Dermatologic Problems of Rabbits
Stephen D. White, DVM, Dip.ACVD, *
PatrichJ. Bourdeau, DVM, Dip.ECVD, ? and
Anna Meredith, MA, VetMB, CertLAS, CertZooMed, MRCVS$
Skin diseases may be the most common cause for a
rabbit's owner to seek veterinary advice. Skin diseases
are also very common in laboratory rabbits. Most skin
conditions are due to a wide variety of pathogens, in-
cluding parasites (the most frequent), fungi, bacteria,
and viruses. In addition, noninfectious diseases of do-
mestic rabbits are being increasingly reported. This re-
port organizes the discussion of rabbit skin disease
based on the predominance of 1 of 4 clinical signs:
pruritus, scaling/crusting, alopecia with minimal pruri-
tus, and nodules; miscellaneous conditions are dis-
cussed at the end of the article. Although a number of
these diseases may present with variable or multiple
clinical signs, it is frequently helpful to approach skin
disease in the rabbit from the perspective of the most
likely differential diagnosis. Copyright 2002, Elsevier
Science (USA). All rights reserved.
Key words: Rabbit, skin, dermatology.
abbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are increasing
R in popularity as house pets, and their skin
diseases may be the most c o m m o n cause for an
owner's visit to the veterinarian. Skin diseases
are also very c o m m o n in laboratory colonies and
may interfere with the quality and conditions of
research. Most of these skin conditions are due
to a wide variety of pathogens including para-
sites (the most frequent), fungi, bacteria, and
viruses. In addition, noninfectious diseases of
domestic rabbits are being increasingly re-
ported, perhaps in tandem with owners desiring
better and more complete care of their rabbits.
This report attempts to inform the reader as to
both the wide range of skin diseases of rabbits, as
well as organizing their discussion based on the
p r e d o m i n a n c e o f one of four clinical signs: pru-
ritus, scaling~crusting, alopecia with minimal
pruritus, and nodules. Miscellaneous conditions
that do not fit well into this scheme are discussed
at the e n & o f the article. Although a n u m b e r of
these diseases may present with variable or multi-
ple clinical signs, it is frequently helpful to ap-
proach skin disease in the rabbit from the perspec-
tive of the most likely differential diagnosis.
Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, Vol 11, No 3 (July), 2002: pp 141-150
Pruritus
Although pruritis is arguably the most com-
m o n clinical sign resulting in presentation to the
veterinarian, the clinician must keep in mind
that pruritus may result in other clinical signs
such as alopecia and crusts.
Fleas
Domestic rabbits are often exposed to Cteno-
cephalides spp when they share the household
with a dog or cat. 1-~ In pet rabbits housed out-
side or exposed to wild rabbits, various flea spe-
cies that may be e n c o u n t e r e d include the rabbit
flea Spilopsyllus cuniculi, the c o m m o n eastern
rabbit flea Cediopsylla simplex, and the giant east-
ern rabbit flea Odontopsyllus multispinosis, and the
sticktight flea Echidnophaga gallinacea. 4,5 Infesta-
tions of S cuniculi are c o m m o n in rabbit colo-
nies. The life cycle of this flea is controlled by
the h o r m o n a l cycle of the host, which explains
observations of their s u d d e n proliferation on
p r e g n a n t does and y o u n g rabbits. S cuniculi is
also important as a vector for myxomatosis. 4,5
S cuniculi most often bites on the pinnae and
face, and may also bite cats and dogs. 6 Pruritus is
variable in flea infestation in rabbits but may be
severe. 2,7 To the authors' knowledge there are
no flea control products specifically licensed for
rabbits. Traditional ectoparasiticides (carbam-
ates, pyrethrins ) have been replaced by newer
From the *Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of
Veterinary Medicine, University qf California, Davis, CA; ?Parasi-
tology/Dermatology, EeoleNationale Vdtdrinabv de Nantes, 44307 -
Nantes Cedex 03 France; and SExotic and Labo~'atory Animal
Services, Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Royal (Dick)
School qf Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Summerhall,
Edinburgh EH9 1QH UK.
Address correspondence to stephen D. White, DVM, Dip.ACVD,
Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Califo~vtia, Davis, California 95616 USA.
Copyright 2002, Elsevier Science (USA). All rigizts reserved.
1055 937X/02/1103-0005535.00/0
doi:l O.1053/saep. 2002.123982
141
142
and m o r e effective products, such as imidaclo-
prid a n d selamectin. Imidacloprid (Advantage,
Bayer, Shawnee Mission, KS), a topical adulti-
cide, has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d to be safe a n d ef-
fective for flea control in rabbits. 2,~ Long-term
use of the insect growth regulator l u f e n u r o n
(Program, Novartis, Greensboro, NC) also has
b e e n r e p o r t e d to be safe for rabbits. 2 Adverse
reactions to fipronil (Frontline, Merial, Duluth,
MN) have been r e p o r t e d in rabbits, and the
authors do n o t r e c o m m e n d its use in this spe-
cies.~,s,s,9
Lice
Lice cause pruritus, erythema, papules, a n d
alopecia, with a n e m i a possible in infestations by
Haemodipsus ventricosus, a sucking louse, a n d are
rare in p e t rabbits, although lice are" c o m m o n in
wild l a g o m o r p h s in Europe. H vent'ricosus can
cause pruritus, erythema, papules, alopecia, and
a n e m i a and is a vector of tularemia. Diagnosis is
by visual observation of lice and their eggs (nits).
Formerly, the t r e a t m e n t was various topical
treatments with parasiticides a p p r o v e d for use in
cats, notably pyrethrins or carbaryl. At present,
systemic ivermectin (0.4 m g / k g orally or by in-
jection) is often effective. 5 Published work with
dogs suggests that imidacloprid may also be ef-
fective. 1~
White et al
Figure 1. Rabbit with Pso-
roptes cuniculi infestation;
notice extensive crus6ng of
pinna and periocular area.
Mange Mites
Infestation by the n o n b u r r o w i n g mite Psorop-
tes cuniculi is the most f r e q u e n t cause of otitis in
rabbits and arguably the m o s t frequent derma-
tologic disease seen in this species. T h e typical
presentation is a bilateral, intensely pruritic oti-
tis with thick crusts. These crusts typically are
first f o u n d in the proximal external ear canal,
and then extend up the i n n e r pinna. In chronic
cases, complications of neurologic signs a n d / o r
otitis media may be seen because the e a r d r u m
can perforate. 5 This may lead to a p u r u l e n t otitis
m e d i a (due to secondary bacterial infection)
and meningitis. Skin involvement may be seen,
particularly on the face, neck (dewlap folds),
and genitalia, and the disease is intensely pru-
ritic (Fig 1). 2'11 Areas of alopecia and crusts are
typical skin lesions. Microscopic examination of
the ear crusts or skin scrapings reveals n u m e r o u s
mites, and in some cases the adults may be visi-
ble on examination with an otoscope. P cuniculi
has a life cycle that may be c o m p l e t e d within 3
weeks, and the mites may be able to live away
f r o m the host for that long, d e p e n d i n g on am-
bient t e m p e r a t u r e and humididty. 2 Although
rabbits with this mite are very contagious, o n e of
the authors (SDW) has seen a rabbit with no
contact with o t h e r rabbits for m o r e than a year
develop signs of infestation, a n d similar long-
 Dermatolog@ Problems of Rabbits
standing subclinical cases have b e e n r e p o r t e d d
T h e r e c o m m e n d e d t r e a t m e n t is subcutaneous
injection of either ivermectin (0.2-0.4 m g / k g
once every 2 weeks for 2-3 treatments) 2,5 or mox-
idectin (0.2 m g / k g once every 10 days for 2
treatments). 12 Various topical treatments have
also b e e n used, but they frequently b o t h e r the
rabbit m u c h m o r e than the subcutaneous injec-
tions. T h e use o f mineral oil in the ear has b e e n
suggested to resolve these infestations; however,
one o f the authors (SDW) has seen these mites
survive in mineral oil on a microscope slide un-
der a coverslip for 1 week! Ear crusts do not
n e e d t o be removed, although some investiga-
tors feel that by doing so the mite b u r d e n is
lessened. However, these crusts require soften-
ing with mineral oil before being removed; oth-
erwise the lining of the ear canal can be dam-
aged. With the advent of systemic treatment,
such m a n i p u l a t i o n is seldom necessary. All m a m -
mals in contact with the infested individual
should be treated.
Notoedres cati var cuniculi is a rarely observed
parasite of the rabbit. It is responsible for a
pruritic facial dermatosis that may e x t e n d to
o t h e r skin areas. Sarcoptic acariasis (SarcoDles
scabiei var cuniculi) is also rarely reported. This is
an extensive, highly pruritic, and hyperkeratotic
dermatosis. T r e a t m e n t for these mites is the
same ivermectin dosage schedule as for P cunic-
uli.
A newly described subspecies of the mite Pso-
robia lagomorphae was recently r e p o r t e d to have
caused mild pruritus and diffuse alopecia in a
6-month-old dwarf rabbit. Multiple skin scrap-
ings only yielded 5 mites. T h e infestation re-
sponded, albeit slowly, to one subcutaneous in-
jection of ivermectin (0.2 m g / k g ) , lg
G a m a s i d s and Ticks
In d o m e s t i c rabbits infestation with Ornitho-
nyssus bacoti i s n o t rare in l a b o r a t o r y colonies.
This g a m a s i d mite m a y occasionally be ob-
served in p e t rabbits. It is often associated with
a highly pruritic c o n d i t i o n with g e n e r a l i z e d
diffuse hair loss, crusts, a n d f r e q u e n t second-
ary infections. A severe a n e m i a , s o m e t i m e s fa-
tal, is o b s e r v e d in y o u n g animals. I m m u n i t y
p r o b a b l y develops in chronically e x p o s e d ani-
mals. T h e c o n t r o l of this i n t e r m i t t e n t parasite
143
is difficult in colonies a n d f r e q u e n t l y requires
the t r e a t m e n t of b o t h the animals a n d the
e n v i r o n m e n t . A r e c e n t r e p o r t on work with
m i c e a n d rats suggests that topical pyriprox-
ifen, a j u v e n i l e h o r m o n e analog, m a y be help-
ful in treating this parasite. ~4
Many species of ticks feed on rabbits. T h e
most c o m m o n in N o r t h America is the Conti-
nental rabbit tick, Haemaphysalis leporisjoalustris.
This is a 3-host tick, a n d the rabbit can serve as
the host for each stage of the life cycle, although
the tick must leave the rabbit after feeding to
develop and molt between each stage. 2 Ticks
may cause a n e m i a a n d can serve as vectors of
myxomatosis and the p a p i l l o m a virus, as well as
of zoonoses such as tularemia. 2 Ticks should be
physically r e m o v e d f r o m rabbits, and because of
the potential presence of zoonotic diseases, the
veterinarian should wear gloves and remove the
ticks with forceps. Ivermectin at 0.4 m g / k g has
b e e n r e c o m m e n d e d for killing ticks feeding on
the rabbit, 2 although its efficacy may d e p e n d on
the species, the feeding pattern, and the dose
received. 15 Amitraz has b e e n experimentally
d e m o n s t r a t e d to be less toxic to rabbits com-
p a r e d with dogs and can b e used in the topical
treatment of tick infestation. As stated previ-
ously, fipronil is not r e c o m m e n d e d for use on
rabbits.
Pinworms
Pinworms (Passalurus ambiguus) are ex-
tremely c o m m o n in laboratory rabbits. Clinical
signs are rare but these host-specific parasites
may cause pruritus of the anal area, which can
lead to self-trauma or rectal prolapse. Complete
control is difficult because of the occurrence of
reinfestations. R e c o m m e n d e d t r e a t m e n t has
b e e n piperazine citrate in the drinking water (3
g / L ) in alternating 2-week periods. 16 Alterna-
tively, ivermectin has b e e n shown to be effective
in the t r e a t m e n t of m o s t pinworms species in-
cluding those in rodents, although the efficacy
of this t r e a t m e n t has n o t specifically b e e n re-
p o r t e d f o r rabbits. As an aid in extrapolation,
r e p o r t e d dosage r e g i m e n in rats for the treat-
m e n t o f Syphacia mu~s is 0.2 m g / k g / d for 5
consecutive days, 17 and in mice with Syphacia
obvelata, it is 1 m g / k g / d a y for 2 consecutive
days. 18
144 White et al
Figure 2. Rabbit with Cheyletiellasp infestation; note
extensive scale visible on dorsal, fur-clipped skin.
Scales and Crusts
Fur Mites
CheyletieUa parasitovorax is the rabbit fur mite,
a n o n b u r r o w i n g mite that is just visible to the
n a k e d eye. Some rabbits carry the mites with no
overt signs. Lesions are generally n o t severe,
with crusting and scaling along the dorsum,
mild/variable pruritus, and partial alopecia in
heavy infestations (Fig 2). Cheyletiella is a zoono-
sis that causes a papular dermatitis in man. T h e
life cycle is 14-21 days. Although adult females
have b e e n r e p o r t e d to survive for at least 10 days
away f r o m the host, this has not b e e n substanti-
ated in Cheyletiella sp infestation in dogs. m T h e
mites are usually easy to find on microscopic
examination of skin scrapings or cellophane
tape samples. T h e t r e a t m e n t of choice is iver-
mectin at tile same dosage schedule as for P
cuniculi. Some investigators p r e f e r lime sulfur
dips. 2 All m a m m a l s in contact with the infested
animal should be treated. Cleaning of the envi-
r o n m e n t is controversial b u t probably should be
a t t e m p t e d in multi-rabbit households or colo-
nies.
Listrophorus (Leporacarus) gibbus is a n o n b u r -
rowing fur m i t e that is usually n o n p a t h o g e n i c ,
even in heavy infestations. It is not zoonotic. L
gibbus in rare instances may be associated with
lesions on the shoulders, dorsum, or ventral ar-
eas.5, 7
Bacteria
Venereal spirochetosis (rabbit syphilis) is due
to Treponema cuniculi and is acquired b o t h by
venereal and direct contact. This spirochete
causes erythema, edema, vesicles, ulcers, crusts,
and proliferative lesions a r o u n d the p e r i n e u m
and also a r o u n d the face f r o m auto-inoculation
(Fig 3). T h e condition is not pruritic, b u t it is
painful. Complications of metritis, abortion, and
neonatal death may occur. Affected does can
infect kits as they pass t h r o u g h the birth canal.
Rabbits may spontaneously recover but remain
asymptomatic carriers with overt disease precip-
itated by stress. Clinical signs are very character-
Figure 3. Rabbit with vene-
real spirochetosis ( Treponema
cuniculi) infection; note
edema, ulcers, crusts, and
proliferative lesions on the
muzzle.
 Dermatologic Problems of Rabbits
Figure 4. Rabbit with se-
baceous adenitis; notice
generalized scaling and
alopecia. (Reprinted with
permission. 2~
istic, but definitive diagnosis requires micro-
scopic visualization of the organism f r o m scrapes
on a dark field background, special silver stains
on biopsy, or serology. T r e a t m e n t requires pen-
icillin G (40,000-80,000 I U / k g 3 subcutaneous
injections at 1-week intervals). Lesions resolve in
1 to 3 weeks. 2 T r e a t e d rabbits should be moni-
tored closely for signs of antibiotic-associated
enterotoxemia. All exposed rabbits should be
treated. Rabbit syphilis is not zoonotic.
Sebaceous Adenitis
F o u r domestic rabbits have b e e n r e p o r t e d
with this u n c o m m o n disease, z~ The rabbits pre-
sented with a history of nonpruritic scale (Fig 4).
Multiple skin biopsies revealed findings compat-
ible with sebaceous adenitis as has b e e n re-
p o r t e d in other species: i n f l a m m a t i o n directed
at the sebaceous gland a n d / o r an absence of
sebaceous glands, a perifollicular lymphocytic
infiltrate at the level of the absent sebaceous
glands, hyperkeratosis, follicular keratosis, follic-
ular dystrophy, perifollicular fibrosis, and a mu-
ral infiltrative lymphocytic folliculitis. Histologic
changes n o t consistent with sebaceous adenitis
in o t h e r species were interface dermatitis and
interface f011iculitis with single cell necrosis and
basal cell hydropic degeneration. Successful
t r e a t m e n t was not identified but could conceiv-
ably include vitamin A or retinoids, as has b e e n
r e p o r t e d for o t h e r species.
145
Alopecia
Dermatophytes
Several species of dermatophytes affect rab-
bits. Pet rabbits are m o s t frequently infected
with Microsporum canis or M gypseum, whereas
rabbits in outside "hutches," in laboratory colo-
nies, or f r o m pet shops typically b e c o m e in-
fected with Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Clinical
presentation is variable: diffuse alopecia fre-
quently limited to the nose, ears, face, or ex-
tremities, erythema, classical ringworm with bro-
ken hairs, folliculitis, or rarely favus (yellow,
h o n e y - c o m b e d crusts). Asymptomatic carriage is
c o m m o n with a risk of transmission to other
animals or humans. In one study 4 out of 104
healthy rabbits were able to have T mentagrophytes
cultured f r o m their hair coats. 21 Wood's light
examination will be positive only with infections
caused by M canis (and T mentagrophytes var
quinckeanum). Microscopic examination of hair
shafts may d e m o n s t r a t e infected hairs with a
"rotting log" appearance. Definitive diagnosis is
via fungal culture, which is r e c o m m e n d e d be-
cause species identification may indicate the or-
igin of the contamination. Recently, an indirect
enzyme-linked i m m u n o s o r b e n t assay (ELISA)
was developed and its diagnostic potential was
evaluated for rabbits infected by T mentagro-
phytes. This test may prove useful in earlier de-
tection of the diseaseY ~ T r e a t m e n t (which
146 White et al
should include all in-contact m a m m a l s ) includes
topical enilconazole (0.2% solution twice weekly
for 3 weeks; not available in the United States)
or lime sulfur; systemic griseofulvin (15-25
m g / k g orally for 4 weeks) is very effective. 2 An-
ecdotal reports of l u f e n u r o n ' s safety in rabbits 2
at standard doses plus recent reports of its effi-
cacy in d e r m a t o p h y t e infections in dogs a n d
cats, 2~ suggest that this drug may have a useful
application in rabbits. Eradication of dermato-
phytes is very difficult in colonies.
Follicular Mite
Demodicosis (Demodex cuniculi) is a rare con-
dition in the rabbit. T h e most f r e q u e n t presen-
tation is a nonpruritic hair loss that involves the
head. In one r e p o r t D cuniculi was r e p o r t e d as
being associated with b o t h s e b o r r h o e a sicca and
alopecia in 2 of 9 infested dwarf rabbits. 24 Treat-
m e n t with a 0.05% amitraz solution resolved the
mite infestation in the 1 rabbit treated, b u t the
skin lesions remained:
Endocrine Conditions
Fur plucking for nest building by the prepar-
turient doe is c o m m o n , with hair usually
plucked f r o m the dewlap, ventrum, or sides:
This behavior occurs several days before kin-
dling. No t r e a t m e n t is necessary. 4
Nodules--Infectious Etiology
Parasites
Coenurus serialis is a f r e q u e n t parasite of rab-
bits in rural areas. This is the vesicular f o r m of
Taenia se'dalis (the dog is the definitive host).
T h e infestation is c o m m o n l y responsible for the
d e v e l o p m e n t of multiple, often fluctuant, nod-
ules of 0.5-5 cm in connective tissues (abdomi,
nal, subcutaneous, retro-orbital), T h e r e is no
effective medical treatment, although solitary le-
sions may be carefuIly removed. 5,25
Various Cuterebra species may be agents of
myiasis in rabbits in the Western H e m i s p h e r e .
T h e adult fly is harmless, having no m o u t h p a r t s .
Lesions are fistulated nodules, usually o n the
h e a d a n d neck. They may be painful on palpa-
tion. Heavy infestations can lead to debilitation
and death. T r e a t m e n t is by careful removal of
the larva and t r e a t m e n t of secondary bacterial
infection, if present.
Flystrike by o t h e r fly species is c o m m o n in
rabbits in the s u m m e r months. Strike is usually
primary (ie, on intact skin), a n d flies are espe-
cially attracted to the c a e c o t r o p h accumulation
a r o u n d the p e r i n e u m a n d especially in the folds
on either side of tile genitals. This is invariably
due to a lack of caecotrophy, which can be due
to a n u m b e r of f a c t o r s - - d e n t a l disease, obesity,
back problems, a n d old age. U r i n e scalding due
to urinary incontinence will also attract flies.
Initial t r e a t m e n t involves clipping the fur and
cleaning the area with m a n u a l removal of mag-
gots, and flushing the area with dilute antisep-
tic/antiparasitic solutions, such as 1% silver sul-
fadiazine c r e a m (Silvadene c r e a m 1%; King
Pharmaceuticals, Bristol, TN), has b e e n recom-
m e n d e d 2 Supportive therapy should be given
for toxic shock, and ivermectin (0.4 m g / k g ) will
kill any larvae that e m e r g e f r o m u n r e m o v e d
eggs. T h e underlying cause of the c a e c o t r o p h or
urine accumulation must then be addressed.
Bacteria
Rabbit abscesses usually have a thick capsule
and are filled with thick, tenacious pus that is
very difficult to remove. Pasteurella multocida and
Staphylococcus aureus are usually isolated f r o m
rabbit abscesses, with Proteus, Pseudomonas, Baete-
roides, and o t h e r bacteria occasionally found. En-
try is via a skin w o u n d or, m o r e rarely, secondary
to bacteremia. Facial abscesses are invariably sec-
ondary to dental or nasolacrimal duct disease,
a n d radiography of the skull is vital to obtain a
prognosis for any facial abscess. True subcutane-
ous abscesses are best treated by complete sur-
gical excision. If this is n o t possible, lancing and
aggressive flushing with antiseptic solutions plus
appropriate antibiotic therapy can be used.
Some clinicians have r e p o r t e d that gentamicin
injection into the abscess capsule is effective.
Involvement of the underlying b o n e carries an
extremely p o o r prognosis. Surgical debride-
ment, removal of affected teeth, and packing the
abscess cavity with antibiotic-impregnated meth-
ylmethacrylate (AIPMMA) beads can be success-
ful in m a n y cases2, 26 These beads n e e d not be
removed. T h e authors do not r e c o m m e n d the
use of calcium hydroxide because it causes se-
vere tissue necrosis.
 Dermatologic Problems of Rabbits
Ulcerative pododermatitis, plantar pododer-
matitis ("sore hocks"), is a chronic ulcerative
granulomatous dermatitis o f the metatarsal area
seen mainly in overweight, inactive rabbits kept
on wet bedding, on grid floors, in rough cages,
a n d / o r u n d e r unsanitm-y conditions. Hereditary
factors are also thought to be involved and Rex
rabbits are particularly at risk because they lack
protective guard hairs. The secondary infectious
agent most commonly present is S aureus. Le-
sions are bilateral in the plantar aspect o f the
metatarsal area with a lesion progression that is
typified by erythema, hyperkeratosis, crusts, pus,
necrosis, osteomyelitis, and septicemia. The
treatment is difficult and based on the correc-
tion of predisposing conditions, surgical drain-
age, topical antimicrobials, surgical dressings,
and systemic antibiotics (based on culture and
sensitivity). Enrofloxacin (5-15 m g / k g subcuta-
neously once daily) may prove helpful in early
cases, and AIPMMA beads have also b e e n re-
ported to be helpful. 2 The earlier this disease is
addressed, the better the chances o f successful
treatment.
Necrobacillosis (SchmorI's disease) is due to
Fusobacterium necrophorum. This is usualty a dis-
ease o f p o o r husbandry and is relatively uncom-
m o n a m o n g pet rabbits. 4 Abscesses, ulcerations,
and necrosis develop on the face and neck. De-
finitive diagnosis is made by culture. T r e a t m e n t
requires debridement, topical antimicrobials,
and systemic antibiotics. One r e c o m m e n d e d
treatment regime is the daily subcutaneous in-
jection of 40,000 I U / k g penicillin for 10-30
days. 2 Treated rabbits should be m o n i t o r e d
closely for signs of antibiotic-associated entero-
toxaemia.
Brucellosis is a chronic disease primarily of
the E u r o p e a n hare (Lepus europaeus) and is
rarely f o u n d in domestic rabbits. Internal
chronic granulomatous inflammation and sub-
cutaneous abscesses characterize this infection.
Diagnosis is made by serology and culture. Treat-
m e n t is controversial.
Acute cellulitis with head, neck, or thoracic
swellings is generally due to P multocida or S
aureus infection. The rabbit is usually febrile
(104-108~ 40-42~ and the swellings are usu-
ally painful and erythematous. T r e a t m e n t in-
volves the use of antibiotics based on culture and
sensitivity and cool-water soaks to lower the body
temperature. Surviving rabbits-may have their
147
swellings progress to abscesses or necrotic es-
charsY
Virtlses
In many countries myxomatosis is an impor-
tant and c o m m o n cause of nodules in rabbits.
The myxoma virus is a poxvirus that is transmit-
ted by arthropods (mainly mosquitoes and the
rabbit flea S cuniculi, although a r o l e for fur
mites in transmission has also been suggested)
via direct and indirect contact. 2 It is relatively
infrequent in dwarf rabbits (probably due to
epidemiologic conditions). The virulence is vari-
able, particularly a m o n g wild rabbits of the ge-
nus Sylvilagus, but morbidity and mortality are
generally high in pet rabbits and sometimes ap-
proaches 1 0 0 % . 2 Animals develop a systemic ill-
ness after an incubation period of 8-21 days.
Clinical signs are e d e m a of the head, ears, eye-
lids, and genitalia, a milky oculonasal discharge,
and the later development o f myxomas--firm,
nonpruritic, erythematous nodules (0.5-2 cm)
(Fig 5). T h e rabbit is usually lethargic and fe-
brile. Sometimes the infection is limited to a
spontaneously regressing papulo-nodular erup-
tion. In Angora rabbits immunized with a heter-
ologous vaccine, myxomatosis causes "black pap-
ules" in depilated skin. Diagnosis is based on the
clinical presentation and histopathology and
may be confirmed with viral isolation studies.
Management is limited to treatment of second-
ary bacterial infections. Prevention is based on
vector control and the use of a homologous
vaccine; unhealthy rabbits and pregnant or lac-
tating females should not be vaccinated. A het-
erologous intradermal vaccine containing an at-
tenuated Shope fibroma virus has also been
used. Vaccination is not always effective, but if
vaccinated animals contract the virus, they have
less severe clinical signs and often survive with
good supportive care. Severely affected animals
should be euthanized. Vaccines are not commer-
cially available in the United States.
The Shope papillomavirus (SPV) produces
hyperkeratotic nodules. SPV is a naturally occur-
ring poxvirus of North and South American wild
rabbits (Sylvilagus spp). Infection of domestic
rabbits (O~ctolagus cuniculus) is rare but has
been reported. The infection consists of multi-
ple, horn-like lesions a r o u n d the ears and eye-
lids. Manual removal results ill healing in wild
148 White et al
Figure 5. Rabbit with myxomatosis; notice nodules
(myxomas) of the face and ears.
rabbits, but in domestic rabbits experimental
infections resulted in approximately 75% of in-
oculation sites u n d e r g o i n g malignant transfor-
mation to squamous cell carcinoma. Domestic
rabbits are occasionally infected via mosquito
vectors and develop fibromas that slough away
approximately 30 days postinoculation. New-
b o r n and young animals develop m o r e extensive
lesions.
Nodules--Noninfectious Etiology
Neoplasia
Cutaneous l y m p h o m a has b e e n described in
4 domestic rabbits. 27,28 T h r e e rabbits were young
(7 weeks, 1 year, and 18 m o n t h s of age) and
were euthanized soon after exhibiting clinical
signs. L y m p h o m a was also f o u n d in the internal
organs of 2 of these rabbits. T h e fourth r a b b i t
was 9.5 years of age, a n d lived for m o r e than 1
year after diagnosis; clinical signs and histologic
findings were suggestive of the epitheliotropic
T-cell l y m p h o m a characterized in other domes-
tic speciesY s (Fig 6). No response was seen with
either 2 m o n t h s of a-interferon administration
or a 2.5-week course of isotretinoin treatment.
After 1 year the rabbit died suddenly, and the
owner refused necropsy. I m m u n o l o g i c stains of
the t u m o r in 3 of the rabbits (including the
9.5-year-old) indicated T cells to be the lym-
p h o m a cell type. 2s
Figure 6. Rabbit with cuta-
neous lymphoma; notice al-
opecia and scaling of the
neck and lateral trunk. (Re-
printed with permission. 2s)
 Dermatologic Problems of Rabbits
S q u a m o u s cell c a r c i n o m a , s e b a c e o u s g l a n d
c a r c i n o m a , a n d basal cell t u m o r are o t h e r cuta-
n e o u s n e o p l a s m s r e p o r t e d i n the rabbit. 29
Dermal Fibrosis
This c o n d i t i o n has b e e n r e p o r t e d i n 2 a d u l t
m a l e rabbits, a~ T h e n o t a b l e clinical sign was
several areas o f skin t h i c k e n i n g o n the d o r s u m .
N e i t h e r a l o p e c i a n o r p r u r i t u s was r e p o r t e d , a n d
n o t r e a t m e n t was a t t e m p t e d . O n e r e p o r t conjec-
t u r e d that this c h a n g e was similar histologically
a n d clinically to the t h i c k e n i n g s e e n o n the
cheeks o f i n t a c t m a l e cats a n d h y p o t h e s i z e d that
these c h a n g e s were h o r m o n a l l y i n d u c e d . 31
Eosinophilic Granuloma
A n e o s i n o p h i l i c g r a n u l o m a q i k e lesion, i d e n -
tified as a n e o s i n o p h i l i c p l a q u e , has b e e n re-
p o r t e d i n a New Z e a l a n d white rabbit, 32 O n e o f
the a u t h o r s (AM) has s e e n a histologically con-
f i r m e d case o f e o s i n o p h i l i c g r a n u l o m a i n a
m i x e d - b r e e d h o u s e rabbit. Clinical p r e s e n t a t i o n
was self-mutilation o f the v e n t r a l a b d o m e n ,
w e i g h t loss, a n d a n e r y t h e m a t o u s , n e c r o t i c , ul-
cerative, a n d w e l l - d e m a r c a t e d lesion s t r e t c h i n g
f r o m the u m b i l i c u s to the p e r i n e u m . Cheyle-
tiella mites a n d eggs were f o u n d i n scrapings
t a k e n f r o m the edge of the lesion. C o m p l e t e
r e s o l u t i o n was a c h i e v e d with a d e p o t i n j e c t i o n of
m e t h y l p r e d n i s o l o n e acetate a n d t r e a t m e n t of
t h e mites with i v e r m e c t i n .
Miscellaneous Conditions
Cutaneous Asthenia/Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome
T h e h a l l m a r k of this disease is skin fragility in
a y o u n g rabbit. F o u r cases have b e e n d e s c r i b e d
i n the literature, s3-36 Typical clinical p r e s e n t a -
t i o n is h y p e r e x t e n s i b l e , t h i n , fragile skin with
g a p i n g w o u n d s that heal poorly. A g e n e t i c defect
is s u s p e c t e d b e c a u s e o f the y o u n g age o f the
r a b b i t s (4 m o n t h s to 1 year) a n d the f i n d i n g o f
the c o n d i t i o n i n 2 siblings. 33 Diagnosis is b a s e d
o n clinical, findings. H i s t o p a t h o l o g i c e x a m i n a -
t i o n o f skin biopsy tissue m a y be n o r m a l o r m a y
reveal a r e d u c e d density o f c o l l a g e n fibrils. A
d e c r e a s e d n u m b e r of h a i r follicles is also ob-
served. E l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y d e m o n s t r a t e s ultra-
s t r u c t u r a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n the s t r u c t u r e o f the
149
c o l l a g e n fibrils a n d t h e i r a r r a n g e m e n t i n b u n -
dles of fibers. 34,~6
Blue Fur Disease
This m o i s t d e r m a t i t i s is c a u s e d by Pseudomo-
has aeruginosa a n d is c o m m o n in overweight,
f e m a l e rabbits with a large dewlap or i n a n i m a l s
with severe d e n t a l disease a n d excess salivation.
T h e wet f u r b e c o m e s i n f e c t e d with Pseudomonas
a n d t u r n s a characteristic b l u e color. T r e a t m e n t
involves c l i p p i n g the affected area a n d a p p l y i n g
a n antiseptic s o l u t i o n (eg, dilute c h l o r h e x i -
d i n e ) , plus a d d r e s s i n g the u n d e r l y i n g cause.
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