AF 06) = (h)6). (tio ey © is wd to prevent enfin wit the menesivespiaion It mappings, P, ain Exerc 1) Prove FO G = G0 F 3'The sto ming O dois by 20 = O forall el Le ait a6 = hal = 2, Prove F 4 0,6 x O,but FG = O, whore © ideined win Brace 2 $1.5. Abstract Systems We ace naw sony to deserbe theatre of an abtract wpe, Fat yen hates nonvid of eement, the bling oes af th stem, ‘Fier elennte ae rear a having na properties other than Uwe which cs} Abas Sse 18 tr rch he sen nth ht ue gmt tems ‘other descriptive names for them, ™ Example “orllistrte this iconion we shal we the mei eampl ofthe elles: tion K ofall bate of ven tS. ‘The pete ich me deeb inthis ‘ample as Kan ite set of elements Ths an element of the syst i 8 (abel of ot an leant of 8. [Next meme a tf lation ‘atin between elements Ono he ations st to dtnition of sity, whieh proves everion for diatinguiating one dea from another. Generale forme of lity, called ean sau, calle alec ela: nt, play’ ital le in mati theory Sue 6.1 snd Append A) Example qual of to elements of K ens that hay at the ate sb of $, Porthomare,» neon atin, dete, deed between vaio le sents of K, Agen il nto tof piss ot otining sens tortie or cnet hese Ses ve wing nt in i doe stn ro th el fap ay Sat {rie in bn sweat ef ht tn, Seo option al son et nea pan et peas i ombs ays aan oie oat ntl pet ys mary or ‘cmt go nw omen So Tor th dment of Ke It thew operations wo, iaterseton, and complementation, Union wad intenenan combine Uo saments of to Frode an element of K, and therfore ean be regu se mappings of 1K K into K Complementation eperats cn ay element of K Yo produce three of Kanth ean be eons ma mapping of K ito "To endow the clement relations, and opeatios of etm with dasa oper, mt of posit ia preseribol."Thow are tates of asa trich ace asuod tobe Valid forthe epeam, Tec, th postulates are Intl the oly deerption ofthe yee tom the potlaescartan deductions ea be mide hy teane of the rule of aie whi are pst of the be haowldgeneryng the sate: The 14 Abstract Systeme [emt eto ate orem of thea ome pod ty pve th SRM in th om ad ho rial posta Fe i ero we et iwi aon ingen forceps onion be ton SECTS Gy mcr of dn, new resins wept can Teh, or ents 9th pil proper cn be ven intr tanec e proved andthe kon fete ofthese gr metal congiy prope rf dros hls easy the ar sara tem and gli tral angie "bel co of the posts heres dint of he te, all ets an gen et ont A Iisumary an aste tom eons et Fo nents de ot 2 Oot options, Seat petal, 2a tron, Set dein ‘of cout afte pte i th eof palate, a ale Seem hepato For btn prpss were, om ae athe en eta, a operons by weg 3= (6:80) ote he pan, Hee Fd nf ements, ef on, rey net sof «ape § wer oa men of notary thon Mtr ior the dition se ee and hemo ceotso th asentho e al STS stat pang mans © “Sian ‘of the systems which we shall study are defined by postulates which 1a nd th opt ow th ptt 0 a hat cone anneal ery Teese Sayer Sante yer oof els sete or ae fey you mah wish ore ie oe ear oa tal sap eh a he yt a ean males sr operons, te en a th nna ineston ws prin "im weenie ve opr fay opens “Avail The operation + sania fandom ioral, © = B aeOrd = (aed ee [is Alea! Stine 18 mma The operation +i commute and oly if foral a,b € 2, tba bee iaritisty: "The operation © ie dare over the operation + and nly forall 2,0. B, 20040) = (208) 00, @20) 0a=(bOe) +(e). Wovay that 0 inlftlstibative over «if the fet of thas to coitons ‘suis, and that © is itaisrbutiv ove» ithe send comin sated ‘Observe that for infos oth addtional maliptiaion ae asitive ‘an comsntative, and mulipieaton i dstrtive ovr ation. For mb ss, both aso and itersetion aeweitve ad orate, and each ‘peatio ie dstibutive ver the ote osultes about elements moet often assert eerie of lens with ‘ust properties Wa give thre empleo sh ment, “Henly cent: An then i B i alld sn identity elative to the ‘operation +f and only if for every # ©, Insre dma Given an identity rave to +a an atiteary element FE, an cemeot = ial an er oz tative fo» if and only if fed windlen dompoent sonata elena © iat tobe Hempel waive to Wand ely if nthe stem of integers san entity of addition, and an deity ‘of muipieation. Both are idenpotent relate to lipbton, but Oe he ‘nly inte which edonpotet relative to aon, Ech intger «hasan ‘Aidtve vere, tat T aod —1 are te nly ntges tat ave a mali ‘lative vee which san integer Tn the system of mbt of § the void wet san Metity of st ion ‘and S ean identigy oft intretion, Every stb erpoient dative to oth union and intreton. Th vid set nltinvese rave to uno, fd Se aire ative to nternetinn and thee ae the oy es whieh ave iter typeof inverse. Exercises 1. Prove the flowing about an abstract system § = (2; , ©}, ating ‘proprio othe spt be ta howe aed for each cas 16 Abatract Systems ten] Bach operation can ave st mot one ety deen. (i) retentive and sa entity ¢ © then each # 6 # ean ave at atone inverse lent ative {iy tee dent element of an operton ext, ts idempotet rela tive to that operation Ti) Th} i ditbative over isan Metty of Oa if is an setty of tenes Wempotent ative oot © ad. a ewpotent rmistive There thse results for Ue pil case of ation and mlipiaton of rane Duct ewe delerine wheter ort the ive futon dares a nel open on he en {0 dation leven neg, (3) Mulino fo ites Ai) Aion of dnt th) ano oven neers "9 Muhicaton a fms whic re feeble (2 Diteenatin of al ute md ae dilate (Si) Daren of pty 4h et P be eat of pins fhe pla, Fae 9 Pde» +9 ob ste mide i the meen fom po () ee nd pean oP? (8 tesco? (ip Tes eae? sae moning To he pit of thera cornea it ah ‘ve dnl by Minot, ere a and are xed vat ues with by 0. Another mapping Ty of {as form mould be deed by Py = art beh 0. ‘We dine the “prouat”‘T,« Ts of euch mapngs by ato) = TIT, Prove tat (amon, (i) a itty f+ exits, (i) ca T has an inverse, fix) +e mt commutative, [18 Fields 12 Toterpret each such mapping geometrically as «chang of coeinates onthe real le afer conser he two spa ses ccmsbitrary, b= 1; =, basitrary. $1.6. Fields ‘To iactrate the dieuson of $15 let ue tara our attention to eave tanilirayctens of numbereratibnal munery real nunes and complex numbers which acsupy a ete position in may phase of mater Tall thse number ystems the four fndanental opens of arithmetic ‘an be petro a many gers properties re shared is comin. Our ‘Sis sto eta thee oom featare snd thee to onset an sir ‘yrtom which na mel goealition ofeach tthe thre conrete example "We bin by reogusing thatthe thre examples comprise eet amber cyto that iy the et of danene diferent in eth eve. Tht fr the shart representation, we consider an uspeiod nonvoid wt Fof erent ‘wemay calany uch cement a “ar” ive wih but we tke the potion "hat the only properties these objets posses are thse whieh we =peiy in th stat postulates nd Ue oie eonvoguences, Next we treo atten tin tothe arithmetic operation of addition, which n the ata sstem ‘we dios by the symbol © In each example the nam of tr numb of = ‘Svea type nagin a number of hat type; hence @ deters ese operation fn FOF the many geal properties of addon we slet te flowing ae ost. Al, @ ie aoative 42.6 is commutative ‘AX Thor exif an deity slenent 0, ative to ‘AL Foreach leat F thre exists in Pan inves loent a, lative Tn ach of te thr ener name, ubtartion ean be dein in tome ‘feiton, vo we make oo spe aunplons about abtracion inthe ‘strat este our dfn of mbmetion woul tke the frm eob-0a. in ination af the known explo, Mutton In th ger stem wl be denoted ©; it iw asad operation on and poems properticn ina 1 those we have portale {ir 8, with one moableexeston the ner eo doe nat havea mal pear inven Hence we apt the allowing porto 18 Abstract Sytem fen ML 0 anode. M5 Phe ets Fran ett lot tive 0 ©, and 0 Mi, Febtach re such thata ro, thre es a averse o live 0. aly, we ond to resi a net exits eto ton and matic mbar tens whi an be expressed by 9 distal ulate 0 iedutbatve oe. "Than aster relation th tional rs and compe ce ie eta gs 0,0) hich see the noe psa AT-AL Seater andD- Any such spate led fe “i intaty beceen the proper aon and mation i 8 fest sh tht any dean to singlor eytons, oe tie and Teeautpicatve: tho we reed natural to me arse wich bs Sue stv an ennai operton sd hs x ety He ALAS ter fr ech damon Any mach tem als oma se ade dmeione oop nay found inf 7. Tsterminley ‘allows us to restate the definition ofa fietd in simpler form. wld 9 sa ystem 9 = (Fs, ©) having two coed operation aa siding te oving pra 1, The pte (F0) it omitative aru whose Kent wi be denoted by 2 2 Tae system (P50) 524 commutative group whove entity will bo hotel by ip where Py = (22 F 2% Tet cyt © eat © ode edna he two ves oa ont at he nate tytn era net a the See ets 6. Te dhe omen entation ‘arom Tu oeaump th ten © 0 = wali ay sere ae eae wey bas eh we ora peri peers ot @on.= 008 Gonetoa = [aon boolobod, nd muy You shou thon treme ely, aig ie Fea he ain a eh om nth eet woe hr thon ony fora mime interpretation. "The cacapt of eld i geasine exenion of the thre examples of eae Fide 9 ube tens fom wih ur avtgton en that the ze many ‘capi of felis ter than the ua ed omple mnors Fras the Rl poste ts eis that ny eld ust contain at ase tro lene oa, wich we ding nce vee ut o€ Fe Hone the ‘alot pone identi two Senet; it aly Yer Cat the {i portland fer th weclonent yen when opertns ar defo by the tabs lo. Inthe tbl the cement 9 appa thw which aod the el nthe elo ih i ae a {he tp the tbls a say. ‘This ean example ffi St In the stay of veetor space and matroes we constantly make we of ements a. Altoaph st ofthe real are vad rogue f the ‘oie ofthe el, we eeasionlly need to resi at the el have pia ‘ecbaie proprtien Fer example, we selinessfiolte thatthe eld Satis the condition 4@i x 0, which exudes the tworlonent eld dee ‘eribed above. Exercises 1. Prove ht he loving hoe rv in ay el iver (aor won. i) = Boe 2 Whish the Sl axons ot eis fat he pa nage ‘with addition and multiplication defined in the usual way? “ 3. Prove tt tht of al mbes he fom 2 25, we 9 ak tia mtn ge i una aon a pan rm tt 5. Prove tat th mt fl en actions fsa lave the sal ein and eatin of fn (Xtal nt th ‘oa wo prom ith al cece he rata dil fv he reply) 5, La C = FR, whee ith st fre anders. We dene ality, ition, and lation n © ae 20 Abstract Systeme [en 11 (6,2) = (0) itand only fe = cand b= din R, Cited =erehts, (60) d= (ae — had + Prove that these (Cj, 9) Se Sel “Show that commutativity of win i eonzequenoeof the emaiing ight posta or a el CHAPTER 2 Vector Spaces $24. Introduction "The purpose of thie lapter isto dovelop « genetic system, eld sco po pn whic mt of or sty af airs wl tad. efe prowcding to a geoera definition, however, we tall conser the fant ‘rampler of velor spaces wich i all exental repels provide an acura Pala he general ote it comer the eartosan ple, in wbich cash point i represented ‘iq hy an one prof real humber Gelatv To eas rea far coodinate ste). To repre physea ity Which hs both Taagatade aod diction, ach afore, we seins think of «veeor at tn arco starting atthe ovgin and promoting to rome pat, sa (0 0) ‘Theat coordinates are elle the emponete of the vector. The dretion of ‘he arn i chown athe detin ofthe fre, and te length of he aro OO 22 Vector Spaces ew. 21 the mmgitue of the fre. I this foroe x male ty factor, the esi veto i esrb as (kak); each oft emponent i lt plied by sco fore represented By the wetar yy) the estan physi fleet of (a2) ad (hy) ating Smultaneonsly on a point (he ra) {feerbd hy the paralleingram rasp he rsltantvetor is the diagonal (from the vga) othe prallelogats having tbe wo given Yer aad joint ies An cx apleto of tate gromety shows that the Fralant vector is deerbol (out bast). ‘Now we obser atte the gtd oe fhe cretion ofthe ecor appears in this deverpion ta seta, although each ean be ‘cleat from the omposente of Figure 22 {he devrgton Likes, te ele fein a vetor by» eo stant aa the feet of combining two vectors int har rerltant, both ean Te decribed very spy wel fom the amponont AB we sl ein th materia oll, turpsing snout of gometry ean be developed foe ‘tor epacee without any Fleer to the basally geomet ences of Tength std aig; ath mate comsidertine are deered ntl Chapter 8 Bt, we mn ek if gt, dito, and ung oun for the basis of tain gromstey, whet concept ae wed? The ananer has lend eon ven In the fet example: mulation of a veto by a constant, ae ela dion of wo veto "The second example even ae relia lied wo phil considens- tions since wear inl oboe at we ion thre -imensonal pace, [A vector fom the origin to point in spare x represented ty the thee teordinaes eltive oa rectal coordinateeyten) ofthe tinal pin, favona) Avi the pase, olping (a e5) hy constant Fyieke & ‘tat wove corinne a (i, ay); he reat of 00) td Uh) fy 04+ by 4-4), an y the pralshgram piel ‘Tis consseny of froth epreentaton of Yetorsenabls so consider eotor eps of higher dessins, wheve geometric luton is ike to Talland wore phys experiments ar ot rely coesved. In partir, sre note tat neh ofthe xaos the votre ors eommutative gro Festive tothe “relat” operation, which sealed vector ation, Cone ‘es he uipietion of veto Dy constants we obsarve that 8) (sn Inbrodston 2 1 fh + ble, a) = hl 0) + Alan od, 2 lay y ) ~ Ae + Hs), & [ato = Bl, a, 4 Have) = (ova), ssl for votre in thee-dszensional pee. This patel slction of ohecrations may soem aditeary, pecially nunber 4, whieh appeae ist too obvious to rec, However iti important to notion that @ ‘trong coosecton exis between the addition of wectrs sd the mule Cation of vectors hy constants In Wal sense, amber | at 2 reswble ‘ntbativty, sumer 3 resemble seit, st number nt lke an identity (ur thd example taf «dierent nat, for the objets which we el ‘vectors ae not piso tiles of number; aber, 2 "eto in thir eraple ‘Sa reall faction J which is continous onthe inerval <1 ‘Wo ral that the produc of rel number and a cotinuns function ie continuous fanetin, aad atthe um of tr stn fanetins i oe ‘inaos. As wus we dine and f+ by the rule (ane) = We), UF 0) =10) +019. Scent verified that mtipication of funtion by a conta ain the four prperte lad above Furthemmore, we oberve that addition of Inetons in aosative and commutative, the toro funtion eons di the dent let relative to ado, and fis the aie iver 24 Yeotor Spaces lem. 21 ff, Mlewe cotionous functions frm a sommutatve group relive to ation, Exercises 1 Lat (yan (by) btm pnts af the plane which form tangle vrih (0) For acho the conditions spite blow, deere geometry he et of pint ly) hl) @ bathe Cree (i) 0S W'< 1, b=. GmockSuh=t () All by =. WH OSKSIOSHSL Gi) OSH SLOSS hth Gi) 0c hOSH ET “io Ah, 0 2, (@) AMR, all ‘2. Which of the stain Bare 1 form an aiitive group 2G) Consider the colton of all polyoma with eal eerie aed of gre wot exing 2 Ge) = ant 0s + 0 "The eam of two sth polyoma and the product fa polynomial bya eal ‘number are defined in the umal way, thu forming nn seat eye with tre epeatons In what way does hi systrnresmbl the system of pints in fhrediensonal sage ae dsr in this section? {Ho ight we die "te anglebtwecn two polynomials of degree sot exceeding 22 §2.2. Vector Spaces over a Field ving cxarine several suampis of vrtor space, we now undertake to construct a astac yatem which embodies those examples Tom the at ‘wo examples of § 21 we might be tomptd to say that a veeoe an maple ‘fab, Dut the thin example reds us Hat wil be beter aot to {pect ton prety dhe repression of vootor. We sal ay wip hat tre ve uot of betas lente ellod vcore ant denoted by sal “Grd letters compari with the abstract syte dsr in the fit ‘hap, veto pace appears tobe more complete, beens these is 1422) Vero Space oer a Fialt 25 secret of elements invve In he example omsidere, thee ements frei numbers Fora growl deseriptizn, however, we sal only wae that the mond set ell wos ements ae eal sala ad ate Cds ty sal Latin Intense are tro Sed eperation, denoted “Fad, and evo operations involving Yeeor “Addition” of two vectors rand produces a yetor denoted» @ 8, an veto frm commtative {roup rative to vector aon. Fil, “rutipication” of «sale a td ecto predate @ vector «© a, and stlar mukipation sais the four properties onerved in § 2.1 Definition 21- A pystem 0 = (F555 0} ical a eco poe oe the td und ony i (G) (Pe | i Bld how Henity coments aze denoted by 0 sod, (@) (V8) na commutative oup whose lente met indented 8, (6) forall a,b F anda, BV, a0 we Vat @+H) On= (eda) 9000) (20 (#93) = 40a) B00, Gi) (a) Ca 20.00%), ey) 100=6 Fortanatly, he notation wad above ca be sili. From the type of| eters involved i alway clear whether we are ming eo salar ‘eto or pling tre waar ora scala vector therfore we ean {we + a inde both type of aion at juxaponiin ont bat {ype of mulilaton, Tas c+ ) 2+ Ha) deaten e+) oRedoa) Son of he tory 9 stor space i wai even ifthe ear orm only | inion ving (a een which aise ll ld postulates exept the tutte la of epteatn). Foran introduction to wetor spaces, bom ‘re, such generality ean be dpe with In fact, Ue Geld 3 plays 9 ‘anit role in our onsdeation moet ofthe tine. Bop in the aee ‘her, where the mature of 3 is carly specified, you may think of ac the ul feel nimbers without ay entaet of general understanding ‘Orn teoren comer tipetion of pol ealarsand pei vctre “Theorem 21 Le denote he xr vor ad et danas the group Saveneof a Then forall € V,a€ Fy (Oem, ©) De= a ans 26 Vector Spaces tem. 21 ROOT: () a= ln = (1-4 Ola = tat Oa = a+ Baby (v) ad) {Gf Defntion 21, Adding ~ato both ides, we hae # = Ds (yak (Daa dah (a= (1 — Hem Hence (Da iain ‘Tere of ad (flo from the niques ofthe group inves. (0) ah ale t (-e)] = ant ama) = an + a) A geomet interpretation of the tore entra, even hoa he eta not at all supising, You are encouragod to snake ach Inter [retain of algae statements, ad daly, to semgz alsai impli Sone of sont rr, Examples of Vector Spaces Over the Fei of Real Numbers Ta) Fora fv postive integer, the sto ll tuples of real namters| oom a rotor spe iain of vector and mlipiaton a «ala and ‘recor ae ded by yeep Oso) = EM oe od alee) = (ayes or = 2,2 thaw ao the tro examples of § 2.1 0) Acompltly evil example statin hh there tap, 0) isthe only vst a the sale ld the fe of real numbers {) Another teal example provided by considering the ral umbers ‘hemsve at vet and al salar Ti space eprsented gone fatly by a in, Moce gery, the eles of any Bel are considered ‘Sitar vector sb scalars ad if the veto operation re defn tobe the ‘respon el operations, the ring ote ra Wet epae, Tay Por fae n kt be the oto all polyoma in 2 with real enfin anf daze not exoting together with the aco polyoma. Veetor sam war les ve dfn the wl polyoma su aed prot by teal sas Te) Let Yb the tof al eal va funtion whieh ae difrentabe on Aheinerval <4 1, wth operations def by U4 9 = 10) + 0, (apie = ae. Exercises 1. Vey that teh of he prseding ive examples aio the ptlaten a voto pe, How ae the vector sce of Baap: and (relat? (See Fae cise, $21) (28) Saepores 2 2. 1 Yet af lpn ta deren) wth ett wit he ana pay Pot spew al Sint Sdn wal ay. Pare tt the ean a sear mes LAY te het a al en al ey, ith te 2m seca pet of sss hyn mane dele he ity Tove hth tana ete Ho's susp ‘ide par of are 3 ‘tet Wie the wea el ld fnns wich tain a eine susan ara ~ Oh he mame ro fens ite pit ot net ala ei! nth lg hoperaetennnny 1 Con op a amber 05) athe cons atl etn cc coma et eta Strap rte oon stipe sd mientin ie Br ‘eal umber. ™ “eine (a= Caan atin = nape ecaating eT {avait 0) = i (0 ans iny 1. Comsat ngs oat eqn of onder m: . “ten POE aLy i os ha a ae = rove at fms a lr a te fn a lara ‘of functions. ‘tne ‘Given a tof m ear, homogeneous equations inn unknoa, with real eetiien dts bases +o bare =, oun oan Fo boars = ti ant a Prove tat the sat Sof al ston of thiaeyte frm vstor spe over the al ruber §2.3. Subspaces 1a the study of any abstract system we ate ly intersted ot only in ‘he fll stem but abo in various cesta. When ensring the 28 Vector Spaces en. 21 limensonl pace out interest isn es and planes, partes in those Tce ant plans ich as through the erga and hereby consi veto spaces tanetves A general desertion of sbsqares sien a follows Definition 2.2, Given a vector space U over 5. A subint $ of vee tory i ato forth avbapare 8 of if an ony i he substan $5 (S Fibs, ©) na vector sce “Azan we ate made eousas ofthe tet hat out Inguage and uation canbe npn by ignoving th inton betwee system Sand these [Teements ofthe ystems, Honesto we shal se U to denote otha vetor aoe and the ae of votre of wetor space. With this sinplieaton, ‘Mhopace $s a sbwct af U whic, witia Tlf, frms a vector spn it = Mnvestnad tha the ld wd the operations for $ave the mn a fr "The postalat thatthe wetos of vector space form op rai sotor ution tp that exo vortor # i every sbspuce, Teva, The wctor space whith ono alone sa subspace of every Hew, Wiss hepa of © In thre densa =pco, the nota ubepaes ‘esp all che nes and planes wich pss through the rig ‘em eek znple wey a tersining whether a given subat SS t's mutpace, beens ih eda tedious to vey that each ofthe thts n'a velo space sats or S; the next theorem provides ly apd eter, ‘Taco 22. A nonvoid mitt 5 of © subspace i noni 5 Teele er the fo operations of yetor sun and mlipeton of ‘oct ty alr as dfn for Uthat forevery a, 8 Sand every cesses pe Sandcncs. ‘rnooy: "The oxniton ix clearly mecary, Conversely, assue that Sis col under the opeations. Thon (Da = —0 eS for ever Ses anklet (ne) #28, Veto addition in Si the ne as a ‘eit m aancative and eommitative, abd Torn emntatve ‘up. "The other posse tested in beens those popes le inetd rm samples of Subapaces a) te ape) of § 22, let Se te set of all ntuple with = 0 (0) tu Empl 9) of $22, lo $b the set of all spl with. = Bs for 9 Sed sala ig) Te Buample (of §22, Se th ato all ons fnesons on theinteral 0-221 [A goueral means of generating subspaces ib provided by the follwing Asinitos [23 Subepacer 29 Definition 23. Given a venior space, lt A be @ nonid st of setae, Te st] of ll Hier combination of yctoe af i the telletion all ite ame ofthe fore fm 0am + + Oat and m= 1,28 here 0, € 5,01 € A, antl at ahs oer st thet tor pe ic aragonite as sa yo sam th lr se he ri ‘Soren ih may be ro ei av a apo ht ‘importance of linear combinations of veetors. me “Tacorem 2, The st ofall Hee ombiaion of any end a of ‘veotors of U is a subspace of U. * Deion 24, The sto al aca cominations of «noni et A of ‘ears called aap spony Aas denoted (4) ‘Ti ct loge Wop aagns tf ts of svt tpn date nin nat fv ot SlaSpac he vd muh, rea at ets a “calf toptne af ones esto ort Sins nl nam peer mts, eae yi ptt sett oe spr tens ag esinition 25, Let 5 and be subspaces of "The vam of § and 9, east $43, Ue se of all ester «+, wbare oe and 7 ©2 Dednition 26 The ert of 8 deed 8.19 he wt all vetors common t $ and 5. waeet ‘Theorem 24s IE Sau 3 ae aabopaces of © thon $5 al 81 3 te saps: oF Proor:§-+3:¢ mibapace by Theoret 23, noe any near combi ation of Yelos fm § and 3 ean be writen a then of & tr from 8 and a vector rom 3 beet Sand 3a epee Indeed, $+ 3 ie mpiy the subspace genented by the set eon of and 2, Now etn 8809, and kiees. Then at pes atse5, eS, sd er 9, dace 8 and 3 are subpasoe Thr + BES aad ave. The oettinn in 803 ae therfore cloned, aad 8033s 'abepace by Theorem 22. 30 Vector Spaces len. 21 "The theorem justifies the teminnlogy given in Definitions 28 and 20, “The set interstion of wo spe tr ot 4a be a mupace. Howeve, the cet union off sbepues snot a slspact the let space which Confaine this won enply the st (809) of all near combinations of ‘ect shen from § U3. Sie any auc velo ofthe forme where Se ands 23, ne writes +8 to emind wf this fet We recognize Ut Tarte ambiguiy into i this se ofthe sgn +, ut ono me ane sore of he fact, te ambition consequence ‘eth eso pc yf pl fl my een sana 240), simon, sta, slosh, ry ‘The spc a] epanod by i the ney = xn the = =O plane—that i, the tet al wal lis ow Silly forthe other vetor Then § the ‘evil pane y = 2 noes point a Ss ay veetar of the form e+ 03 = (40,2) for any teal numbers Sins, 9 heat of all vector of the form ey + d= (24 dy 8 oping plane y = 2¢ containing the sax (4231 Sulepors 1 ‘Thewe Oo plans interet ia $93, the ie x = y = 2e along the vector 274 9— 02,1) = 2a 8. It is cacly wri tat $+ 3 Uy tee fn artteary vector Gyy,2) of Uy can be expromad ay #4 5, where ea yet band re yy ed ‘Wo aberve two rated facts aboot this eprentation of (ey). Pit ‘he representation stung, forme san wie Wf e= 1048) = y~ hat @~ We, Par EHO +D = fe ~ yt by + by for any ral whore 24-+ 8 €8 915 Than (93) ~ oe! Sted, the vector # is ot needed, for we he @™ [7], then rand 34 = vy and is line which nterets the plane only atte eign ‘Thus .0 =f]. Aswe shall ae, any vetr of yea be expe wily ss the um ofa wet in Sand «veto in Definition 2.7. Leta and 5 be sabpacts of w vector epee. v i said to be tho dive um a and wen v-moR, and ony tat + = v and ak 9 = = 6 ‘Theorem 2.5. 0 ~ 3 © 5 if and ony every vector £0 bas & nique eprseatation boats for some » € and some € 8. ROOT: Assume tht U = af @ Then sine V = ar +5, ech EU can be exposed ae f= y+» for mulable p cat and vem, fan we nowd only prove uniqueness. Seppore ala that f= yo, Thee mtneabs, But m~ 4 6 9 and» —n ©: and by bypothose and & have only the sro veer in common Henge py =p atl n=» the ep restotaion i unique. To prove the eoverse, ame tal each 6 0 i exprewed uniquely as tho sum af sane ea and» Clea, MERE U Lela CHAS Then an eh a where co and fem =O gs whered © and Sine aay such rpresmtation of is unig, me ave a = 6 Hee BENS = [and there 0 = 9 & 2 2 Vester Spaces lem: 21 Exes 1 1-0 the space of ll eva feetone which ae enntnuous on 11S € ty which ofthe allowing sabcte ae subspaces of UF (AU deena artis (i) All poem of dare vo, Gd All plyoomini of degre ls han Give. (Gy) All plone of ore rater than three (a) Alle funetone f=) ~~] (0) Aleve fertions (72) = 10) (i) All aetons for wbih £0) = 0 (i) All onesie fanetions, Ts) All sonst fnstone (9) All fio for which J) 0 2, Conse the collection ofall ubepcns $f vector pace, tee vith the operation +, sun of abepces {i Show that +f moeitve a oma, (i) Show that an iat ubepace exists rave to Gi) sth apse a comsatative group? 2, Prove Toren 23 4 Inthe artesian space of he dimension, suppose that a = 1,0) (0,01), = (“141 P= 1D, Kat 8 = (4B), 3 = bv Deerte $n Sands-+ 3. show that (0-4 8). (83) + (893). Show by an example in the plane that equality ned nt bol tr Prove that #A CY, (WES) NT= HH GOD) 4 Refersing to Exar 4, Sa a veetor (5 such that © = 8 8 (8 1 the een of Euniguely eternal? Explain your ansner gsr. Tet bea slepae of a vstor spss over. Far ach vector & Uy the Bol of eda to be the et +9 > Etelees. (Geometry in Uy if $i 8 ple throagh the ova, (+3) isa plane ‘whic spall oad pons through th ip ofthe wel 8) (©) Show that (¢+ 8) sa subspace if and only if 8. (i) Show that (€-+8) = (9-48) and only 8 — ve [Ane vector space over # ct be fore from the colton Co ll sets ty tng the sum of tno oot aod ho seaar mle of om G@49OG+N= GETS, 20 G43) = OHH. tina Linear ndeenence 3 i) Stow that hese operations re unambiguonty defined; Ua i, net +S andy eG 1), ten GEIEGHI- bets) 20 G48) = lon +9. (i) Show thatthe system {CFs +,» @, 0) fea vectr spe, Thi ace i called the quien ep of © mod ade dented §24. Linear Independence ‘Wo now cone to one ofthe most wf comet in the theory af vector specey thal flea indepen Definition 2.8 Let V be a vector cpuco over a Gl and It = lays s-vay) bem Seite mabe of U8 tld oe lined dependent ia only Covery equation of tbe fom, a Fan b= Spi tat 2, =an0. “A iio st ssid to bein dependent if and only every finite sect of Pie sary independent The wad et ery inde endea. Any et of votre which nt Kneryindpendet eal Teint pendent ‘The definition states that the seo wetor can bo oblain ae tnear sombination of independent vectors only in the tial way, in which every ‘alr of the Hiner combination in aero Bu if the nro wet i ont Tear eombialios of eclrs 9 have content beara 8 ‘whee not al seal ar 0 Lt be the ist noaeo seala: We obtain n= Renna tos ten). Tn tis case the vector depos Hert on the oer veetor inthe sno that i Hear eombicalon ofthe other Clly any st of econ e ‘ther linen independant of Tisaly dependent any tt whieh contains Ue ser rer is dependent, and any at which eae of ig nnsero ‘recor independent, "To ver the wid set a independent may appar at ft lane to bea -srang convention, However, hat dfnion is lal essen with the ‘ening condition for iependance of novel faite se A eoeponding ‘sgromec canbe adopted to extend Deiions 23 and 2 these fall 34 Yestor Spaces lew. 21 linear combinations of the voi defi tt the wt consinting ofthe pero velor alone. "This [9] ~ (9 by defaitin. By adopting thee eonven- Tins forthe wid ct, we eu bal consistent henry of reat opus i ‘nich aay thee ooprsing nod ste of vector ean vad eFe0 For the void st The following ran example. ‘Theorem 246, Any sit ofan independent atl independent, and ‘ny av ontining x dependent aust dependent naar: Exes ‘On many cesions me sal eto sonst Lnary independent xt of vertors We ean begin by choosing any nontso vector, but ow sold the xt oie be mad? The following tore provides an anewe. “Tacoem 22, Lat § & 0 be inal independent and et 3 ~ [8 Then for any vortar&, SU () i Hoary dependent if and oly if 83 Ror: Lat S, 3, aul § be st decribed First supose that € 5; then fer wale wears a an votre a © 5, = ot Om to Fou 1 a, =0 foreach han £ = # and SU (Gis oesely dependent. I some a 0, agin SU (@) leary dependent. Convery, suppose ‘hat ¢ 9, and consider any equation of the form ban amt 2 Bana + ak = 8, here cath a) © 8. His, then Gian eambination of vectors 118, and co 63, contrary to our asmption, Tene Bau = 0, and finee S's Unsaly independent, = @ for alld Sm Then SU (@) Tia dependent, ‘Ta nary independent st of veto may’ be extended to a lrg Dial independent set by sjiing any vetor whieh doesnot i in he ce span ly 8 feo tx pile tat no sch vector exis, since [Smit epan © The next thoes enter the elation ofa nearly Independent bet of «dependent set of voto “Theorem 2.8, Let §~ fay a0) bea Site set of nonaero vostors ‘Than Ss dpendent and only i faye sym forme m Sh HOOP: H for some my a © et ---any Uo fey ya it Aependent and so i 8 (Dheoem 20). Convery, suppose 8 ls dee pen) Live Independence 8 dent tt Beth at nt ch ato doen fn Then for slab saan 0, then fo, tion afm, Hence ae eM Hs eet lays 1 (Show Unt an. (9 ~ A)-tinensonal eabopace 8 exaust (@) Deluca § © 3 =v, (hi) Show that 3 emt wan dete by $ and, 5. (i) Refersing to Hueco 8, $2, if newsary, prove that for wb space 6 8 3 of VEST I Sala) tas) + 4) — ARMS) — tana) ~ aso +aansn3) GG Compare {with the eorsponding frmnia for the nomen of krnats in faite ean (Exon 75), 813), (i) Show that the rent of ()eanaok be strengthened to exit in leas Eerie 5, §23, 2 Vout — few. 21 §2.7. [somorphism of Vector Spaces ‘We now turn our attention toa problem which hue been constant in the ack of or develpaest of wear epee. We began by ekg a informal deseripton ofthe spss f andy whch wer fait fom our wmlodg a apt grometry, and bon generative the form four observa tion in ones to da an sntct veto pace. Ate Yet aces are tf two type=fniedimensnalo infit-imensonal ad we agro hat tre hal tay only Gnitedimwnsonal race in hs book Bu in eonsdeing Trees ne ga o soe a ay -iensonal space over a ld een tally the same asthe pace 9 of maple of Sd ens, Tn order to formate our mupiions move pacity, we mast Sit geo ‘upon a meaning af the pls "omental these," This problem of Impartance forall whtact systery, but we eonfine our attention bare to ‘eto spaces regrow doo epee in Append A. Consor tro vector space, VPs, 5 8,0) snd We Witt es ‘over the sae fld 3. The voto of the two systems might hav dierent Iatherateal name, a gente hy the various eampie of vector Space {renin $22 ati he voto operlins ofthe to toms might be deed In ifrent ways. However appre we ean rename the vector of the fest sete, siping to each vector of the Sst ester th ame of a eetor of the sreond ayer, with diferent names tein gen to distinct velar, ‘Sen further that th new ramen are asigned in sich «way thatthe ‘ecto operations of the reamed ft nyitem esinede exactly with tho evrepanding operons of the sand estan. Then we would agree that {he two ayes are Mente twin wich are dtnguhable by namo onl, i tt by beevior, Ths what we mean ty “ementally the mime’ he Iathematcal tern for this conse ix nimorpiiom. We ht den the more eral notion of Romomorpie Desiniton 2.11 Le Ve WN 48,0) sod We ted be eelar uses over a feld 5. A mapping Hof V into Weald ‘hamomarphiom, provided Uat forall, 8 ¢ Vand all 6 8, tT) amarphiom of Vcr Spaces 48 (eo pm = atta, sod (0) =e alt every veto of Wisin the ange of, His tobe 8 Komomerphin | ot Dante. Definition 212. A one-one bomomorpisn J of © onto W i ale an tomarphiom. Tf such a mapping exits, © and W are sido be omer ‘Tha, to eabldh that fo vector spacer Wand ove the ane fd 3 ae somarphi, we need to eit a ae-toaoe mapping of onto which reserves the to operane of wars ad mulplcton aa veto by a teal Weave now realy to prove the fooning theorem. ‘Theorem 215. Any n-imensonl vecarsaen @ ove isomorphic to the space of ll tuple of elemento 3. ROOT: Lat (a .-- an) be a basis for V. By Theorem 2.10 every EE hiv a unigue representation aa liner combiaton of the Fo ab + ‘Toeach ¢€-U woasedate the coresponding maple fy...) ©. ‘This is'« mapping of onto and dane vectors of © may int dine etn a, Furthermore = Eis cavend y= Fieba thee Bethe tthe cet he Foye 460 4 Ube t) and Bg E thedas tye hd) = Hey “lenge vector eum and salar nitipcton are preserved by the ape ing and the yen ate mori, ‘hisses lsu that any to vetor space the ame fie dimen n| sxe isamombie, snes each i omar to (See Exerege 4 below.) Te allows ust think of any such atest sacs intra the moe fie ce of tpl. ‘The isomorphism thorn sigets at fr fitediensonl spaces ou tempo aan generality by giving a abstract defntion of ytr spaces ras not wholly siewsful uy rimensonl wpe over is tonnphie to Vector Spaces tem. 21 the pace of muplesaf ements a 5. However, the w-tnple ota iter Chetan camberane, soe prefer to we the general otatin for vee caer tnemterig that ne can repesint velo spl of fll elements ‘Soot bas of goeaiy, whenever that artialar representation proves to Te eaveneat We shall deote by Uy a veotr pace of dimeasion with sybase Bxercises 1. Balak an somorpim between the space of all pobyamis of gent enanding mad espace an, What are the aes of the basi ‘econ ner th bomorphian? Lat J toa inno ofthe epacce Ve and Wy Le fn. -5 a be snkocarly edoendent ne of votre nD n- Pove that ous. a8) ‘meaty pendent in 8x Dace Uat the tori sage of «basis ira basin ELnt HE be a homomorphism of Uy into We Prove that Hie an n> moron fal lyr every £4 #n Ve Bo 08 We "LSuppone that veto spaces © ad W ae both mori to the mame pace Show how these twp morphisms ean e combine to yield an mornin of © ont. "Tat v and te vector anes over he same ld, an et 3° denote th collation fall omar rom ito. Th of two homo Iori ie by AM FHL) = ah +h forall 6. ‘Ao, the pret of «wala ad» Basan s dete by fall) = Qi) foralla es, 8e%. ‘Sow that H+ Ha and alate ay Basomenhisns from into 6 and aU forms vector space over 5 rede tothe operations Radering to Paerie 5, HW =, then iti pole to defie de product af to homomorBiems in interns ofthe rule for siorsive AAAI) = GH, forall ew ‘Show tha HK hasan run at 7 Ime spice Bares by cong tobe the eld, considered nalverin apace ver ivll, then he mere of are ear vald options ‘hanad on © and sting fhe properti of homononyhisn, Any suc ‘te ella cor func, a the vetor space of al eat funcional fm 0 o'r ale the dal vac of. Deter wheter oF teach ofthe following mappings 3 Une funtion et] Iamecphi of Voor Spee 48 6) 185 the mappings (oop 0g = 2g ac) = a4 42 6 tn hs fh aed aetna dia ‘on the interval —1

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